«?•  e< 


I)  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY.  § 


Princeton,  PI.  J. 


€) 

C 


p--  - . ^-rrao^. 

(JfinCf  DS7.0.?.| 


Shelf , 


WM...M 


vp°b  \A53  S 

- 


r 


v.e 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/middlekingdomsur02wilL0 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


VOLUME  II. 


// 


TTIB 


MIDDLE  KINGDOM; 


A SURVEY  OF  THE 

GEOGRAPHY,  GOVERNMENT,  EDUCATION,  SOCIAT.  LIFE, 
ARTS,  RELIGION,  &c., 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 

AND 

ITS  INHABITANTS. 

WTTH  A NEW  MAP  OF  THE  EMPTBE. 

AND  ILLUSTRATIONS,  PRINCIPALLY  ENGRAVED  BY  J W.  OJUt 

BY  S.  WELLS  WILLIAMS, 

AUTHOR  or  lessons  in  Chinese,"  “ English  and  Chinese  vocabvlaiw  Ami. 


THIRD  EDITION. 

IN  TWO  VOLUMES 
VOL.  II. 

NEW  YORK: 

JOHN  WILEY,  167  BROADWAY. 


1853. 


Fnteb^o.  furoriiiug  to  Act  oi  Congress,  in  the  yeai  U47,  fcy 

S.  WELLS  WILLIAMS, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  V 


«*  CRAlOnEAD,  PRINTER 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOL.  II. 


.Portrait  of  Rev.  D.  Abeel. 

Wheelbarrows  used  for  travelling,  • 20 

Bridge  showing  the  mode  of  making  the  arch,  27 

Barber’s  Establishment  . 31 

Tricks  played  with  the  queue,  32 

Procession  of  Ladies  to  an  ancestral  Temple,  35 

Appearance  of  the  bones  of  a foot  when  compressed,  39 

Feet  of  Chinese  Ladies,  40 

Shape  of  a Lady’s  Shoe,  41 

Boys  gambling  with  Crickets,  90 

Peddler’s  Barrow,  . 104 

Group  and  residence  of  Fishermen,  110 

Fishing  Cormorant,  . Ill 

Cobbler  and  his  movable  Workshop,  125 

Mode  of  firing  Tea,  . 132 

Travelling  Blacksmith  and  his  Shop,  . . . 139 

Fancy  carved  Work,  . . 141 

Representation  of  a Man  Dreaming,  . 174 

Caricature  of  an  English  Foraging  Party,  . . 177 

Chinese  notions  of  the  Human  Body,  . 181 

PWANKU  CHISELLING  OUT  THE  HEAVENS,  . 19? 

Tau  Priests  jumping  through  the  Fire,  . 247 

Ancestral  Hall  and  Worship  of  Tablets,  268 

Budhist  Priests,  . . 273 

Man  consulting  a Fortune-Teller,  . 27” 

Manner  of  smoking  Opium,  . * 293 


CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  M 


CHAPTER  XIII 

ARCHITECTURE,  DRESS,  AND  DIET  OF  THE  CHINESE. 


Style  and  materials  of  Chinese  dwellings — Their  arrangement,  orna- 
ments, furniture,  and  apartments — Gardens  and  summer-houses — 
Shops  and  warehouses — Temples  and  assembly-halls,  taverns,  &.c. — 
Streets  and  municipal  regulations — Pagodas  and  carriages — Boats 
used  for  dwellings  and  transportation  ; junks — Honorary  portals, 
bridges,  forts,  towers,  &c. — Dress  ; materials  and  shape  of  gar- 
ments— Shaving  the  head — Female  apparel — Cramping  the  feet — 
Food;  grain  and  vegetables — Fruits;  sugar  and  lea — Animal  food; 
fish,  &c. — Cooking.  . . ...  1 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

SOCIAL  LIFE  AMONG  THE  CHINESE. 

Professions — Separation  between  the  sexes — Ceremonies  of  betroth- 
ment  and  marriage — Procession,  presents,  and  feast — Polygamy ; its 
effects  and  extent — Legal  rights  of  woman — Power  of  parents — 
Names  given  to  people,  shops,  &c. — Official  etiquette — Common 
intercourse  and  visiting — Festivities — Newyear  ; its  observances 
and  hilarity  — F east  of  lanterns — Style  of  processions — Theatres ; 
the  actors  and  dresses— Gambling  with  money,  crickets,  dice,  &c. — 
Contrarieties  in  Chinese  customs — Lights  and  shades  of  Chinese 
character.  . ....  ...  53 


CONTENTS. 


V 


CHAPTER  XV. 

INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  OF  THE  CHINESE 

Agriculture  ; tenure  of  land — Agricultural  implements — Terraces — 
Cultivation  of  rice,  cotton,  hemp,  tallow-tree,  &c. — Annual  plough- 
ing ceremony — Modes  of  catching  fish — Mechanical  arts — Metal- 
lurgy— Glass  and  porcelain — Lacquered-ware — Silk  manufacture — 
Tea;  its  growth,  preparation,  kinds,  and  amount — Cassia,  camphor, 

&c. — Carving  and  working  in  ivory,  metals,  &c.  . . 100 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

SCIENCE  OF  THE  CHINESE. 

Mathematical  and  Astronomical  knowledge — Sexagenary  cycle,  and 
other  divisions  of  time — Astrology;  geographical  notions  and  trea- 
tises— Mensuration — Weights,  moneys,  &.c. — System  of  business — 
Theory  of  war,  arms,  uniforms,  and  arrangement  of  troops — Music  ; 
its  notation  and  character — Instrumental  and  vocal  music — Painting 
and  statuary — Paintings  on  pith,  leaves,  and  glass — Attainments  in 
natural  philosophy — Ideas  of  anatomy,  and  practice  of  medicine  and 
surgery — Diseases.  ...  . . 145 


_ CHAPTER  XVII. 

HISTORY  AND  CHRONOLOGY  OF  CHINA. 

Cosmogony  of  the  Chinese;  Pwanku  and  his  deeds— Mythological 
history — Dates  compared  with  the  Bible — Establishment  of  Chinese 
people — Five  sovereigns,  Fuhhi  and  his  successors — Three  dynasties 
of  Hia,  Shang,  and  Chau — Tsin,  builder  of  the  Eastern  W all — Modern 
history — Han,  Tang,  and  Sung  dynasties — Mongol  conqueror,  Kub- 
lai — Ming  dynasty — Manchus  overrun  China,  their  monarchs.  . 193 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

RELIGION  OF  THE  CHINESE. 

Negative  features  of  their  religion — Character  and  objects  of  worship 
in  the  state  religion,  position  of  the  emperor  in  it— Official  worship 
required  of  all  magistrates— Sect  of  Tau  or  Rationalists — Its  founder, 
Lau-tszf — Magical  rites  and  mythology  of  the  priests  -Budhism ; its 
introduction  into  China;  its  tenets,  priests,  and  ceremonies— Nun- 
neries— Shamanism — Infanticide— Ideas  relating  to  spirits — Funeral 
ceremonies — Worship  of  ancestral  manes;  its  nature  and  univer- 
sality— Festivals  for  the  dead— Fortune-telling — Benevolent  insti- 
tutions in  China— Mohammedans  and  Jews  in  China  . 23G 


GW.N  1 KN  l'E. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS  AMONG  THE  CHINESE 

Nestorians  visit  China — Tablet  recording  their  labors — Prester  John — 
Roman  Catholic  missionary,  Corvino — Ricci  enters  China,  and  makes 
his  way  to  Peking — His  character— Paul  Siu  and  his  daughter  Can- 
dida— Influence  of  Schaal  at  court — Reverses  at  the  death  of  Shun- 
chi — Verbiest  appointed  to  reform  the  Calendar — Disputes  about 
ancestral  worship — Present  condition  of  the  Romish  missions — Plan 
of  operations  ; baptisms,  schools,  and  converts — Degree  of  influence 
upon  Chinese  society — Protestant  missions  to  the  Chinese — Mor- 
rison's labors  and  character — Missions  in  the  Indian  Archipelago; 
in  Canton,  Amoy,  Ningpo,  and  Shanghai — Missionary  hospitals — 
Distribution  of  books — Translation  of  Bible — Qualified  toleration  of 
Christianity  290 


CHAPTER  XX. 

COMMERCE  OF  THE  CHINESE. 

Opium  trade  commences — Mode  of  cultivating  the  poppy — Preparation 
of  opium — Prohibited  by  the  Chinese— Mode  of  seething  and  smoking 
it— History  of  its  trade — Coasting  and  internal  trade  of  China — 
Export  trade,  and  its  principal  articles— Import  trade,  and  notice 
of  the  principal  articles — Manner  of  conducting  the  trade — Tables 
of  trade  for  1845.  • 3S1 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

FOREIGN  INTERCOURSE  WITH  CHINA 

Earliest  notices  of  China — The  Seres,  Sinae,  Sesafan,  &c. — Traffic 
through  Central  Asia — Embassy  from  Rome — Arabian  travellers — 
Missions  of  Carpini,  Ascelin,  and  Rubruquis,  to  the  grand  khan — 
Marco  Polo— Ibn  Batuta  and  Oderic — Portuguese  reach  China; 
their  embassies,  trade,  & c. — Dutch  occupy  Formosa — Embassies  to 
Peking — Russian  intercourse  and  embassies — English  trade  and 
embassies — Conduct  and  influence  of  the  East  India  Company — 
American  intercourse . ....  411 


CHAPTER  XXII 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  WAR  WITH  ENGLAND 

Lord  Napier  sent  to  Canton — Becomes  involved  with  governor  Lu — 
Nature  of  their  disagreement — Trade  stopped— His  death — Grounds 
for  refusing  a correspondence  of  equality— British  commission  re- 
tires to  Macao — Sir  G.  B.  Robinson  succeeds — Capt  Elliot  becomes 
superintendent— Discussion  respecting  legalizing  opium — Reasons 
against  it— Discussion  respecting  the  trade  among  foreigners— Riot 
at  Canton — Lin  arrives  at  Canton —Opium  surrendered.  . . . 488 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

PROGRESS  OF  THE  WAR  AND  OPENING  OF  CHINA. 

Advanced  force  arrives — Tinghai  taken — Interview  at  Taku — Treaty 
of  the  Bogue — Attack  on  Canton — Sir  Henry  Pottinger  supersedes 
Captain  Elliot — Amoy,  Tinghai,  Chinhai,  Ningpo,  Chapu,  and 
Shanghai  taken — Passage  up  the  Yangtsz’  kiang — Chinkiang  fu 
taken  and  pillaged — Peace  of  Nanking — British  forces  retire — Riot 
at  Canton — Supplementary  treaty  of  the  Bogue — Traffic  and  com 
mercial  regulations — Hon.  C.  Cushing  negotiates  the  treaty  of 
Wanghia  between  the  United  States  and  China — Riot  and  homicide 
at  Canton — M.  de  Lagren£  negotiates  the  treaty  of  Whampoa  be- 
tween France  and  China — Causes  of  future  collision  and  prospects 
af  peace — Conclusion.  ......  . '■SJ 


THE 


MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Architecture,  Dress,  and  Diet  of  the  Chinese. 

It  is  a sensible  remark  of  De  Guignes  (Yol.  ii.,  p.  173),  that 
“ the  habit  we  fall  into  of  conceiving  things  according  to  the 
words  which  express  them,  often  leads  us  into  error  when  read- 
ing the  relations  of  travellers.  Such  writers  have  seen  objects 
altogether  new,  but  they  are  compelled,  when  describing  them, 
to  employ  equivalent  terms  in  their  own  language  in  order  to  be 
understood ; while  these  same  terms  tend  to  deceive  the  reader, 
who  imagines  that  he  sees  such  palaces,  colonnades,  peristyles, 
&c.,  under  these  designations  as  he  has  been  used  to,  when,  in 
fact,  they  are  quite  another  thing.”  The  same  observation  is 
true  of  other  things  than  architecture,  and  of  other  nations  than 
the  Chinese,  and  this  confusion  of  terms  and  meanings  proves  a 
fruitful  source  of  error  in  regard  to  an  accurate  knowledge  of 
foreign  nations,  and  a just  perception  of  their  condition.  For 
instance,  the  terms  a court  of  justice,  a common  school,  politeness, 
learning,  navy,  houses,  &c.,  as  well  as  the  names  of  things,  like 
razor,  shoe,  cap,  hed,  pencil,  paper,  &c.,  are  inapplicable  to  the 
same  things  in  England  and  China ; while  it  is  plainly  impossible 
to  coin  a new  word  in  English  to  describe  the  Chinese  article, 
and  equally  inexpedient  to  introduce  the  native  term.  If,  for 
example,  the  utensil  used  by  the  Chinese  to  shave  with  should 
be  picked  up  in  Portsmouth  by  some  one  who  had  never  seen  or 
heard  of  it,  he  would  be  as  likely  to  call  it  aq  oyster  knife,  or  a 
VOL.  II.  2 


2 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


wedge,  as  a razor ; while  the  use  to  which  it  is  applied  must  of 
course  give  it  that  name,  and  would,  if  it  were  still  more  unlike 
the  western  article.  So  with  other  things.  The  ideas  a Chinese 
gives  to  the  terms  hwangti,  kwanfu,  pau,  pih,  and  shu,  are  very 
different  from  those  conveyed  to  an  American  by  the  words 
emperor,  magistrate,  cannon,  pencil,  and  look.  Since  a person  can 
only  judge  of  what  he  hears  or  reads  by  what  he  knows,  it  is 
desirable  that  when  he  reads  or  hears  western  names  applied  to 
their  equivalents  in  eastern  countries,  the  function  of  a different 
civilization,  habits,  and  notions,  should  form  an  element  in  the 
opinion  he  forms.  These  remarks  are  peculiarly  applicable  to 
the  domestic  life  of  the  Chinese,  to  their  houses,  diet,  dress,  and 
customs  in  social  intercourse  ; and  although  careful  descriptions 
may  go  a good  way  in  conveying  just  ideas,  it  cannot  be  hoped 
that  they  will  do  what  a single  look  would  instantly  accomplish. 

The  notions  entertained  abroad  on  these  particulars  are,  it  need 
hardly  be  remarked,  rather  more  accurate  than  those  the  Chinese 
have  of  distant  countries,  and  it  is  scarcely  possible  that  they 
can  lose  their  conceit  in  their  own  civilization  and  position 
among  the  nations  so  long  as  such  ideas  are  entertained  as  the 
following  extract  exhibits.  Tien  Kishih,  a popular  essayist, 
thus  congratulates  himself  and  his  readers:  “I  felicitate  myself 
that  I was  born  in  China,  and  constantly  think  how  very  differ- 
ent it  would  have  been  with  me,  if  I had  been  born  beyond  the 
seas  in  some  remote  part  of  the  earth,  where  the  people,  far 
removed  from  the  converting  maxims  of  the  ancient  kings,  and 
ignorant  of  the  domestic  relations,  are  clothed  with  the  leaves  of 
plants,  eat  wood,  dwell  in  the  wilderness,  and  live  in  the  holes 
of  the  earth  ; though  born  in  the  world,  in  such  a condition  I 
should  not  have  been  different  from  the  beasts  of  the  field.  But 
now,  happily,  I have  been  born  in  the  Middle  Kingdom.  I have 
a house  to  live  in ; have  food  and  drink,  and  elegant  furniture ; 
have  clothing  and  caps,  and  infinite  blessings  : truly,  the  highest 
felicity  is  mine.”  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  accuracy 
of  these  statements,  it  is  plain  that  the  author  considered  his  own 
country  preferable  to  the  neighboring  regions ; and  that  while 
the  Chinese  possessed  food  and  drink,  clothing  and  caps,  houses 
and  furniture,  the  rest  of  the  world,  in  his  opinion,  was  destitute 
of  them. 

The  architecture  of  the  Chinese  is  unique,  presenting  in  its 


STYLE  AND  MATERIALS  OF  CHINESE  BUILDINGS. 


3 


general  outline,  a resemblance  to  a tent.  From  the  palace  to 
the  hovel,  in  temples  and  in  private  dwellings,  this  type  every, 
where  stands  confessed  ; nor  do  many  instances  occur  of  an 
attempt  to  develop  even  this  simple  model  into  a grand  or  impos- 
ing building.  While  the  Mogul  princes  in  India  reared  costly 
mausolea  and  palaces  to  perpetuate  their  memory  and  the  splen- 
dor of  their  reigns,  the  monarchs  of  China,  with  equal  or  greater 
resources  at  command,  never  indulged  in  this  princely  pastime, 
nor  even  attempted  the  erection  of  any  enduring  monument  to 
commemorate  their  taste  or  their  splendor.  Whether  it  was 
owing  to  the  absence  of  the  beautiful  and  majestic  models  seen 
in  western  countries,  or  to  an  entire  ignorance  of  the  mechanical 
principles  of  the  art,  the  fact  is  not  the  less  observable,  and  the 
inference  as  to  the  advance  made  by  them  in  knowledge  and 
taste  not  less  just.  There  is  almost  nothing  in  the  country  like 
an  ancient  architectural  ruin,  nothing  which  has  come  down  to 
inform  us  whether  previous  generations  constructed  edifices  more 
splendid  or  more  mean  than  the  present. 

Dwelling-houses  are  generally  of  one  story,  having  neither  cel- 
lars nor  basements,  and  for  the  most  part  without  dormer  windows 
or  attics ; they  must  not  equal  the  temples  in  height,  nor  possess 
the  ornaments  appropriated  to  palaces  and  temples.  The  com- 
mon building  materials  are  bricks,  sifted  earth,  matting,  or 
thatch  for  the  walls,  stone  for  the  foundation,  brick  tiling  for  the 
roof,  and  wood  for  the  inner  work  ; wooden  houses  are  not 
unknown,  the  roof  being  supported  by  posts,  between  which  is 
a coarsely  woven  matwork  covered  with  mud  and  whitewash. 
The  ni  chuen,  or  sifted  earth,  is  a compound  of  sifted  gravel  and 
lime  mixed  with  water,  and  sometimes  a little  oil,  of  which 
durable  walls  are  made  by  pounding  it  into  a solid  mass  between 
planks  secured  at  the  sides,  and  elevated  as  the  wall  rises  ; or  by 
beating  it  into  large  blocks  and  laying  them  like  bricks  in  a wall ; 
when  stuccoed  and  protected  from  the  rain,  this  material  gradu- 
ally hardens  into  stone.  In  houses  of  the  better  sort,  the  stone 
work  of  the  foundation  rises  three  or  four  feet  above  the  ground, 
and  is  laid  with  great  regularity  and  solidity.  The  fronts  of 
dwelling-houses  present  no  opening  except  the  door,  and  when 
the  outer  walls  of  several  houses  join  those  of  gardens  and  in- 
closures, the  street  presents  an  uninteresting  sameness,  unre- 
lieved by  steps,  windows,  porticoes,  or  front  yards.  The  walls 


4 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


are  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  high,  usually  hollow,  or  so  thin  as 
to  be  unable  to  support  the  roof  unaided  ; nor  are  the  builders 
very  particular  about  their  perfect  uprightness.  The  bricks  are 
the  same  size  as  our  own,  and  burned  to  a greyish  slate  color, 
though  there  are  red  bricks  ; they  are  made  by  hand,  and  sell 
from  $3  to  $8  a thousand.  Lime  is  obtained  from  shells  ; for, 
even  if  the  Chinese  were  aware  that  lime  can  be  procured  from 
limestone  (which  does  not  appear  to  be  known),  the  dearness  of 
fuel  would  seriously  interfere  with  burning  the  stone  into  lime. 
The  walls  are  often  stuccoed,  but  not  painted,  and  the  bricks 
are  occasionally  rubbed  smooth  with  stones,  and  the  interstices 
pointed  with  fine  cement.  In  place  of  a broad  cornice,  the  top 
of  the  wall  is  frequently  relieved  by  a pretty  ornament  of  moulded 
work  of  painted  clay  figures  in  alto  relievo  representing  a battle 
scene,  a landscape,  clusters  of  flowers,  or  some  other  design, 
defended  from  the  weather  by  the  projecting  eaves.  A black 
painted  band,  relieved  by  corners  and  designs  of  flowers  and 
scrolls,  is  a cheap  substitute  for  the  carved  figures. 

The  roofs  are  generally  hipped,  and  everywhere  discover 
their  tented  origin  in  the  catenary  curve  of  their  edges.  They 
are  made  of  thin  earthen  tiles,  appearing  in  alternate  ridges  and 
furrows.  The  under  layer  consists  of  square  thin  pieces,  laid 
side  by  side  in  ascending  rows  with  the  lower  edges  overlapping  ; 
the  edges  are  joined  by  a layer  of  semi-cylindrical  tiles,  which 
are  further  secured  by  a covering  of  mortar.  Terraces  are 
erected  on  shops  but  balustrades  or  chimneys  on  dwellings,  or 
flat  roofs,  are  seldom  seen.  The  corners  and  ridges  of  temples 
and  palaces  are  frequently  ornamented  with  green  and  yellow 
earthen  figures  of  dragons,  snakes,  fishes,  &c.,  which  some- 
times form  a very  conspicuous  object  in  the  general  appearance 
of  the  building,  where  ornament  is  not  looked  for,  but  not  so 
much  so  as  is  often  represented  in  Chinese  drawings.  Occa- 
sionally, the  side  walls  rise  above  the  roof  in  degrees,  impart- 
ing a singular,  bow-like  aspect  to  the  edifice.  In  order  to 
support  the  roof,  the  purlines  and  ridgepole  consist  of  strong  tim- 
bers extending  from  wall  to  wall,  and  the  rafters  of  slender  strips, 
on  which  the  tiles  are  upheld  ; in  hipped  roofs,  the  principal 
weight  rests  on  pillars,  with  a series  of  king  and  queen  posts  in- 
tervening, by  which  every  part  is  equably  supported,  but  curb  roofs 
are  not  made,  since  the  space  is  not  required  for  attics.  The  pil- 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  DWELLING-HOUSES. 


5 


Jars  are  of  stone  or  red  varnished  wood,  without  base  or  capital, 
of  disproportionate  shape,  and  frequently  ornamented  with  carv- 
ing and  inscriptions,  or  concealed  by  scrolls.  In  two  story 
houses,  or  where  it  is  impracticable  to  support  the  roof  in  this 
way,  the  rooms  are  contracted,  and  the  cross  walls  built  up  to  the 
plate,  each  room  being  covered  by  its  own  roof.  The  pillars  are 
occasionally  arranged  so  as  to  form  side  passages  to  the  rear 
rooms,  the  intercolumniations  being  screened  or  built  up  ; a 
slight  ceiling  usually  conceals  the  tiling,  but  the  apartment  ap- 
pears lofty,  owing  to  the  elevation  of  the  roof. 

The  general  arrangement  of  a Chinese  dwelling  of  the  better 
sort  is  that  of  a series  of  rooms  of  different  dimensions,  separated 
and  lighted  by  intervening  courts,  and  accessible  along  a covered 
corridor,  communicating  with  each,  or  by  side  passages  leading 
through  the  courts.  In  the  former  case,  the  corridor  opens  out 
upon  a garden.  In  towns,  where  the  houses  are  of  one  story, 
and  the  lots  irregular  in  their  shape,  there  is  much  more  diversity 
in  the  arrangement  and  size  of  rooms  ; and  in  the  country  es- 
tablishments of  wealthy  families,  where  the  gradual  increase  of 
the  members  calls  for  additional  space  to  accommodate  the  fami- 
lies of  the  sons,  the  succession  of  courts  and  buildings,  inter- 
spersed with  gardens  and  pools,  sometimes  renders  the  whole  not 
a little  complicated.  The  custom  of  cramping  the  feet,  and  thus 
disabling  the  women  from  going  up  and  down  stairs,  may  have 
had  its  effect  in  keeping  the  rooms  upon  a level.  In  isolated 
bungalows,  a second,  and  even  a third  story,  each  smaller  than 
the  one  below  it,  is  often  built  by  raising  the  pillars  or  cross 
walls  above  the  roof  of  the  ground  story,  and  surrounding  the 
room  thus  formed  by  a veranda. 

The  entrance  into  large  mansions  in  the  country  is  by  a triple 
gate  leading  through  a lawn  or  garden  up  to  the  hall ; but  in 
towns,  a single  door,  usually  elevated  a step  or  two  above  the 
street,  introduces  the  visitor  into  a porch  or  court.  A wall  or 
movable  screen  is  placed  inside  of  the  doorway,  and  the  inter- 
vening space  is  occupied  by  the  porter  ; upon  the  wall  on  the 
left  is  the  shrine  dedicated  to  the  gods  of  the  threshold.  The 
door  is  solidly  constructed,  and  moves  upon  pivots  turning  in 
sockets.  Under  the  projecting  eaves,  hang  paper  lanterns  in- 
forming the  passer  by  of  the  name  and  title  of  the  householder, 
and  when  lighted  at  night,  serving  to  illumine  the  street  and  de- 


6 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


signate  his  habitation,  for  door-plates  and  numbers  are  unknown. 
The  roughness  of  the  gate  is  somewhat  concealed  by  the  names 
or  grotesque  representations  of  two  tutelar  gods,  Shintu  and  Yuh- 
lui,  to  whom  the  guardianship  of  the  house  is  intrusted  ; and  its 
sides  and  lintel  are  embellished  with  classical  quotations  written 
upon  red  paper,  or  with  sign-boards  of  literary  :ank.  The  door- 
keeper and  other  servants  frequently  lodge  in  small  rooms  within 
the  gateway,  and  above  the  porch  is  an  attic  containing  one  or 
two  apartments,  to  be  reached  by  a rude  stairway.  In  the  coun- 
try, none  but  the  door-keeper  lodges  near  the  entrance. 

On  passing  behind  the  screen,  a paved  open  court,  occasional- 
ly adorned  with  flowers  or  a fancy  fish-pool,  is  crossed  when 
entering  the  principal  hall.  At  the  south,  a row  of  pillars  sup- 
ports the  plate  instead  of  a wall,  but  at  the  north  the  front  is 
partly  walled  up,  and  the  top  furnished  with  a lattice-work  or 
paper  windows  to  admit  the  light.  The  upper  end  of  the  hall  is 
furnished  with  a high  table  or  altar,  on  which  incense  vases  and 
idolatrous  utensils  and  sacrifices  are  placed  in  honor  of  the  di- 
vinities and  lares  worshipped  there,  whose  tablets  and  names  are 
on  the  wall.  Sometimes  the  table  merely  contains  grotesque  or 
costly  ornaments  of  various  kinds.  Before  the  table  is  the  prin- 
cipal seat,  a large  square  couch,  with  a low  stand  in  the  centre, 
and  a pillow  for  reclining  upon.  In  front  of  it,  the  chairs  are 
arranged  down  the  room  in  two  rows  facing  each  other,  each 
pair  having  a small  table  between  them.  The  floors  are  made 
of  square  tiles  of  brick  or  marble,  or  of  hard  cement,  and  matted  ; 
wooden  floors  are  not  very  common  upon  the  ground  story.  Even 
in  a bright  day  the  room  is  dim,  and  the  absence  of  carpets  and 
fireplaces,  and  of  windows  to  afford  a prospect  abroad,  renders 
it  cheerless  to  a foreigner,  accustomed  to  his  own  glazed  and 
more  elevated  houses. 

A rear  door  near  the  side  wall  opens  either  into  a kitchen  or 
court,  across  which  are  the  female  apartments,  or  directly  into 
the  latter,  and  the  rooms  for  domestics.  Instead  of  being  always 
rectangular,  the  doors  are  sometimes  round,  leaf-shaped,  or  semi- 
circular, apertures,  and  it  is  thought  desirable  that  they  should 
not  open  opposite  each  other,  lest  evil  spirits  find  their  way  from 
the  street  into  the  recesses  of  the  dwelling.  The  rear  rooms  are 
lighted  by  skylights  when  other  modes  are  unavailable,  and  the 
thin  laminae  of  a species  of  oyster  shell  ( Placuna ) cut  into  small 


MODES  OF  LIGHTING  AND  WARMING  HOUSES. 


7 


squares  supply  the  place  of  window-glass.  Latterly,  this  ma- 
terial has  become  cheap  at  Canton,  though  one  reason  for  its 
limited  use  is  the  fear  of  thieves.  Oiled  paper  is  employed  at 
the  north  instead  of  shells.  The  kitchen  is  a small  affair,  for 
the  universal  use  of  portable  furnaces  enables  the  inmates  to 
cook  wherever  the  smoke  will  be  least  troublesome.  Even  if 
there  is  a chimney,  which  is  not  common,  it  does  not  project  beyond 
the  roof.  Warming  the  house,  even  as  far  north  as  Ningpo,  is 
not  frequent,  but  further  up,  as  at  Peking,  the  inmates  are  pro- 
tected from  the  cold  by  closing  the  crevices,  and  constructing 
flues  under  the  rooms,  which  are  heated  by  one  fire.  The  poor 
build  a sort  of  brick  fireplace,  which  by  day  is  used  for  cooking, 
and  at  night  for  a bed,  by  placing  felt  carpets  over  the  warm 
bricks,  where  all  the  family  sleep.  Every  effort  is  made  to  hus- 
band fuel,  which  is  not  only  high  priced,  but  scarce. 

The  country  establishments  of  grandees  are  arranged  on  a 
little  different  plan  from  the  dwellings  in  towns,  and  their 
grounds  are  walled  in.  In  these  inclosures,  the  hall  of  ancestors, 
library,  school-room,  and  summer-houses,  are  often  detached 
from  the  main  edifice,  and  erected  upon  low  plinths,  sur- 
rounded by  a veranda,  and  frequently  decorated  with  paint  and 
ornamental  carving.  Near  the  rear  court  are  the  female  apart- 
ments and  offices,  many  of  the  former  and  the  sleeping  apart- 
ments being  in  attics.  Considerable  space  is  occupied  by  the 
quadrangles,  which  are  paved  and  embellished  by  fish-pools, 
flowering  shrubs,  and  other  plants.  Mr.  Fortune  (Wanderings, 
page  98)  describes  the  house  and  garden  of  a gentleman  at 
Ningpo,  as  being  connected  by  rude  looking  caverns  of  rock- 
work,  “ and  what  at  first  sight  appears  to  be  a subterranean  pas- 
sage leading  from  room  to  room,  through  which  the  visitor  passes 
to  the  garden.  The  small  courts,  of  which  a glimpse  is  caught 
in  passing  along,  are  fitted  up  with  rockwork  ; dwarf  trees  are 
planted  here  and  there  in  various  places,  and  graceful  creepers 
hang  down  into  the  pools  in  front.  These  being  passed,  another 
cavernous  passage  leads  into  the  garden,  with  its  dwarf  trees, 
vases,  ornamented  lattices,  and  beautiful  shrubs  suddenly  opening 
to  the  view.  By  windings  and  glimpses  along  the  rocky  passa- 
ges into  other  courts,  and  hiding  the  real  boundary  by  masses 
of  shrubs  and  trees,  the  grounds  are  made  to  appear  much  larger 
than  they  really  are.” 


8 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  houses  of  the  poor  are  dark,  dirty,  low,  and  narrow  tene- 
ments, without  floor  or  windows,  and  the  few  apartments 
wretched  in  the  extreme.  The  door  is  a mat  swinging  from 
the  lintel,  and  the  whole  family  often  sleep,  eat,  and  live  in  a 
single  room.  Pigs,  dogs,  and  hens  dispute  the  space  with  chil- 
dren and  furniture,  if  a table,  and  a few  trestles  and  stools,  pots 
and  plates,  deserve  that  name,  and  all  the  duties  of  cooking  and 
working  are  conducted  in  or  near  this  room.  The  filthy  street 
without  is  a counterpart  to  the  gloomy,  smoky  abode  within,  and 
a single  walk  through  the  streets  and  lanes  of  such  a neighbor- 
hood is  sufficient  to  reconcile  a person  to  any  ordinary  condition 
of  life.  On  the  outskirts  of  the  town  a still  poorer  class  are 
forced  to  take  up  with  huts  made  of  mats  and  thatch  upon  the 
ground,  through  which  the  rain  and  wind  find  free  course.  It 
is  surprising  that  people  can  live  and  enjoy  health,  and  even  be 
cheerful,  as  the  Chinese  are,  in  such  circumstances.  Between 
these  miserable  dwellings,  and  the  spacious  abodes  of  the  rich, 
is  a class  of  middle  houses,  consisting  of  three  or  four  small 
rooms  under  a single  roof,  and  lodging  eight,  ten,  or  more 
inmates. 

The  best  furniture  is  made  of  a dark  durable  wood  resembling 
ebony  ; but  the  rooms  are  filled  with  ornamental  articles,  such 
as  large  porcelain  jars  and  vases,  copper  tripods  or  pots,  stone 
screens,  book-shelves  and  stands,  &c.,  rather  than  with  chairs, 
couches,  or  tables.  The  ink  sketches  of  landscapes,  and  the 
pairs  of  gay  scrolls  inscribed  with  sentences  suspended  from  the 
walls,  and  the  pretty  lanterns  hanging  from  the  ceiling,  relieve 
the  cheerlessness  of  the  room  ; and  the  combined  effect  is  not 
destitute  of  variety  and  even  elegance,  though  there  is  a want 
of  what  we  term  comfort.  Partitions  are  sometimes  fancifully 
made  of  lattice  work  with  a great  number  of  openings,  neatly 
arranged  for  the  reception  of  boxes  containing  books.  The  bed- 
rooms are  small,  poorly  ventilated,  and  seldom  visited  except  at 
night.  A rich  bedstead  is  a massive  article,  made  of  costly 
woods,  elaborately  carved,  and  supporting  a tester,  from  which 
hang  silken  curtains.  The  front  of  the  tester  is  ornamented 
with  a fancy  scroll,  and  the  mosquito  curtains,  with  which 
every  bed  is  provided,  triced  up  with  copper  or  silver  hooks. 
Cheaper  bedsteads  simply  consist  of  two  boards  resting  on 
trestles,  and  the  bedclothes  of  a quilted  coverlet.  Mattresses  or 


STYLE  OF  GARDENS. 


9 


feather  beds  are  not  used,  and  the  pillow  is  a hard  square  frame 
of  rattan  or  bamboo.  The  bed  and  its  appurtenances  of  a 
wardrobe  and  toilet,  usually  complete  the  furniture  of  the  sleep- 
ing apartments  of  the  Chinese,  who,  generally  speaking,  care 
very  little  for  this  part  of  their  houses.  Servants  and  workmen 
are  accommodated  in  separate  apartments,  or  find  a lodgment  by 
spreading  their  mat  and  coverlet  upon  the  floor  or  piazza.  The 
women  belonging  to  the  house  have  no  other  room  than  their 
chamber,  and  ordinarily  each  wife  and  concubine  has  her  own. 

The  grounds  of  the  rich  are  laid  out  in  good  style,  and  no 
expense  is  spared  upon  them  ; and  were  not  the  tasteful  arrange- 
ments and  diversified  shrubbery  which  would  render  them 
charming  resorts,  almost  always  spoiled  by  their  general  bad 
keeping, — neglect  and  ruin,  if  not  nastiness  and  offals,  being 
often  visible  in  Chinese  gardens,  especially  if  the  mansion  be  an 
old  one, — they  would  please  the  most  fastidious.  The  necessity 
of  having  a place  for  the  women  and  children  of  the  household 
to  recreate  themselves,  is  one  reason  for  having  an  open  space 
within  the  inclosure,  even  if  it  be  only  a plat  of  flowers  or  a bed 
of  vegetables.  In  the  imperial  gardens,  the  attempt  to  make  an 
epitome  of  nature  has  been  highly  successful  ; and  such  is  the 
case  too  in  others  which  foreigners  have  visited,  where  the 
owner  was  able  to  gratify  his  taste.  De  Guignes  describes  their 
art  of  gardening  as  imitating  the  beauties  and  producing  the 
inequalities  of  nature.  Instead  of  alleys  planted  symmetrically 
or  uniform  grounds,  there  are  winding  footpaths,  trees  here  and 
there  as  if  by  chance,  woody  or  sterile  hillocks,  and  deep  gulleys 
with  narrow  passages,  whose  sides  are  steep  or  rough  with  rocks, 
and  presenting  only  a few  miserable  shrubs.  They  like  to  bring 
together  in  gardening  in  the  same  view,  cultivated  grounds  and 
arid  plains ; to  make  the  field  uneven,  and  cover  it  with  artifi- 
cial rock  work  ; to  dig  caverns  in  mountains,  on  whose  tops  are 
arbors  half  overthrown,  and  around  which  tortuous  footpaths  run 
and  return  into  themselves,  prolonging,  as  it  were,  the  extent  of 
the  grounds  and  increasing  the  pleasure  of  the  walk.” 

A pool  or  fish  pond,  supplied  by  a rivulet  running  wildly 
through  the  grounds  or  over  the  hillocks  when  possible,  forms  an 
indispensable  feature  of  such  gardens,  in  which  if  there  be  room, 
a summer-house  is  erected  on  a rocky  islet,  or  on  piles  over  the 
VOL.  II.  2* 


10 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


water,  accessible  by  a rugged  causey  of  rockwork.  The  lotus 
is  grown  in  the  pools,  its  large  plate-like  leaves  and  magnificent 
flowers  rendering  it  a general  favorite,  and  carp  and  other  fish 
are  reared  in  their  waters;  gold  fish  are  kept  in  small  vessels 
or  tanks.  Whenever  it  is  possible,  a gallery  runs  along  the  sides 
of  the  pond  for  the  pleasure  and  use  of  the  females  in  the  house- 
hold. Jets-d’eau  are  uncommon,  nor  are  dwelling-houses  fur- 
nished with  water  by  pipes,  wells  and  cisterns  being  the  usual 
sources  of  supply.  A pretty  device  in  some  gardens,  which 
beguiles  the  visitor’s  ramble,  is  to  make  a rude  kind  of  shell  or 
pebble  mosaic  in  the  gravelly  paths,  representing  birds,  animals, 
or  other  figures;  the  time  required  to  decipher  them  prolongs 
the  walk,  and  apparently  increases  the  size  of  the  grounds.  The 
pieces  of  rockwork  are  cemented  together,  and  bound  with 
strong  wire ; and  in  fish-pools,  grottoes,  or  causeways,  this  unique 
ornament  almost  always  has  a pretty  effect,  partly  because  the 
moss  and  plants  which  grow  upon  it  from  neglect  add  rather  to 
its  appropriateness. 

The  wood  and  mason  work  of  the  Chinese  is  showy  and  un- 
substantial, requiring  constant  repairs,  and  therefore  both  their 
gardens  and  houses,  when  neglected,  soon  fall  into  a ruinous  con- 
dition ; but  when  new  they  present  a pretty  appearance.  The 
Fa  ti  or  Flower  gardens  near  Canton,  well  known  to  foreigners 
there,  are  merely  shops  for  the  sale  of  plants  kept  in  pots,  and 
make  no  pretensions  to  ornamental  gardening.  Some  of  the 
principal  merchants  there  have  cultivated  grounds  of  greater  or 
less  extent  attached  to  their  establishments,  but  none  of  them  have 
gardens  exhibiting  much  of  the  peculiar  style  of  the  country. 
One  of  the  late  hong-merchants  built  a glass  summer-house 
on  his  premises  covered  by  a light  roof,  and  so  that  it  could  be 
closed  with  shutters.  All  who  entered  it  could  hardly  avoid- 
quoting  the  old  adage,  “ Those  who  live  in  glass  houses  should 
not  throw  stones.” 

The  arrangement  of  shops  and  warehouses  necessarily  differs 
from  that  of  dwelling-houses,  but  either  from  not  feeling  its  ne- 
cessity, or  from  the  value  of  the  ground,  few  of  them  have  any 
rear  yard.  The  rear  room  of  the  shop  is  a small,  dark  apart- 
ment, used  for  a dormitory,  store-room,  or  workshop,  and  some- 
times for  all,  according  as  the  case  may  be.  Small  ones  are 
usually  lighted  from  the  front,  but  the  largest  by  a skylight,  in 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SHOPS. 


11 


which  cases  there  is  a latticed  partition  screen  reaching  nearly 
across  the  room  just  behind  the  door,  to  seclude  the  inside  of  the 
shop  from  the  street.  There  are  in  most  cases  no  window’s  in 
front,  but  the  whole  is  thrown  open  by  day  and  closed  at  night 
by  shutters  running  in  grooves,  and  secured  by  heavy  crossbars 
to  a row  of  posts,  which  fit  in  sockets  in  the  threshold  and  lintel. 
The  doorway  recedes  a foot  or  two,  and  the  projecting  roof  serves 
to  protect  customers  from  the  rain  and  sun,  and  such  goods  as 
are  exposed  for  sale.  In  small  shops  there  are  two  counters,  a 
long  one  running  in  from  the  door,  and  another  upon  the  wrall  of 
the  shop,  at  right  angles  to  it,  reaching  from  the  door  across  the 
front.  The  shopman  sits  within  the  angle  of  the  two,  and  as 
they  are  low  he  can  easily  serve  a customer  in  the  street  as  well 
as  in  the  shop.  At  night,  the  smaller  one  often  forms  a lodging 
place  for  homeless  beggars.  The  front  of  the  outer  counter  is 
of  granite,  and  a niche  containing  a tablet  inscribed  to  Plutus  or 
Mammon,  is  cut  in  the  end,  where  incense  is  burned  every  day 
to  invoke  a profitable  business.  Another  shrine  is  placed  within 
the  apartment,  dedicated  to  the  deity  of  the  place,  whoever  he 
may  be.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  clerks  to  light  incense  sticks  and 
burn  paper  before  these  shrines  twice,  if  not  oftener,  every  day. 

The  loft  over  shops  is  much  smaller  than  the  main  apartment, 
for  as  its  floor  must  not  intercept  the  skylight,  it  is  merely  a 
small  chamber  towards  the  street  reached  by  a gallery  along  the 
sides  of  the  wall,  and  lighted  by  the  windows  in  front.  Chinese 
tradesmen  do  not  make  the  display  of  shopkeepers  in  western 
cities  in  exhibiting  their  goods,  and  the  partial  use  made  of  glass 
renders  it  not  always  safe  to  do  so.  The  want  of  a yard  com- 
pels shopmen  to  do  their  cooking  and  washing  either  behind  or 
on  top  of  the  building,  for  in  most  cases  the  clerks  and  workmen 
both  eat  and  sleep  under  the  same  roof.  In  the  densest  parts  of 
the  city  of  Canton,  the  roofs  are  covered  with  a loose  framework, 
on  which  firewood  is  piled,  clothes  washed  and  dried,  and  meals 
cooked ; it  also  affords  a lounging  and  sleeping  place  in  summer. 
In  case  of  fire,  however,  these  lumbered  roofs  become  like  so 
many  tinder-boxes,  and  aid  not  a little  to  spread  the  flames. 

The  narrowness  of  the  streets  in  Chinese  cities  is  a source  of 
more  inconveniences  than  benefits ; few  of  them  exceed  ten  or 
twelve  feet  in  width,  and  most  of  those  in  Canton  are  less  than 
eight.  No  public  squares  filled  with  fountains  and  shrubbery, 


12 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


nor  any  open  spaces  except  small  areas  in  front  of  temples, 
relieve  the  closeness  of  these  lanes.  The  absence  of  horses  and 
carriages,  and  a custom  of  huddling  together,  a desire  to  screen 
the  path  from  the  sun,  and  their  ignorance  of  the  advantages 
of  another  mode,  are  perhaps  the  reasons  for  making  them  so 
narrow.  In  case  of  fire,  it  is  difficult  to  get  access  to  the  burn- 
ing buildings,  and  troublesome  and  dangerous  for  the  inmates  to 
move  or  save  their  property.  At  all  times,  porters  carrying 
burdens  are  impeded  by  the  crowd  of  passengers  thronging  the 
thoroughfares,  who  likewise  must  pass  Indian  file  lest  they  tilt 
against  the  porters.  Ventilation  is  very  imperfect  where  the 
buildings  are  packed  so  closely ; and  the  public  necessaries  and 
offal  carried  through  the  streets  by  the  scavengers,  still  further 
pollute  the  air.  Drainage  is  only  partially  attended  to,  and  the 
sewers  often  get  choked  or  the  coverings  are  broken,  and  exude 
their  contents  over  the  pathway.  The  ammoniacal  and  other 
gases  which  are  generated  by  all  this  filth  aggravate  the  ophthal 
mic  diseases  so  prevalent  among  the  Chinese ; and  it  is  a mattei 
of  surprise  that  the  cholera,  plague,  or  yellow  fever  does  not  visit 
the  inhabitants  of  such  confined  abodes,  who  breathe  so  tainted 
an  atmosphere. 

The  streets  are  usually  paved  with  slabs  of  stone  laid  cross- 
wise, and  except  near  markets  and  wells  are  comparatively  clean. 
They  are  not  laid  out  straight,  and  some  of  them  present  a 
singularly  irregular  appearance  from  the  slight  angle  which  eacli 
house  makes  with  its  neighbors  ; it  being  considered  rather  un- 
lucky to  have  them  exactly  even.  The  names  of  the  streets, 
instead  of  being  marked  on  the  corners  of  the  blocks,  are  written 
on  the  gateways  at  their  ends  ; and  as  each  division  makes  a sepa- 
rate neighborhood,  and  has  its  own  name,  a single  long  street  will 
in  its  course  have  five,  six,  or  more  names.  The  general  arrange- 
ment of  a Chinese  city  presents  a labyrinth  of  streets,  alleys,  and 
byways,  very  perplexing  to  a stranger  who  has  neither  plan 
nor  directory  to  guide  him,  nor  numbers  upon  the  .louses  and 
shops  to  direct  him.  The  sign-boards  are  hung  from  the  eaves 
or  wall  each  side  of  the  door,  or  securely  inserted  in  stone 
sockets  ; some  of  them  are  ten  or  fifteen  feet  high,  and  being 
gaily  painted  and  gilded  on  both  sides  with  picturesque  charac- 
ters, a succession  of  them  as  seen  down  a street  produces  a pleas- 
ing effect.  The  inscriptions  on  these  signs  simply  men'ioa 


STREETS,  SQUARES,  AND  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS.  13 

the  kind  of  goods  sold,  and  without  half  the  puffing  seen  in  west- 
ern cities ; and  the  accounts  sometimes  given  of  the  inscriptions 
on  sign-boards  in  Chinese  cities,  as  “ No  cheating  here,”  and 
others,  are  the  exception  and  not  the  rule.  The  edicts  and 
official  notices  of  government,  handbills  of  medicines  to  cure  all 
diseases,  and  the  famous  doctors  who  make  them,  notices  announc- 
ing the  loss  of  children  or  escape  of  slaves,  houses  to  let,  or 
other  events,  cover  blank  walls  in  great  abundance  and  variety, 
printed  on  red,  black,  or  yellow  paper  ; but  the  absence  of  news- 
papers leads  the  shopmen  to  depend  more  for  patronage  upon  a 
circle  of  customers,  and  the  distribution  of  cards,  than  to  spend 
much  money  in  handbill  advertising.  The  shrines  of  the  street 
gods  are  usually  located  in  little  niches  in  the  wall,  sometimes 
with  altars  before  them,  and  receiving  no  other  regard  than  a 
few  incense  sticks. 

The  temples  and  assembly-halls  are  almost  the  only  public 
buildings  in  Chinese  cities,  except  the  governmental  offices,  but 
although  very  numerous,  they  present  few  architectural  points  to 
distinguish  them  from  other  edifices.  A few  of  the  temples  at 
Canton,  and  the  grounds  attached  to  them,  occupy  a large  space, 
among  which  the  Hai-chwang  sz\  or  Budhist  monastery  in  Honam, 
noticed  in  the  account  of  that  city,  is  the  bpst  known.  The 
temples  in  all  parts  of  the  country  derive  no  small  portion  of  their 
income  from  travellers,  and  are  consequently  made  more  com- 
modious and  extensive  than  the  number  of  priests  or  the  throng  of 
worshippers  require.  There  are  no  public  buildings  erected  foi 
markets,  each  butcher,  greengrocer,  and  poulterer  hiring  stalls, 
or  hawking  his  commodities  around  the  street  as  suits  his  own 
convenience. 

The  assembly-halls  are  built  somewhat  like  warehouses,  with 
one  spacious  hall  for  public  use.  There  are  more  than  a hun- 
dred of  them  in  Canton,  and  the  same  proportion  in  other  cities. 
Some  of  them  are  partly  like  a hotel,  being  occupied  by  traders, 
coming  in  from  the  country  to  sell  their  produce,  and  to  buy 
goods,  who  club  together,  because  they  speak  the  same  dialect,  or 
are  engaged  in  the  same  commerce.  All  the  houses,  shops,  and 
halls,  pay  a ground  rent  to  the  general  government,  depending  on 
their  size  and  value,  but  no  data  are  available  for  comparing  this  tax 
with  that  levied  in  western  cities.  The  government  furnishes 
the  owner  of  the  ground  with  a hung  ki  or  red  deed,  in  testimony 


14 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  his  right  to  occupancy,  which  puts  him  in  perpetual  posses- 
sion as  long  as  he  pays  the  taxes. 

Houses  are  rented  on  short  leases,  and  the  rent  collected  quar- 
terly in  advance  ; the  annual  income  from  real  estate  is  between 
nine  and  twelve  per  cent.  The  yearly  rent  of  the  best  shops 
in  Canton  is  from  $150  to  $400  ; there  is  no  system  of  insuring 
buildings,  which,  with  the  municipal  taxes  and  the  difficulty  of 
collecting  bad  rents,  enhances  their  price. 

The  taverns,  tsiu  tien,  or  “ wine  shops,”  are'  numerous  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  but  though  they  will  not  bear  comparison 
with  the  hotels  of  western  cities,  they  are  far  in  advance  of  the 
cheerless  khans  and  caravansaries  found  in  Asia  Minor.  Board- 
ing-houses, as  they  exist  in  western  cities,  are  unknown  as  dis- 
tinct from  taverns  or  restaurants  ; nor  are  grog  shops,  beer  shops, 
or  gin  palaces,  found  in  Chinese  cities.  The  traveller  usually 
brings  his  own  bedding,  and  sometimes  his  own  provision  also, 
and  when  night  comes  spreads  his  mat  upon  the  floor  or  bedstead, 
and  lies  down  in  his  clothes.  The  better  sort  of  travellers  order 
a room  for  themselves,  but  owing  to  the  common  practice  of  men 
of  wealth  going' to  the  temples,  or  hiring  a separate  boat  when 
travelling,  in  which  they  sleep  during  their  stay,  the  taverns  are 
not  much  frequented  by  those  who  would  pay  well.  One  consi- 
derable source  of  income  to  innkeepers  is  the  preparation  of  din- 
ners for  parties  of  men,  who  either  come  to  the  house  or  send  to 
it  for  so  many  covers,  for  when  a gentleman  invites  his  friends 
to  an  entertainment  it  is  common  to  serve  it  up  at  his  warehouse, 
or  at  an  inn.  In  towns  and  cities,  thousands  of  men  take  their 
meals  at  tables  or  at  eating-stands  in  the  streets,  and  the  number 
of  these  conveniences  with  the  cooking-stalls  attached,  strikes  a 
stranger  singularly.  The  noisy  hilarity  of  the  customers,  as 
they  ply  their  “ nimble  lads”  or  chopsticks,  and  the  vociferous  cries 
of  the  cooks  recommending  their  cakes  and  dishes,  with  the  steam- 
ing savor  from  the  frying-pan  and  kettles,  form,  however,  but  a 
small  part  of  the  various  objects  in  these  streets  to  attract  the 
eyes,  ears,  and  nose  of  the  observer.  Their  appearance  to  a 
foreigner  is  very  amusing,  and  the  variety  of  bustling  scenes  and 
picturesque  novelties  presented  to  him  on  arrival  from  sea,  afford 
no  little  entertainment.  They  have  been  thus  described  by  an 
eye-witness. 


CROWDED  STREETS  OF  CHINESE  CITIES. 


15 


“ The  number  of  itinerant  workmen  of  one  kind  or  another  which  line 
the  sides  of  the  streets  or  occupy  the  areas  before  public  buildings  in 
Chinese  towns,  is  a remarkable  feature.  Fruiterers,  pastrymen,  cooks, 
venders  of  gimcracks  and  wayside  shopmen  are  found  in  other  countries 
as  well  as  China ; but  to  see  a travelling  blacksmith  or  tinker,  an  itine- 
rant glassmender,  a peripatetic  repairer  of  umbrellas,  a locomotive  seal- 
cutter,  an  ambulatory  barber,  a migratory  banker,  a peregrinatory  apo- 
thecary or  druggist,  or  a walking  shoemaker  and  cobbler,  one  must  travel 
hitherwards.  These  movable  establishments,  together  with  fortune-tellers, 
herb  and  booksellers,  chiromancers,  &c.,  pretty  well  fill  up  the  space,  so 
that  one  often  sees  both  sides  of  the  streets  literally  lined  with  the  stalls, 
wares,  or  tools  of  persons  selling  or  making  something  to  eat  or  to  wear. 
The  money-changer  sits  behind  a small  table,  on  which  his  strings  of 
cash  are  chained,  and  where  he  weighs  the  silver  he  is  to  change ; his 
neighbor,  the  seal-cutter,  sits  next  him  near  a like  fashioned  table.  The 
barber  has  his  chest  of  drawers  made  to  serve  for  a seat,  and  if  he  has 
not  a furnace  of  his  own  he  heats  his  water  at  the  cook’s  or  the  black- 
smith’s fire  near  by,  perhaps  shaving  his  friend  gratis  by  way  of  recom- 
pense. 

“ The  herbseller  chooses  an  open  place  where  he  will  not  be  trampled 
on,  and  there  displays  his  simples  and  his  plasters,  while  the  dentist,  with 
a ghastly  string  of  fangs  and  grinders  around  his  neck,  testimonials  of 
his  skill,  sits  over  against  him,  each  with  his  infallible  remedy.  The 
bookpeddler  and  chooser  of  lucky  days,  and  he  who  finds  stolen  goods  by 
divination,  arrange  themselves  on  either  side,  with  their  tables  and  stalls, 
and  array  of  sticks,  pencils,  signs,  and  pictures,  all  trying  to  ‘ catch  a 
little  pidgeon.’  The  spectacle-mender  and  razor-grinder,  the  cutler  and 
seller  of  bangles  and  bracelets,  and  the  maker  of  clay  puppets  or  mender 
of  old  shoes,  are  not  far  off,  all  plying  their  callings  as  busily  as  if  they 
were  in  their  own  shops.  Then,  besides  the  hundreds  of  stalls  for  sel- 
ling articles  of  food,  dress,  or  ornament,  there  are  innumerable  peddlers 
going  up  and  down  with  baskets  and  trays  slung  on  their  shoulders, 
each  bawling  or  making  his  own  peculiar  note,  which,  with  coolies  trans- 
porting burdens,  chairbearers  carrying  sedans,  and  passengers  following 
one  another  like  a stream,  with  here  and  there  a woman  among  them,  so 
fill  up  the  streets  that  it  is  nc  easy  matter  to  navigate  them.  Notwith- 
standing all  these  obstructions,  it  is  worthy  of  note  and  highly  praise- 
worthy in  the  Chinese,  that  these  crowds  pass  and  repass  with  the  great- 
est rapidity  in  the  narrow  streets  without  altercation  or  disturbance,  and 
seldom  with  accident.” — Chi.  Rep.  Yol.  X.,  p.  473. 

Streets  at  the  north  present  a little  different  aspect.  Barrow 
thus  delineates  those  in  Peking : “ The  multitude  of  movable 
workshops  of  tinkers  and  barbers,  cobblers  and  blacksmiths,  the 


16 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


tents  and  booths  where  tea  and  fruit,  rice  and  other  ea<ab!<^>  were 
exposed  few  sale,  with  the  wares  and  merchandise  arrayed  befor6 
the  doors,  had  contracted  this  spacious  street  to  a narrow  road  in 
the  middle,  just  wide  enough  for  two  little  vehicles  to  pass  each 
other.  The  processions  of  men  in  office  attended  by  their  nume- 
rous retinues,  bearing  umbrellas  and  flags,  painted  lanterns  and 
a variety  of  strange  insignia  of  their  rank  and  station,  different 
trains  that  were  accompanying,  with  lamentable  cries,  corpses  to 
their  graves,  and  with  squalling  music,  brides  to  their  husbands ; 
the  troops  of  dromedaries  laden  with  coals  from  Tartary  ; the  wheel- 
barrows and  hand-carts  stuffed  with  vegetables,  occupied  nearly 
the  whole  of  this  middle  space  in  one  continued  line.  All  was 
in  motion.  The  sides  of  the  streets  were  filled  with  an  immense 
concourse  of  people,  buying  and  selling  and  bartering  their  differ- 
ent commodities.  The  buzz,  and  confused  noises  of  this  mixed 
multitude,  proceeding  from  the  loud  bawling  of  those  who  were 
crying  their  wares,  the  wrangling  of  others,  with  every  now  and 
then  a strange  twanging  sound  like  the  jarring  of  a cracked 
jewsharp  (the  barber’s  signal),  the  mirth  and  laughter  that  pre- 
vailed in  every  group,  could  scarcely  be  exceeded.  Peddlers  with 
their  packs,  jugglers  and  conjurers,  fortune-tellers,  mountebanks 
and  quackdoctors,  comedians  and  musicians,  left  no  space  unoc- 
cupied.”* 

All  shops  are  closed  at  nightfall,  and  persons  going  abroad 
carry  a lantern  or  torch.  Over  all  the  thoroughfares,  watch- 
towers  are  erected,  where  notice  of  a fire  is  given,  and  the 
watches  of  the  night  announced  by  striking  a gong.  Few  per- 
sons, comparatively  speaking,  are  met  in  the  streets  at  night, 
except  beggars,  and  the  private  watch  kept  by  all  who  are  able, 
greatly  assists  the  regular  police  in  preserving  order  and  appre- 
hending thieves.  These  men  go  up  and  down  their  wards  beat- 
ing large  bamboos  to  let  “ thieves  know  they  are  on  the  look- 
out.” Considering  all  things,  large  Chinese  cities  are  remarka- 
bly quiet  at  night.  Beggars  find  their  lodgings  in  the  porches  of 
temples,  or  the  sides  of  the  streets,  and  nestle  together  in  their 
rags  for  mutual  warmth.  This  class  of  people  is  under  the  care 
of  a headman,  who,  with  the  advice  of  the  elders  and  constables, 
apportions  them  in  the  separate  neighborhoods.  During  the  day, 
they  go  from  one  shop  or  house  door  to  another,  and  receive  their 
* Travels  in  China,  page  96 


REGULATIONS  FOR  WATCHMEN,  BEGGARS,  AND  FIRES.  17 

allotted  stipend,  which  cannot  be  less  than  one  cash  to  each  per- 
son ; they  sit  in  the  doorway,  and  sing  a ditty  or  beat  their  clap- 
dishes  and  sticks  to  attract  attention,  and  if  the  shopkeeper  has 
no  customers,  he  lets  them  keep  up  their  cries,  for  he  knows  that 
the  longer  they  are  detained  at  the  door,  so  much  the  more  time 
will  elapse  before  they  come  again  to  his  shop.  Many  of  them 
are  blind,  and  ail  of  them  present  a sickly  appearance,  their 
countenances  begrimed  with  dirt,  and  furrowed  by  sorrow  and 
suffering.  The  areas  before  temples  and  the  vicinity  of  mar- 
kets, are  the  resort  of  numbers,  and  there  too  they  die  by  scores 
from  disease  and  starvation,  presenting  an  affecting  illustration 
of  the  cold  indifference  heathenism  exhibits  towards  the  distress 
of  the  poor.  Many  persons  give  the  headman  a dollar  or  more 
per  month  to  purchase  exemption  from  the  daily  importunity  of 
the  beggars  ; and  families  about  to  perform  housewarming,  a mar- 
riage, or  funeral,  and  newly  arrived  junks,  are  obliged  to  fee  him  to 
get  rid  of  the  clamorous  and  loathsome  crowd. 

When  fires  occur,  the  officers  of  government  are  held  re- 
sponsible ; the  law  being,  that  if  ten  houses  are  burned  within 
the  walls,  the  highest  officer  in  it  shall  be  fined  nine  months’  pay  ; 
if  more  than  thirty,  a year’s  salary  ; and  if  three  hundred  arc 
consumed,  he  shall  be  degraded  one  degree.  The  governor  and 
other  high  officers,  attended  by  a few  troops,  are  frequently  seen 
at  fires  in  Canton,  as  much  to  prevent  thievery  as  to  direct  in 
extinguishing  the  flames.  The  engines  are  hurried  through  the 
narrow  streets  at  a fearful  rate  ; those  who  carry  away  property 
are  armed  with  swords  to  defend  it,  and  every  one  adds  to  the 
crash  of  the  burning  houses  by  loud  cries.  The  police  are  author- 
ized to  pull  down  houses,  if  the  fire  can  thereby  be  so»ner 
extinguished,  but  there  is  no  independent  organized  body  of 
firemen,  nor  any  well  arranged  system  of  operations  in  such 
cases,  though  conflagrations  are  ordinarily  soon  got  under. 
The  condition  of  the  women  and  children  at  such  times  is  pitia- 
ble, and  cruel  men  often  take  the  opportunity  to  steal  and  carry 
off  defenceless  persons,  especially  young  girls. 

In  addition  to  the  edifices  already  described,  is  the  pagoda,  a 
building  considered  as  so  peculiar  to  the  Chinese,  that  a land- 
scape or  painting  relating  to  China  without  a pagoda  perched  on 
a hill,  like  one  of  Egyptian  scenery  destitute  of  a pyramid  or  a 
desert  plain,  would  be  considered  deficient.  The  term  pagoda 


18 


the  middle  kingdom. 


has  been  applied  by  De  Guignes  and  other  writers  on  China,  to 
temples,  in  conformity  with  the  usage  of  the  word  in  India, 
where  it  originated  ; by  other  authors,  principally  English,  it  has 
been  appropriated  to  the  polygonal  towers  occurring  in  all  parts 
of  the  country  ; and  this  restricted  application  is  the  best  use  of 
the  term,  since  the  word  temple  is  better  understood  as  designat- 
ing edifices  containing  idols.  The  pagodas  are  usually  called 
tah  but  some  which  are  inhabited  and  contain  idols  are  called 
sz\  or  monastery.  The  two  in  the  city  of  Canton  were  erect- 
ed, it  is  affirmed,  to  bring  and  secure  good  luck  to  the  region 
in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  fungshwui,  or  wind  and  water 
doctrine.  There  are  six  others  between  Canton  and  Macao, 
none  of  them  inhabited,  but  the  people  believe  all  of  them  exert 
a great  influence  upon  the  fortunes  and  prosperity  of  the  sur- 
rounding region.  These  edifices  are  strongly  built;  one  near 
West  lake  in  Chehkiang  is  stated  to  have  been  erected  fifteen 
centuries.  They  are  always  an  odd  number  of  stories,  seldom 
less  than  five,  and  none  more  than  eleven.  Small  octagonal 
houses,  three  stories  high,  are  sometimes  built  as  temples  or 
literary  halls,  dedicated  to  the  god  of  Letters. 

There  is  a temple  and  pagoda  near  Hangchau  fu,  described 
by  De  Guignes,  as  “ well  built  and  kept  in  good  repair,  with 
the  single  exception  of  one  building  used  for  a magazine.  The 
court  contains  two  pavilions,  one  has  a bell,  the  other  a gong. 
The  pagoda  is  beautiful,  each  of  its  eight  sides  being  28  feet 
wide,  and  the  wall  at  the  base,  including  the  covered  stairway, 
18  feet  thick.  This  stairway  is  about  three  feet  wide,  and 
ascends  spirally  between  two  walls,  the  inner  of  which  is  about 
six  feet  thick  ; the  diameter  of  the  room  within  is  13  feet,  and 
each  one  contains  niches  for  idols,  except  the  top  one,  which 
upholds  a large  post  that  projects  many  feet  beyond  the  roof ; 
including  this,  the  height  is  about  170  feet.  There  is  a covered 
gallery  at  each  story  on  the  outside,  which  had  begun  to  show 
the  effects  of  time.  The  prospect  from  the  summit  is  superb ; 
we  could  discover  the  course  of  the  river,  and  a part  of  the  city 
and  suburbs  ; near  by  were  many  tombs,  which  with  vegetable 
gardens  attached  to  the  establishment,  and  the  trees  in  their 
environs,  heightened  the  picturesque  scene.  Fifty  priests  reside 
Here,  who  told  us  the  pagoda  had  been  built  seven  hundred 
years;  if  so,  the  woodwork  must  have  been  often  repaired.’ 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OBJECT  OF  PAGODAS. 


19 


Sir  John  Davis  visited  one  near  Lintsing  chau  in  Shantung,  in 
very  good  repair,  inhabited  by  Budhist  priests,  and  containing 
two  idols  ; each  of  its  nine  stories  was  inscribed  with  Ometo 
Fuh,  in  large  characters.  It  was  erected  since  the  completion 
of  the  Grand  canal.  A winding  stairway  of  near  200  steps  con- 
ducted to  the  top,  about  150  feet  from  the  ground,  from  whence 
an  extensive  and  beautiful  view  was  obtained  of  the  surrounding 
country.  The  basement  was  excellently  built  of  granite,  and 
all  the  rest  of  glazed  brick,  beautifully  joined  and  cemented.* 

The  appearance  of  a Chinese  city  when  seen  from  a distance 
is  unlike  the  view  of  European  cities,  in  which  spires,  domes, 
and  towers  of  churches  and  cathedrals,  halls,  palaces,  and  other 
public  buildings,  and  green  spots  from  squares  and  gardens 
intervening  between  the  streets,  relieve  the  uniformity  of  rows 
of  dwellings ; and  stacks  of  chimneys  or  glittering  roofs  fur- 
ther add  to  the  liveliness  of  the  scene.  In  China,  temples, 
houses,  and  palaces  are  nearly  of  one  height ; their  sameness 
being  only  partially  relieved  by  trees  here  and  there,  and  pairs 
of  tall  flag-staffs  with  frames  near  their  tops,  which  at  a distance 
not  a little  resemble  dismantled  gallows.  Nature,  however, 
charms  and  delights,  and  few  countries  present  more  beautiful 
landscapes  ; even  the  tameness  of  the  works  of  man  serves  as  a 
foil  for  the  diversified  beauties  of  the  cultivated  landscape. 

A Chinese  usually  travels  by  water,  and  in  the  south-eastern 
provinces,  it  may  be  said  that  vehicles  solely  designed  for  carry- 
ing travellers  or  goods  do  not  exist,  for  the  carts  and  vrheel- 
barrows  which  are  met  with  are  few  and  so  miserably  made,  as 
hardly  to  serve  any  purpose,  or  prove  an  exception  to  the  remark. 
In  the  plains  of  Chihli  and  about  the  capital,  and  further  north- 
ward, they  are  more  common  but  wretchedly  made,  the  wheels 
being  often  solid,  and  fixed  to  short  axletrees.  Hundreds  of  them 
are  to  be  hired  in  the  streets  of  Peking,  which  are  no  better  than 
oblong  boxes  fastened  to  an  axle  and  cushioned  to  alleviate  the 
jolting,  and  drawn  by  one  horse  ; the  passengers  get  in  and  out 
at  the  sides  or  front,  where  the  driver  sits  close  to  the  horse. 
In  Kiangsi,  wheelbarrows  are  made  of  a peculiar  shape,  and  em- 
ployed for  transporting  passengers  and  their  baggage,  but  not  to 
any  great  distance,  nor  is  the  same  description  of  vehicle  common 
in  the  other  provinces. 

* Voyages  a Peking,  tom.  II.,  p.  79.  Davis’  Sketches,  Vol.  I.,  p.  213. 


JO 


THE  Ml  DELE  KINGDOM 


Wheelbarrows  used  for  travelling  in  Kiangsi. 


Where  travelling  by  water  is  impossible,  sedan  chairs  are 
used  to  carry  passengers,  and  coolies  with  poles  and  slings 
transport  their  luggage  and  goods.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
sedan,  in  both  of  which  the  traveller  sits ; the  light  one  is  made 
of  bamboo,  and  so  narrow  that  the  sitter  is  obliged  to  lean  forward 
as  he  is  carried  ; the  large  one,  called  kiau,  is,  whether  viewed 
in  regard  to  lightness,  comfort,  or  any  other  quality  associated 
with  such  a mode  of  carriage,  one  of  the  most  convenient  articles 
found  in  any  country.  It  is  prohibited  to  the  common  people, 
but  those  possessing  any  kind  of  privilege  are  allowed  to  use  it ; 
two  men  easily  support  it  on  their  shoulders,  and  can  carry  it 
four  miles  an  hour.  Goods  are  safely  carried  upon  poles,  and 
however  large  or  heavy  the  package  may  be,  the  porters  contrive 
to  subdivide  its  weight  between  them  by  means  of  their  sticks 
And  slings.  The  number  of  persons  who  thus  gain  a livelihood 
is  great,  and  in  cities  they  are  employed  by  headmen,  who  con- 
tract for  work  just  as  carmen  do  elsewhere ; or  when  unengaged 
bv  overseers,  parties  station  themselves  at  corners  and  other  pub- 
lic places,  ready  to  start  at  a beck.  A person  going  through  the 
streets  of  Canton  will  often  meet  groups  of  brawny  fellows  idling 
away  their  time  in  smoking,  gambling,  sleeping,  or  jeering  at  the 


MODES  OF  TRAVELLING. 


21 


wayfarers ; and,  like  the  husbandmen  mentioned  in  the  parable, 
if  he  ask  them  why  they  stand  there  all  the  day  idle  ? will  be 
in  like  manner  answered,  “ Because  no  man  hath  hired  us.” 

The  chairbearers  also  form  a somewhat  distinct  clan,  and  the 
establishments  where  sedans  and  their  bearers  are  to  be  hired 
suggest  a comparison  with  the  livery  stables  of  western  cities ; 
the  men  in  fact  are  nicknamed  at  Canton  momima,  i.  e.  tailless 
horses.  There  is  a vehicle  used  sometimes  by  the  emperor  and 
high  officers,  consisting  of  an  open  chair  set  upon  poles,  and  so 
made  that  the  incumbent  can  be  seen  as  well  as  see  around  him. 
It  undergoes  many  changes  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  as 
it  is  both  cheap  and  light,  and  well  fitted  for  traversing  moun- 
tainous regions. 

In  the  construction  and  management  of  their  river  craft  the 
Chinese  excel.  Most  of  the  boats  are  intended  to  be  the  resi- 
dences of  those  who  navigate  them,  and  regard  is  had  to  this  in 
their  arrangement.  Only  a part  of  the  fleets  of  boats  seen  on 
the  river  at  Canton  are  intended  for  transportation,  a large  num- 
ber being  designed  for  fixed  residences,  and  perhaps  half  of  them 
are  moored  stem  and  stern  in  rows.  They  are  not  obliged  to 
remain  where  they  station  themselves,  but  both  the  boats  and 
their  inmates  are  under  the  supervision  of  a water  police,  who 
register  them  and  point  out  the  position  they  may  occupy.  Boats 
for  families,  those  in  which  oil,  salt,  fuel,  or  other  articles  are 
sold,  lighters,  passage-boats,  flower-boats,  and  other  kinds,  are  by 
this  means  grouped  together,  and  more  easily  found.  It  was 
once  ascertained  that  there  were  84,000  boats  registered  as 
belonging  to  the  city  of  Canton,  but  whether  they  all  remained 
near  the  city  and  did  not  go  to  other  parts  of  the  district,  or 
whether  the  old  ones  were  erased  from  the  register  when  broken 
up,  was  not  ascertained  ; though  it  is  not  likely  that  at  one  time 
this  number  of  boats  ever  lay  opposite  the  city.  No  one  who  has 
been  at  Canton,  can  forget  the  bustling,  noisy,  and  animating  sight 
the  river  offers,  nor  failed  to  have  noticed  the  good  humored  care- 
fulness with  which  boats  of  every  size  pass  each  other  without 
collision. 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  many  kinds  of  craft  found  on  the 
Chinese  waters,  without  the  assistance  of  drawings.  They  are 
furnished  with  stern  sculls,  which  move  upon  a pivot,  and  easily 
propel  the  boat  amid  the  crowd.  Large  boats  are  furnished 


22 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


with  two  or  three,  which,  when  not  in  use,  are  conveniently 
hauled  in  upon  the  side.  They  are  provided  with  oars,  the  loom 
and  blade_  of  which  are  fastened  by  withs,  and  run  in  a band 
attached  to  a stake.  The  mast  in  some  of  the  large  cargo  boats 
consists  of  two  sticks,  resting  on  the  gunwales  and  meeting  above, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  be  hoisted  at  pleasure ; in  those  designed 
for  residences,  no  provision  is  made  for  a mast,  the  oars  and  scull 
being  sufficient  for  the  moving  required.  Fishing  boats,  lighters, 
and  craft  required  for  the  outer  waters,  have  one  or  two  perma- 
nent masts.  In  all  except  the  smallest,  a wale  or  frame  projects 
from  the  side,  on  which  the  boatmen  walk  when  poling  the  vessel. 
The  sails  are  made  of  common  matting,  and  sewed  into  a single 
sheet,  and  provided  with  yards  at  the  top  and  bottom  and  bamboc 
ribs  on  the  face,  which  serve  to  retain  the  loops  that  run  on  the 
mast,  and  enable  the  boatmen  to  haul  them  close  on  the  wind. 
A driver  is  sometimes  placed  on  the  taffrail,  and  a small  foresail 
near  the  bow,  but  the  mainsail  is  the  chief  dependence;  no 
Chinese  boat  has  a bowsprit.  Few  sailors  are  more  expert  at 
managing  their  craft  than  the  Chinese  on  the  coast,  but  the  boat- 
men in  the  interior  are  greatly  their  inferiors  for  address  and 
courage. 

The  internal  arrangement  of  the  dwelling-boats  is  simple,  nor 
are  they  as  dirty  as  the  houses.  The  better  sort  are  from  60  to 
80  feet  long,  and  about  15  wide,  divided  into  three  rooms  ; the 
stem  is  sharp,  and  upholds  a platform  on  which,  when  they  are 
moored  alongside,  it  is  easy  to  pass  from  one  boat  to  another. 
Each  one  is  secured  by  ropes  to  large  hawsers,  which  run  along 
the  whole  line  at  the  bow  and  stern.  The  room  nearest  the  bow 
is  a sort  of  porch  to  the  principal  apartment,  which  occupies 
about  half  the  body  of  the  boat ; the  two  are  separated  by  trellis 
panels  or  a bulkhead,  but  the  sternmost  room,  or  sleeping  apart- 
ment, is  carefully  screened.  The  cooking  and  washing  are  per- 
formed on  the  high  framework  astern,  which  is  admirably  con- 
trived by  means  of  furnaces  and  other  conveniences  above,  and 
hatches  and  partitions,  below  deck,  to  serve  all  these  purposes, 
contain  all  the  fuel  and  water  necessary,  and  answer  for  a sleep- 
ing place  for  servants.  By  means  of  awnings  and  frameworks, 
the  top  of  the  boat  also  subserves  many  objects  of  work  or  plea- 
sure. The  windows  are  closed  with  shutters  and  curtains,  and 
the  woodwork  is  fancifully  carved  and  painted,  and  no  incon- 


VARIETY  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  BOATS. 


23 


siderable  expense  bestowed  upon  beautifying  and  furnishing 
them.  The  handsomest  are  called  hwa  ting,  or  flower-boats,  and 
are  let  to  parties  for  pleasure  excursions  on  the  river  ; a large 
proportion  of  them  are  also  the  abodes  of  public  women. 

A large  part  of  the  boats  at  Canton  are  tankia  boats,  about 
25  feet  long,  containing  only  one  room,  and  covered  with  mova- 
ble mats,  so  contrived  as  to  cover  the  whole  vessel  ; they  are 
usually  rowed  by  women,  who  thus  earn  a livelihood,  while  their 
husbands  “ go  out  to  day’s  work.”  In  these  cockboats  whole 
families  are  reared,  live,  and  die  ; the  room  which  serves  for 
passengers  by  day,  is  a bedroom  by  night ; a kitchen  at  one 
time,  a washroom  at  another,  and  a nursery  always.  The  inside 
partitions  are  movable,  and  when  “ house-cleaning  ” is  to  be 
done,  the  boat  is  floated  ashore,  emptied  to  the  skin,  turned 
bottom  up  and  breamed,  the  boards  and  furniture  scrubbed,  and 
the  whole  put  to  rights  and  floated  off,  the  entire  performance 
occupying  two  or  three  hours. 

The  lighters,  or  chopboats,  are  of  various  sizes,  and  some  of 
them  serve  indifferently  for  passage-boats  or  barges.  Those  in 
which  tea,  oil,  and  salt  are  transported  are  about  90  feet  long, 
and  will  carry  three  or  four  hundred  tons.  The  passage-boats 
are  similar  to  the  lighters,  with  the  exception  of  a small  cabin 
for  women  in  the  bow.  The  passengers  bring  their  own  bed- 
ding, and  choose  a place  their  own  size  in  the  main  room,  where 
as  many  sleep  as  can  find  a place,  the  residue  accommodating 
themselves  on  deck.  Many  tens  of  these  boats  arrive  and  depart 
from  Canton  daily,  so  loaded  down  with  passengers  that  they 
have  been  compared  to  floating  ant-hills.  There  are  many  vari- 
eties of  boats  designed  for  travellers,  some  of  them  both  commo- 
dious and  fleet ; a small  kind,  called  hwai  ting,  or  fast-boats,  pass 
up  and  down  the  river  from  the  outer  anchorages  to  Canton. 
On  the  headwaters  of  the  river  Kan,  the  boats  are  of  a peculiar- 
ly light  construction,  with  upper  works  entirely  of  matting,  and 
the  hull  like  a crescent,  and  well  fitted  to  encounter  the  rapids 
and  rocks  which  beset  their  course. 

Besides  the  various  kinds  used  for  houses  and  passengers,  the 
revenue  service  employ  a narrow,  sharp-built  boat,  propelled  by 
forty  or  fifty  rowers,  at  the  rate  of  twelve  or  fourteen  miles  an 
hour.  They  are  armed  with  swivels,  spears,  boarding-hooks,  and 
pikes,  and  lined  on  the  sides  with  a ghastly  array  of  rattan 


24 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


shields  painted  with  tigers’  heads.  The  smugglers  about  Canton 
have  similarly  made  boats,  and  now  and  then  simulate  the  go- 
vernment boats  in  their  appearance,  which,  on  their  part,  often 
compete  with  them  in  smuggling.  Having  no  national  flag, 
each  officer  hoists  the  titular  banner  belonging  to  his  own  office. 
Junks  carry  a great  assortment  of  flags,  but  no  private  vessel 
can  hoist  the  imperial  yellow.  The  flags  and  streamers  are 
triangular  and  square,  of  white,  red,  and  other  colors,  most  of 
them  bearing  inscriptions.  The  number  of  governmental  boats 
and  war  junks,  and  those  used  for  transporting  the  revenue  and 
salt,  is  proportionately  very  small  ; but  if  all  the  craft  found  on 
the  rivers  and  coasts  of  China  be  included,  their  united  tonnage 
probably  exceeds  that  of  all  other  nations  put  together.  The 
dwellers  on  the  water  are  not,  as  has  been  sometimes  said,  de- 
barred from  living  ashore.  A boat  can  be  built  cheaper  than  a 
brick  house,  and  is  equally  comfortable  ; it  is  kept  clean  easier, 
pays  no  ground-rent,  and  is  not  so  obnoxious  to  fire  and  thieves. 
Most  of  them  are  constructed  of  fir  or  pine,  and  cost  from  thirty 
dollars  for  the  tankia,  or  “ egg-houses,”  up  to  three  and  four 
thousand  and  more  for  the  largest  lighters  and  sea  boats.  Few, 
except  the  flower-boats,  are  painted,  being  smeared  with  wood 
oil  ; the  seams  are  caulked  with  bamboo  or  rattan  shavings 
mixed  with  wood  oil,  and  paid  over  with  a cement  of  oil  and  gyp- 
sum. Most  of  the  sailing  craft  are  flat-bottomed,  sharp  forward, 
and  broad  astern,  and  go  about  by  means  of  the  large  rudder 
when  beating  to  windward ; the  stern  is  open,  and  the  rudder 
can  be  hoisted  through  it  in  shallow  water.  The  anchors  are 
of  wood,  with  iron-bound  flukes,  and  held  by  cables  of  coir  or 
bamboo. 

The  junks  are  larger  than  the  river  craft,  but  are  inferior  in 
usefulness.  The  three  masts  are  single  sticks,  stepped  in  a 
framework  and  supported  by  stays,  but  having  no  yards  or 
shrouds.  The  original  model  of  a junk  is  said  to  be  a huge  sea 
monster  ; the  teeth  at  the  cutwater  and  top  of  the  stern  define 
its  mouth,  while  the  long  boards  on  each  side  of  the  bow,  form 
the  armature  of  the  head,  the  eyes  being  painted  on  them  ; 
the  masts  and  sails  are  the  fins,  and  the  high  stern  is  the  tail 
frisking  aloft.  The  cabins  look  more  like  niches  in  a sepulchre 
than  the  accommodations  for  a live  passenger.  The  crew  live 
upon  deck  most  of  the  time,  and  most  of  them  have  an  adven- 


NUMBER  ANI/  CONSTRUCTION  OF  JUNKS. 


25 


ture  of  their  own.  The  hold  has  no  decks,  and  is  divided  into 
watertight  compartments,  a contrivance  that  has  its  advantages 
wh’en  the  vessel  strikes  a rock,  but  prevents  her  carrying  a cargo 
comparable  to  her  size.  The  channel-wale  is  a large  beam,  and 
in  some  junks  projects  so  much  as  to  give  the  sides  a bulging 
appearance.  The  quarter-galleries  and  frames  about  the  stern 
are  high  and  numerous,  and  add  not  a little  to  the  danger  of  the 
vessel  in  heavy  weather.  The  native  commerce  in  junks  is  at 
present  principally  with  Siam,  Singapore,  Borneo,  and  Japan  ; 
with  all  which  countries  it  is  rather  decreasing  than  otherwise, 
for  the  Chinese  merchants  are  learning  that  foreign  vessels  are 
both  safer  and  cheaper.  Most  of  the  larger  junks  trading  with 
Borneo  and  Siam  employ  Portuguese  pilots  ; but  even  with  their 
assistance  and  a favorable  monsoon,  many  are  annually  lost. 
The  number  of  passengers  which  are  stowed  into  these  vessels 
is  very  great,  and  when  wrecked,  a frightful  loss  of  life  fre- 
quently ensues.  In  February,  1822,  Capt.  Pearl,  of  the  English 
ship  Indiana,  coming  through  Gaspar  straits,  fell  in  with  the 
cargo  and  crew  of  a wrecked  junk,  and  saved  198  persons  out 
of  1600  with  whom  she  had  left  Amoy,  whom  he  landed  at 
Pontianak  ; this  humane  act  cost  him  £11,000.* 

Other  architectural  works  of  the  Chinese  deserving  notice  are 
their  bridges  and  honorary  portals.  There  is  good  reason  for 
supposing  that  the  Chinese  have  been  acquainted  with  the  arch 
for  many  ages,  though  they  make  comparatively  little  use  of  it. 
The  gentlemen  attached  to  the  several  embassies  have  given 
many  descriptions  of  the  bridges  they  saw  in  the  course  of  their 
journey  ; some  with  pointed  arches,  some  semicircular,  and 
others  approaching  the  form  of  a horse-shoe,  the  transverse  sec- 
tion of  an  ellipse,  or  even  like  the  Greek  S2,  the  space  being 
widest  at  the  top.  In  some,  the  arches  are  comparatively  very 
high,  for  the  accommodation  of  the  masts  of  boats  ; and  where 
there  are  no  heavy  wains  or  carriages  to  cross  and  jar  the  fabric, 
it  can  safely  be  made  light.  The  balustrades  and  paving  of 
some  of  the  bridges  near  Peking  and  Hangchau  are  of  marble, 
and  adorned  with  statues  of  elephants,  lions,  and  other  animals, 
presenting  in  some  instances  a pleasing  effect,  notwithstanding 
the  rudeness  of  the  sculptures.  In  some  places,  cheaper  struc- 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  149 

3 


VOL.  II. 


26 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


tures  made  of  wood  are  used,  and  at  Ningpo  is  a serviceable 
bridge  of  boats.  The  one  at  Fuhchau  has  suffered  some  dilapi- 
dations since  its  description  by  Du  Halde,  and  a close  examina- 
tion has  shown  it  to  be  built  in  an  inferior  manner.  Some  of 
the  mountain  streams  and  passes  in  the  west  and  north  are 
crossed  by  rope  bridges  of  ingenious  construction. 

Mr.  Lowrie  describes  a bridge  at  Changchau  fu  near  Amoy, 
which  from  its  appearance  was  perhaps  built  or  repaired  by  go- 
vernment contract.  “ It  is  built  on  twenty-five  piles  of  stone 
about  thirty  feet  apart,  and  perhaps  twenty  feet  each  in  height. 
Large  round  beams  are  laid  from  pile  to  pile,  and  smaller  ones 
across  in  the  simplest  and  rudest  manner  ; earth  is  then  placed 
above  these,  and  the  top  paved  with  brick  and  stone.  One  would 
suppose  that  the  work  had  been  assigned  to  a number  of  different 
persons,  and  that  each  one  had  executed  his  part  in  such  manner 
as  best  suited  his  own  fancy,  there  being  no  regularity  whatever 
in  the  paving.  Bricks  and  stone  were  intermingled  in  the  most 
confused  manner,  and  the  railing  was  here  wood  and  there 
stone.  We  were  particularly  struck  with  the  length  of  some  of 
the  granite  stones  used  in  paving  the  bridge  ; one  was  eight, 
another  eleven,  and  three  others  eighteen  paces,  or  about  forty- 
five  feet  long,  and  two  broad.  The  bridge  averaged  eight  or 
ten  feet  in  width,  and  about  half  its  length  on  both  sides  was 
occupied  by  shops.”* 

A causeway  of  ninety  arches  crosses  one  of  the  feeders  of 
the  Grand  canal  near  Hangchau  fu,  but  Chinese  skill  unaided,  is 
unable  to  erect  such  structures  as  those  which  span  the  Thames 
and  Seine.  The  stones  for  the  arch,  in  one  bridge  noticed  by 
Barrow,  were  cut  so  as  to  form  a segment  of  the  arch,  and  at 
each  end  were  morticed  into  transverse  blocks  of  stone  stretch- 
ing across  the  bridge  ; they  decreased  in  length  from  ten  feet  at 
the  spring  of  the  arch  to  three  at  the  vertex,  and  the  summit  stone 
was  morticed  like  the  rest,  into  two  transverse  blocks  lying  next 
to  it.f  The  tenons  were  short,  and  the  disposition  of  the  prin- 
cipal pieces  such  that  a bridge  built  in  this  way  would  not  sup- 
port great  weights  or  endure  many  ages.  The  mode  of  placing 
ihe  pieces  can  be  seen  in  the  cut.  In  other  instances,  the  stones 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XII.,  page  528. 

f Barrow’s  Travels,  page  338 


FABRICATION  OF  BRIDGES  AND  HONORARY  PORTALS. 


27 


Bridge,  showing  the  mode  of  morticing  the  arch. 


are  laid  in  the  same  manner  as  in  Europe ; many  of  the  small 
bridges  over  creeks  and  canals  have  cambered  or  straight  arches. 
According  to  Du  Halde,  the  Chinese  are  the  first  who  ever 
employed  iron  in  bridges,  and  they  still  make  suspension  bridges 
on  the  same  principle  as  that  across  the  Menai  strait.  When 
one  of  these  structures  falls  into  ruins  or  becomes  dangerous,  the 
people  seldom  bestir  themselves  to  repair  the  damage  ; preferring 
to  wait  for  the  government,  they  thereby  lose  the  benefit  of  self- 
dependence  and  action. 

It  is  singular  how  the  term  triumphal  arch  came  to  be  applied 
to  the  pai  lau  or  honorary  portals  or  tablets  of  the  Chinese  ; for 
a triumph  was  perhaps  never  heard  of  in  that  country,  and  these 
structures  are  never  arched ; they  merely  consist  of  a broad 
gateway  flanked  with  two  smaller  ones,  and  looking  more  like  a 
turnpike  gate  with  side-ways  for  foot  passengers  than  a triumphal 
arch.  They  are  scattered  in  great  numbers  over  the  provinces, 
and  are  erected  in  honor  of  distinguished  persons,  or  by  them  to 
commemorate  their  parents,  by  special  favor  from  the  emperor. 
Some  are  put  up  in  honor  of  women  who  have  distinguished 
themselves  for  their  chastity  and  filial  duty,  or  to  widows  who 


28 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


have  refused  a second  marriage.  Permission  to  erect  them  is 
considered  a high  honor,  and  perhaps  the  term  triumphal  was 
given  them  from  this  circumstance.  The  economical  and  peace- 
ful nature  of  such  honors  conferred  upon  distinguished  men  in 
China  is  highly  characteristic ; a man  is  allowed  to  build  a stone 
gateway  to  himself  or  his  parents,  and  the  emperor  furnishes  the 
inscription,  or  perhaps  sends  with  it  a patent  of  nobility.  Their 
general  arrangement  is  exhibited  in  the  title  page  of  this  work, 
but  they  vary  exceedingly  in  their  proportions  and  ornaments; 
the  two  characters  slang  chi  at  the  top,  meaning  “ sacred  will,” 
intimate  that  it  was  erected  by  his  majesty’s  permission. 

Some  of  the  pai  lau  are  elaborately  ornamented  with  carved 
work  and  inscriptions ; and  as  a protection  from  the  weather,  an 
unsightly  thatch  of  tiles  is  placed  over  the  top  which  renders 
them  top-heavy ; when  this  is  omitted,  their  appearance  is  not 
destitute  of  beauty.  They  are  placed  in  conspicuous  places  in 
the  outskirts  of  towns,  and  in  the  streets  before  temples,  or  near 
government  edifices.  Travellers  looking  for  what  they  had  read 
about,  have  sornetimes  strangely  mistaken  the  gateways  at  the 
heads  of  streets,  or  the  entrance  to  temples,  for  the  honorary 
portals.*  Those  built  of  stone  are  fastened  by  mortices  and 
tenons  in  the  same  manner  as  ihe  wooden  ones  ; they  seldom 
exceed  20  or  25  feet  in  height.  The  skill  and  taste  displayed  in 
the  symmetry  and  carving  upon  some  of  them  are  creditable,  but 
as  the  man  in  whose  honor  it  is  erected,  is,  generally  speaking, 
“ the  architect  of  his  own  fame,”  he  prudently  considers  the 
worth  of  that  commodity,  and  makes  an  inferior  structure  to 
what  would  have  been  done  if  his  fellow-subjects,  “ deeply  sen- 
sible of  the  honor,”  had  come  together  to  appoint  a committee, 
and  open  a subscription  list  for  the  purpose. 

The  construction  of  forts  and  towers  presents  little  worthy  of 
observation,  since  there  is  no  other  evidence  of  science  than  what 
the  erection  of  lines  of  massive  stone  wall  displays.  The  port- 
holes are  too  large  for  protection,  and  the  parapet  too  slight  to 
resist  European  cannonading,  but  the  foundations  are  very  solid. 
The  Chinese  idea  of  a fortification  is  to  erect  a wall  along  the 
water’s  edge,  with  embrasures  and  battlements,  and  a plain  wall 
landward  without  port  holes  or  parapets,  inclosing  an  area,  in 


Encyclopaedia  Americana,  Art.  Canton. 


SHAPES  AND  MATERIALS  OF  APPAREL. 


29 


which  a few  houses  are  built  for  the  garrison  and  ammunition. 
Some  of  those  erected  at  the  junction  of  streams  are  pierced  on 
all  sides,  others  are  so  unscientifically  planned  that  the  walls  can 
be  scaled  at  angles  where  not  a single  gun  can  be  brought  to 
bear.  The  towers  are  square  edifices  of  brick  on  a stone  foun- 
dation, forty  feet  square  and  fifty  or  sixty  high,  to  be  entered  by 
ladders  through  a door  halfway  up  the  side.  During  the  late 
war,  batteries  of  sandbags  were  thrown  up  for  defence,  well 
fitted  for  an  extemporaneous  fortification  if  the  troops  had  pos- 
sessed the  courage  to  stand  by  their  guns. 

Dress,  like  other  things,  undergoes  its  changes  in  China,  and 
fashions  alter  there  as  well  as  elsewhere,  but  they  are  not  as 
rapid  or  as  striking  as  among  European  nations.  The  full  cos- 
tume of  both  sexes  is,  in  general  terms  commodious  and  grace- 
ful, combining  all  the  purposes  of  warmth,  beauty,  and  ease, 
which  could  be  desired  ; excepting  always  the  shaven  crown  and 
braided  queue  of  the  men,  and  the  crippled  stumps  of  the  w omen, 
in  both  of  which  fashions  they  have  not  less  outraged  nature 
than  deformed  themselves.  On  this  point  different  tastes  doubt- 
less exist,  and  some  prefer  the  close  fitting  dress  of  Europeans 
to  the  loose  robes  of  Asiatics  ; but  when  one  has  become  a little 
habituated  to  the  latter,  he  is  willing  to  allow  the  force  of  the 
criticism  that  the  European  male  costume  is  “ a mysterious  com- 
bination of  the  inconvenient  and  the  unpicturesque : hot  in  sum- 
mer and  cold  in  winter,  useless  for  either  keeping  off  rain  or  sun, 
stiff  but  not  plain,  bare  without  being  simple,  not  durable,  not 
becoming,  and  not  cheap.”  Unlike  our  own,  the  Chinese  dress 
has  remained  in  its  general  style,  the  same  for  centuries ; and 
garments  of  fur  or  silk  are  handed  down  from  parent  to  child 
without  fear  of  attracting  attention  by  their  antique  shapes.  The 
fabrics  most  worn  are  silk,  cotton,  and  linen  for  summer,  with 
the  addition  of  furs  and  skins  in  winter ; woollen  is  used  spar- 
ingly, and  almost  wholly  of  foreign  manufacture.  Leather  is 
employed  for  the  soles  of  shoes,  felt  for  coarse  caps  and  shoes, 
and  straw  for  summer  caps.  Laborers  out  of  doors  wear  a gro- 
tesque thatch- work  of  leaves  to  shelter  themselves  from  the  rain. 

The  principal  articles  of  dress  are  inner  and  outer  tunics  of 
various  lengths  made  of  cotton  or  silk,  reaching  below  the  loins 
or  to  the  feet ; the  lapel  on  the  right  side  folds  over  the  breast,  and 
fits  close  about  the  neck,  which  is  left  uncovered.  The  sleeves 


30 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


are  much  wider  and  longer  than  the  arms,  have  no  cuffs  or  fac- 
ings, and  in  common  cases  serve  for  pockets.  A Chinese,  instead 
of  saying  “ he  pocketed  the  book,”  would  say  “ he  sleeved  it.” 
In  robes  of  ceremony,  the  end  of  the  sleeve  resembles  a horse’s 
hoof,  and  good  breeding  requires  the  hand  when  sitting  to  be  kept 
in  a position  to  exhibit  it.  In  warm  weather  one  upper  garment 
is  deemed  sufficient ; in  winter  a dozen  can  be  put  on  without 
discommodity,  and  this  number  is  sometimes  actually  seen  upon 
persons  engaged  in  sedentary  employments,  or  on  those  who  sit 
in  the  air.  At  Canton,  undershirts  of  flannel  have  become  com- 
mon among  the  better  sort.  The  lower  limbs  are  comparatively 
slightly  protected ; a pair  of  loose  trousers,  covered  to  the  knee 
by  cloth  stockings,  is  the  usual  summer  garment ; tight  leggings 
are  pulled  over  both  in  winter,  and  attached  to  the  girdle  by  loops  ; 
and  as  the  trousers  are  rather  voluminous  and  the  tunic  short, 
the  excess  shows  behind  from  under  these  leggings  in  a strangely 
unpleasant  manner.  Gentlemen  and  officers  always  wear  a robe 
with  the  skirt  opened  at  the  sides,  which  conceals  this  intermission 
of  the  under  garments. 

The  shoes  are  made  of  silk  or  cotton,  with  thick  felt  soles, 
which  keep  the  feet  dry  and  unchilled  on  the  tiles  or  earthy 
ground  ; so  that  a Chinese  may  be  said  really  to  carry  the  floor 
of  his  house  under  his  feet,  instead  of  laying  it  on  the  ground. 
The  thick  soles  of  the  shoes  render  it  necessary  for  ease  in  walk- 
ing to  round  up  their  ends,  which  constrains  the  toes  into  an 
elevated  position  so  irksome  that  all  go  slipshod  who  conveniently 
can  do  so.  The  cost  of  a cotton  suit  for  a day  laborer  need 
not  exceed  five  dollars,  and  a complete  silken  one,  of  the  gayest 
colors  and  best  materials,  can  easily  be  procured  for  twenty-five 
or  thirty.  Quilted  cotton  garments  are  much  worn,  and  supply 
the  place  of  woollens. 

The  ancient  Chinese  wore  their  hair  long,  and  bound  upon  the 
top  of  the  head,  somewhat  after  the  style  of  the  Lewchewans ; 
and  taking  pride  in  its  glossy  black,  called  themselves  the  Hack- 
haired  race.  But,  in  1627,  while  the  Manchus  were  in  posses- 
sion of  only  Liautung,  they  issued  an  order,  that  all  the  Chinese 
under  them  should  adopt  their  coiffure  on  penalty  of  death,  as  a 
sign  of  allegiance  ; the  fashion  thus  begun  by  compulsion,  is 
now  followed  from  choice.  The  head  is  shaved  to  the  crown, 
and  the  hair  carefully  braided  in  a single  plait  behind.  Labor- 


MODE  OF  DUELING  THE  HAIR 


31 


ers  often  wind  it  about  the  head,  or  roll  it  into  a ball  behind  out 
of  the  way,  when  barebacked  or  at  work.  The  size  of  the  tress 
can  be  enlarged,  by  permitting  an  additional  line  of  hair  to  grow  : 
the  appearance  it  gives  the  wearer  is  thus  described  by  Mr. 
Downing,  and  the  quotation  is  not  an  unfair  specimen  of  the 
remarks  of  travellers  upon  China  : — “ At  the  hotel,  one  of  the 
waiters  was  dressed  in  a peculiar  manner  about  the  head.  In- 
stead of  the  hair  being  shaved  in  front,  he  had  it  cut  round  the 
top  of  the  forehead  about  an  inch  and  a half  in  length.  All  the 
other  part  was  turned  as  usual,  and  plaited  down  the  back.  This 
thin  semicircular  ridge  of  hair  was  then  made  to  stand  bolt  up- 
right, and  as  each  hair  was  separate  and  stiff  as  a bristle,  the 
whole  looked  like  a very  fine  toothed  comb  turned  upwards. 


32 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


This  I imagined  to  be  the  usual  way  of  dressing  the  head  by 
single  unengaged  youths,  and  of  course  must  be  very  attractive.” 
Thus,  what  the  wearer  regarded 'as  ill-looking,  and  wished  to 
braid  it  into  the  tress  as  soon  as  it  was  long  enough,  is  here 
taken  as  a device  for  beautifying  himself  in  the  eyes  of  those  he 
never  saw  or  cared  to  see.  The  people  are  vain  of  a Ions  thick 
queue,  and  now  and  then  play  each  other  tricks  with  it,  as  well  as 


Tricks  played  with  the  queue. 


use  it  as  a ready  means  for  correction  ; but  nothing  irritates 
them  more  than  to  cut  it  off.  The  headdress  in  winter  consists 
of  a silken  skullcap,  or  felt  hood ; most-  men  go  bareheaded 
in  summer,  and  screen  their  eyes  with  a fan.  Outdoor  laborers 
protect  themselves  from  the  heat  with  flat  bamboo  hats  like  um- 
brellas. As  an  illustration  of  the  remark  at  the  beginning  of 
this  chapter,  it  might  be  added,  that  if  they  were  not  worn  on  the 
head,  these  hats  would  be  called  trays  or  baskets,  so  unlike  are 
they  to  the  English  article  of  that  name.  At  Ningpo  and  other 
places,  a common  covering  is  the  conical-shaped  bonnet,  some- 
times with,  and  sometimes  without,  the  fringe. 

The  various  forms,  fabrics,  colors,  and  ornaments  of  the 
dresses  worn  by  the  different  grades  of  officers  are  regulated  by 
sumptuary  laws.  Citron-yellow  distinguishes  the  imperial  fami- 
ly, but  his  majesty’s  apparel  is  less  showy  than  many  of  his 


COSTUME  AND  ORNAMENTS  OF  OFFICERS. 


33 


courtiers,  and  in  all  that  belongs  to  his  own  personal  use  there  is 
an  appearance  of  disregard  of  ornament.  That  which  pecu- 
liarly distinguishes  him  is  a kind  of  baton  or  sceptre  made  of 
jade,  in  such  a shape  that  it  can  lie  upon  the  hand  and  arm 
while  sitting ; the  name  is  ju-t,  signifying  “ as  you  please.” 
Perhaps  the  origin  of  this  name  is  derived  from  a use  similar  to 
that  ascribed  to  the  golden  sceptre  of  the  king  of  Persia,  which 
assured  the  safety  of  the  person  who  came  into  his  presence  un- 
bidden when  it  was  held  out  to  him.  The  five-clawed  dragon  is 
figured  upon  the  dress  and  whatever  pertains  to  the  emperor,  and 
in  certain  things  to  members  of  his  family.  The  monarchs  of 
China  formerly  wore  a sort  of  flat-topped  crown,  shaped  some- 
what like  a Cantab’s  cap,  and  having  a row  of  jewels  pendent 
from  each  side.  The  summer  bonnet  of  officers  is  made  of 
finely  woven  bamboo  or  straw,  covered  with  a red  fringe,  depend- 
ing from  the  vertex  ; in  winter,  it  is  covered  or  trimmed  with  fur. 
A string  of  amber  beads  hanging  over  the  embroidered  robes, 
the  button  on  the  apex  of  the  cap,  the  clumsy  thick-soled  official 
boots,  and  a number  of  pouches  and  fobs  for  containing  chop- 
sticks, fans,  flint,  steel,  and  tobacco,  and  occasionally  a watch  or 
two  hanging  from  the  girdle,  constitute  the  principal  points  of 
difference  between  the  official  and  plebeian  costume.  The  com- 
mon people  are  not  forbidden  the  use  of  the  boots-  and  caps,  but 
the  rosary  and  girdle,  and  especially  the  official  insignia,  they 
may  not  wear.  No  company  of  men  can  appear  more  splendid 
than  a large  party  of  Chinese  officers  in  their  winter  robes,  made 
of  different  colored  crapes,  trimmed  with  rich  furs,  and  brilliant 
with  gay  embroidery.  In  winter  a silk  spencer,  lined  with  fur 
or  quilted,  is  worn  over  the  robe,  and  forms  a handsome  and 
warm  garment.  Lambskins  are  much  used,  and  the  downy 
coats  of  unyeaned  lambs  when  well  curried  bear  a high  price  ; 
these,  with  the  finer  furs,  and  ttie  pelage  of  hares,  cats,  rabbits, 
squirrels,  &c.,  are  worn  by  all  ranks.  Some  years  ago,  a lad 
used  to  parade  the  streets  of  Canton,  who  presented  an  odd  ap- 
pearance in  a long  spencer  made  of  a tiger’s  skin.  The  Chinese 
are  fond  of  strong  contrasts  in  the  color  of  their  garments,  as 
yellow  leggings  showing  underneath  a light  blue  robe,  itself 
set  off  by  a purple  spencer. 

The  dress  of  women  is  likewise  liable  to  few  fluctuations,  and 
all  ranks  can  be  sure  of  a fashion  lasting  as  long  as  a gown.  The 

vol.  n.  3* 


34 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


garments  of  both  sexes  among  the  common  people  resemble  each 
other,  with  a few  distinctions  in  color  and  shape.  The  tunic  or 
gown  is  open  in  front,  buttoning  around  the  neck  and  down  the 
side,  and  reaching  to  the  knee  ; the  trousers  among  the  lower 
orders  are  usually  worn  over  the  stockings,  but  when  fully 
dressed  are  both  covered  by  a petticoat  reaching  to  the  feet. 
Laboring  women,  whose  feet  are  of  the  natural  size,  often  wear 
neither  stockings  nor  shoes,  or  go  slipshod.  Women  seldom 
wear  white,  blue  being  their  favorite  color.  Both  sexes  have  a 
paucity  of  linen  in  their  habiliments,  and  if  not  a shiftless,  the 
Chinese  certainly  are  a shirtless  race ; and  even  such  under- 
garments as  they  have  are  not  too  often  washed.  External 
elegance  poorly  compensates  for  personal  uncleanliness  ; and 
hydrophobia,  or  a dread  of  water,  may  be  said  to  be  a national 
ailment,  especially  in  the  northern  provinces.  If  cleanliness  be 
next  to  godliness,  as  an  old  writer  has  remarked,  it  will  not  sur- 
prise any  one  to  learn  that  the  Chinese,  having  none  of  the  latter, 
have  but  little  of  its  neighbor. 

The  headdress  of  married  females  is  becoming  and  even 
elegant.  The  copious  black  hair  is  bound  upon  the  head  in  an 
oval  formed  knot,  which  is  secured  in  its  place  and  shape  by  a 
broad  pin  placed  lengthwise  on  it,  and  fastened  by  a shorter  one 
thrust  across  and  under  the  bow.  The  hair  is  drawn  back  from 
the  forehead  into  the  knot,  and  elevated  a little  in  front  by  comb- 
ing it  over  the  finger  ; in  order  to  make  it  lie  smooth,  the  locks 
are  drawn  through  resinous  shavings  moistened  in  warm  water, 
which  also  adds  an  additional  gloss,  at  the  cost,  however,  of  serious 
injury  to  the  hair.  In  front  of  the  knot,  a tube  is  often  inserted, 
in  whioh  a sprig  or  bunch  of  flowers  can  be  placed.  The  cus- 
tom of  wearing  natural  flowers  in  the  hair  is  quite  common  in  the 
southern  provinces,  especially  when  dressed  for  a visit.  Mr. 
Stevens  mentions  that  the  animated  appearance  of  the  dense 
crowd  which  assembled  on  the  bridge  and  banks  of  the  river  at 
Fuhchau  when  he  passed,  was  still  more  enlivened  by  the  flowers 
worn  by  the  women.  The  women  at  Peking  supply  the  want  of 
natural  by  artificial  flowers. 

No  caps,  bonnets,  hoods,  or  veils,  are  worn  abroad  ; a light 
bamboo  hat  or  an  umbrella  protects  from  the  sun.  Matrons  wear 
an  embroidered  fillet  on  the  forehead,  an  inch  or  more  wide, 
pointed  between  the  eyebrows,  and  covering  the  front  of  the  hair, 


35 


PROCESSION  OF  LADIES  TO  AN  ANCESTRAL  TEMPLE. 


STYLE  AND  PARTS  OF  FEMALE  DRESS. 


37 


though'  not  concealing  the  baldness  which  often  comes  upon 
them  even  in  middle  age.  This  fillet  is  occasionally  worked 
or  adorned  with  pearls,  a favorite  ornament  with  the  Chinese 
ladies.  The  women  of  Kiangsu  wear  a band  of  fur  around  the 
head,  which  relieves  their  colorless  complexions.  A substitute 
for  bonnets  is  worn  in  Kiangsi,  consisting  of  a flat  piece  of  straw 
trimmed  with  a fringe  of  blue  cloth.  The  hair  of  children  is 
unbound,  but  girls  more  advanced  allow  the  side  locks  to  reach 
to  the  waist,  and  plait  a tress  down  the  neck  ; their  coarse  hair 
does  not  curl  naturally,  nor  do  they  endeavor  to  form  it  into  curls. 
False  hair  is  worn  by  both  sexes;  and  the  men  are  particularly 
fond  of  eking  out  their  queues  to  the  fullest  length. 

The  dress  of  gentlewomen,  like  that  of  their  husbands,  is 
regulated  by  sumptuary  laws,  but  none  of  them  prevent  it  being 
as  splendid  as  rich  silks,  gay  colors,  and  beautiful  embroidery 
can  make  it.  The  neck  of  the  robe  is  protected  by  a stiff  band, 
and  the  sleeves  are  large  and  long,  just  the  contrary  of  the  com- 
mon style,  which  being  short  allows  the  free  use  and  display  of 
the  well  turned  arm.  The  same  embroidery  allowed  to  the 
husband  is  worked  upon  the  breast.  No  belt  or  girdle  is  seen, 
nor  are  stays  used  to  compress  the  waist  to  its  lasting  injury. 
One  of  the  prettiest  parts  of  a Chinese  lady’s  dress  is  the  petti- 
coat, which  appears  about  a foot  below  the  upper  robe  covering 
the  feet.  Each  side  of  the  skirt  is  plaited  about  six  times,  and 
in  front  and  rear  are  two  pieces  of  buckram  to  which  they  are 
attached  ; both  the  plaits  and  front  pieces  are  stiffened  with  wire 
and  lining.  Embroidery  is  worked  upon  the  two  pieces,  and 
upon  the  plaits  within  and  without  in  such  a way  that  as  the 
wearer  steps,  the  action  of  the  feet  alternately  opens  and  shuts 
them  on  each  side,  disclosing  the  part  or  the  whole  of  two  dif- 
ferent colored  figures.  The  plaits  are  so  contrived,  that  they  are 
the  same  when  seen  in  front  or  from  behind,  and  the  effect  is 
more  elegant  when  the  colors  are  well  contrasted.  In  order  to 
produce  this,  the  plaits  close  around  the  feet  in  just  the  contrary 
manner  to  the  wide  skirt  of  western  ladies. 

Ornaments  are  less  worn  by  the  Chinese  than  other  Asiatic 
nations.  The  men  suspend  a string  of  fragrant  beads  from  the 
lapel  of  the  jacket  with  the  tobacco-pouch ; or  occasionally 
wear  seal-rings,  finger-rings,  and  armlets  of  stone  or  glass. 
They  are  by  law  prohibited  from  carrying  weapons  of  any  sort. 


38 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  women  wear  bangles,  bracelets,  and  ear-rings  of  glass,  stone, 
and  metal  ; some  of  these  appendages  are  regarded  more  as 
amulets  to  ward  off  evil  influences  than  mere  ornaments.  Feli- 
citous charms  are  attached  to  the  persons  of  children,  consisting 
of  aromatic  bags,  old  coins,  and  rings.  The  custom  of  wearing 
long  nails  for  which  they  have  been  celebrated  is  practised  by 
comparatively  few  ; and  although  a man  or  woman  with  these 
appendages  would  not  be  deemed  singular,  it  is  not  regarded  as 
in  good  taste  by  well  bred  persons  ; pedantic  scholars  wear  them 
more  than  other  professions,  perhaps  in  order  to  show  that  they 
are  above  manual  labor. 

The  practice  of  compressing  the  feet,  so  far  as  investigation 
has  gone,  is  more  an  inconvenient  than  a dangerous  custom,  for 
among  the  many  thousands  of  patients  who  have  received  aid  in 
the  missionary  hospitals,  few  or  none  have  presented  themselves 
with  ailments  chargeable  to  this  source.  A difference  of  opinion 
exists  respecting  its  origin,  some  accounts  stating  that  it  arose 
from  a desire  to  pattern  the  club  feet  of  a popular  empress, 
others  that  it  gradually  came  into  use  from  the  great  admiration 
and  attempt  to  imitate  delicate  feet,  and  others  that  it  was  im- 
posed by  the  men  to  keep  their  wives  from  gadding  ; the  most 
probable  accounts  do  not  place  its  origin  further  back  than  a.  d. 
950.  It  is  practised  by  all  classes  of  society,  except  among  the 
Tartars,  poor  as  well  as  rich  (for  none  are  so  poor  as  not  to  wish 
to  be  fashionable),  and  so  habituated  does  one  become  to  it  after 
a residence  in  the  country,  that  a well-dressed  Chinese  female 
with  large  feet  seems  denationalized.  There  is  no  certain  age 
at  which  the  operation  is  commenced,  but  in  families  of  easy 
circumstances  the  bandages  are  put  on  as  soon  as  the  child  is 
well  able  to  walk  ; otherwise,  the  feet  are  permitted  to  grow 
until  betrothment,  or  till  seven  or  eight  years  old.  The  whole 
operation  is  performed,  and  the  shape  maintained,  by  bandages, 
which  are  never  permanently  removed  or  covered  by  stockings ; 
iron  or  wooden  shoes  are  not  used,  the  object  being  rather  to 
prevent  the  feet  growing  than  to  make  them  smaller. 

A good  account  of  the  effects  of  this  singular  practice  is  given 
in  a paper  contained  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  written  by  Dr.  Cooper,  detailing  the  appearances  pre- 
sented on  dissection.  The  foot  belonged  to  a person  in  low  life ; 
it  was  5J  inches  long,  which  is  full  eighteen  lines  over  the  most 


MODE  AND  RESULTS  OF  COMPRESSING  THE  FEET. 


39 


fashionable  size.  The  big  toe  was  bent  upward  and  backward 
on  the  foot,  and 
the  second  twisted 
under  it  and  across, 
so  that  the  extre- 
mity reached  the 
inner  edge  of  the 
foot.  The  third 
toe  somewhat  over- 
lapped the  second, 
but  lying  less  ob- 
liquely,, and  reach- 
ing to  the  first  joint 
of  the  great  toe. 

The  ball  of  the  Appearance  of  the  bones  of  a foot  when  compressed, 
great  toe,  much  flattened,  separated  these  two  from  the  fourth  and 
fifth  toes.  The  fourth  toe  stretched  obliquely  inwards  under  the 
foot,  but  less  so  than  the  little  toe,  which  passed  under  and  near- 
ly across  the  foot,  and  had  been  bound  down  so  strongly  as  to 
bend  the  tarsal  bone.  The  dorsum  of  the  foot  was  much  curved, 
and  a deep  fissure  crossed  the  sole  and  separated  the  heel  and 
little  toe,  as  if  the  two  ends  of  the  foot  had  been  forced  together  ; 
this  was  filled  for  three  inches  with  a very  condensed  cellular 
tissue  ; the  instep  was  3^  inches  high.  The  heel  bone,  which 
naturally  forms  a considerable  angle  with  the  ankle,  was  in  a 
direct  line  with  the  leg-bones  ; and  the  heel  itself  was  large  and 
flat,  covered  with  a peculiarly  dense  integument,  and  forming, 
with  the  end  of  the  metatarsal  bone  of  the  great  toe,  and  the  two 
smallest  toes  bent  under  the  sole,  the  three  points  of  taction  in 
walking.  When  the  operation  is  begun  earlier,  and  the  bones 
are  more  flexible,  four  of  the  toes  are  bent  under  the  foot,  and 
only  the  big  toe  laid  upon  the  top.  The  development  of  the 
muscles  of  the  calf  being  checked,  the  leg  tapers  from  the  knee 
downwards,  though  there  is  no  particular  weakness  in  the  limb. 
The  appearance  of  the  deformed  member  when  uncovered  is 
shocking,  crushed  out  of  all  proportion  and  beauty,  and  covered 
with  a wrinkled  and  lifeless  skin  like  that  of  a washerwoman’s 
hand  daily  immersed  in  soapsuds.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable 
how  the  circulation  is  kept  up  in  the  member  without  any  pain 
or  wasting  away  ; for  one  would  think  that  if  any  nutriment  was 


40 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


conveyed  to  it,  there  would  be  a disposition  to  grow  until  matur 
ity  was  attained,  and  consequently  constant  pain  ensue  ; or 
else  that  it  would  be  destroyed  or  mortify  for  want  of  nourish- 
ment. 

The  gait  of  these  victims  of  fashion  is  like  that  exhibited  when 
walking  on  the  heels  ; and  women  walking  alone,  swing  their  arms 
and  step  quick  to  prevent  themselves  falling.  When  it  is  prac- 
ticable, elderly  women  avail  themselves  of  an  umbrella,  or  lean 
upon  the  shoulder  of  a lad  or  maid  for  support, — which  is  literal- 
ly making  a walking-stick  of  them.  The  pain  is  said  to  be  se- 
vere for  about  six  weeks  at  first,  and  a recurrence  now  and  then 
is  felt  in  the  sole  ; but  the  evident  freedom  from  distress  exhi- 
bited in  the  little  girls  who  are  seen  walking  or  playing  in  the 
streets,  proves  that  the  amount  of  suffering,  and  injurious  effects 
upon  life  and  health  resulting  from  this  strange  fashion,  are  per- 
haps not  so  great  as  has  been  imagined.  The  case  is  different 
when  the  girl  is  not  victimized  until  nearly  grown.  The  toes  are 

then  bent  under,  and 
the  foot  forced  into  the 
smallest  compass ; the 
agony  arising  from  the 
constrained  muscles  and 
excoriated  flesh  is  dread, 
ful,  while  too  the  shape 
of  the  member  is,  even  in 
Chinese  eyes,  a burlesque 
upon  the  beautiful  lit- 
tleness so  much  desired. 

The  opinion  prevails  abroad  that  only  the  daughters  of  the 
rich  or  noble  pay  this  price  to  Dame  Fashion.  A greater  propor- 
tion is  indeed  found  among  the  higher  classes,  and,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Canton,  the  unfashionables  form  perhaps  half  of  the  whole  ; 
for  those  who  dwell  in  boats,  and  all  who  in  early  life  may  have 
lived  on  the  water,  all  those  employed,  or  who  wish  to  be,  as 
maid-servants  by  foreigners,  and  slave-girls  sold  in  infancy  for 
domestics,  are  usually  left  in  the  happy,  though  lowlife  freedom 
of  nature.  Foreigners,  on  their  arrival  at  Canton,  seeing  so 
many  women  with  natural  feet  on  the  boats  and  about  the  streets, 
often  express  their  surprise,  and  wonder  where  the  “ little-footed 
celestials  ” they  had  heard  of  were,  the  only  specimens  they  see 


Feet  of  Chinese  Ladies. 


PREVALENCE  OF  THE  PRACTICE. 


41 


being  a few  crones  by  the  wayside  mending  clothes.  The  in. 
land  parts  of  the  country  show  a different  aspect.  All  the  wo- 
men seen  by  Mr.  Stevens  in  Shantung,  and  all  who  came  to  the 
hospital  at  Chusan  in  1841,  to  the  number  of  800  or  1000,  had 
their  feet  more  or  less  cramped  ; and  some  of  them  walked  seve- 
ral miles  to  the  hospital  and  home  again  the  same  day.  Although 
the  operation  may  be  less  painful  than  has  been  represented,  and 
perhaps  not  so  dangerous  as  compressing  the  waist,  the  people  are 
so  much  accustomed  to  it,  that  most  men  would  refuse  to  wed  a 
woman,  though  they  might  take  her  as  a concubine,  whose  feet 
were  of  the  natural  size.  The  shoes 
worn  by  those  who  have  the  kin  lien,  or 
“ golden  lilies,”  are  made  of  red  silk, 
and  prettily  embroidered ; but  no  one 
acquainted  with  Chinese  society  would 
say,  “ that  if  a lady  ever  breaks  through 
the  prohibition  against  displaying  her 
person,  she  presents  her  feet  as  the 
surest  darts  with  which  a lover’s  heart 
can  be  assailed  !”* 

Cosmetics  are  used  by  females  to  the  serious  injury  of  the 
skin.  On  grand  occasions  the  face  is  entirely  bedaubed  with 
white  paint,  and  rouge  is  added  to  the  lips  and  cheeks,  giving  a 
singular  starched  appearance  to  the  physiognomy.  A girl  thus 
beautified  has  no  need  of  a fan  to  hide  her  blushes,  for  they 
cannot  be  seen  through  the  paint,  her  eye  being  the  only  index 
of  emotion.  The  eyebrows  are  blackened  with  charred  sticks, 
and  arched  or  narrowed  to  resemble  a nascent  willow  leaf,  or 
the  moon  when  a day  old.  A belle  is  described  as  having 
cheeks  like  the  almond  flower,  lips  like  a peach’s  bloom,  waist 
as  the  willow  leaf,  eyes  bright  as  dancing  ripples  in  the  sun,  and 
footsteps  like  the  lotus  flower.  Much  time  and  care  is  bestowed, 
or  said  to  be,  by  females  upon  their  toilet,  but  if  those  in  the 
upper  classes  have  anything  like  the  variety  of  domestic  duties 
which  their  sisters  in  common  life  perform,  they  have  little 
leisure  left  for  superfluous  adorning.  Jf  dramas  are  any  index 
of  Chinese  manners  and  occupations,  they  do  not  convey  the 
idea  that  most  of  the  time  of  well  bred  or  high  born  ladies  is 
spent  in  idleness  or  dressing. 

* Murray’s  China,  Vol.  II.,  page  266. 


42 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


At  his  toilet,  a Chinese  uses  a basin  of  tepid  water  and  a cloth 
in  his  ablutions,  and  it  has  been  aptly  remarked  that  he  never 
appears  so  dirty  as  when  trying  to  clean  himself.  Shaving  is 
always  done  by  the  barber,  for  no  man  can  shave  the  top  of  his 
head.  Whiskers  are  never  worn,  even  by  the  very  few  who 
have  them,  and  mustaches  are  not  considered  proper  for  a man 
under  forty.  Pomatum  and  cologne-water  are  unknown.  Snuff 
bottles  and  tobacco  pipes  are  carried  and  used  by  both  sexes, 
the  practice  of  chewing  betel-nut  is  confined  to  the  men,  and  red- 
dens their  teeth,  notwithstanding  the  pains  taken  to  keep  them 
white. 

The  articles  of  food  which  the  Chinese  eat,  and  the  mode  and 
ceremonies  attending  their  feasts,  have  aided  in  giving  them  the 
odd  character  thev  bear  abroad,  though  uncouth  or  unsavory 
viands  hardly  form  an  infinitesimal  portion  of  their  food,  and 
ceremonious  feasts  not  one  in  a thousand  of  their  repasts.  Tra- 
vellers have  so  often  spoken  of  birdsnest  soup,  canine  hams, 
and  grimalkin  fricasees,  rats,  snakes,  worms,  and  other  culinary 
novelties,  served  up  in  equally  strange  ways,  that  their  readers 
get  the  idea  that  these  articles  form  as  large  a proportion  of 
the  food  as  their  description  does  of  the  narrative.  In  general, 
the  diet  of  the  Chinese  is  sufficient  in  variety,  wholesome,  and 
well  cooked,  though  many  of  the  dishes  are  unpalatable  to  a 
European  from  the  vegetable  oil  used  in  their  preparation,  and 
the  alliaceous  plants  introduced  to  savor  them.  In  the  assort- 
ment of  dishes,  Barrow  has  truly  said,  “ that  there  is  a wider 
difference,  perhaps,  between  the  rich  and  the  poor  of  China  than 
in  any  other  country.  That  wealth,  which  if  permitted  would 
be  expended  in  flattering  the  vanity  of  its  possessors,  is  now 
applied  to  the  purchase  of  dainties  to  pamper  the  appetite.” 

The  proportion  of  animal  food  is  probably  smaller  among  the 
Chinese  than  other  nations  on  the  same  latitude,  one  dish  of  fish 
or  flesh,  and  sometimes  both,  being  the  usual  allowance  on  the 
tables  of  the  poor.  Rice,  millet,  and  wheat  furnish  most  of  the 
cereal  food  ; the  first  is  emphatically  the  staff  of  life,  and  consi- 
dered indispensable  all  over  the  country.  Its  long  use  is  indi- 
cated in  the  number  of  terms  employed  to  describe  it,  and  the 
variety  of  allusions  to  it  in  common  expressions.  To  take  a meal 
is  chih  fan,  i.  e.  eat  rice  ; and  the  salutation  equivalent  to  how 
d'ye  ? is  chih  kwofan  ? i.  e.  have  you  eaten  rice  ? The  grain  is  de- 


COMMON  DIET  OF  THE  CHINESE. 


43 


prived  of  its  skin  by  wooden  pestles  worked  in  a mortar  by  levers, 
either  by  a water-wheel,  or  more  commonly  by  oxen  or  men.  It 
is  cleaned  by  rubbing  it  in  an  earthen  dish  scored  on  the  inside, 
and  steamed  in  a shallow  iron  boiler  partly  filled  with  water, 
-over  which  a basket  or  sieve  containing  the  rice  is  supported  on 
a framework ; a wooden  dish  fits  over  the  whole  and  confines  the 
steam.  By  this  process  the  kernels  are  thoroughly  cooked  with- 
out forming  a pasty  mass  as  when  boiled  in  water.  Bread,  vege- 
tables, and  other  articles  are  cooked  in  a similar  manner  ; four  or 
five  sieves,  each  of  them  full,  and  nicely  fitting  into  each  other, 
are  placed  upon  the  boiler,  and  covered  with  a cowl ; in  the  water 
beneath  which  supplies  the  steam,  meats  or  other  things  are  boiled 
at  the  same  time.  Wheat  flour  is  boiled  into  cakes,  dumplings, 
and  other  articles,  but  not  baked  into  bread ; foreigners  at  Can- 
ton are,  however,  supplied  with  loaves  of  a pretty  good  quality ; 
cakes  are  also  made  of  rice  and  millet  flour.  Maize,  buckwheat, 
oats,  and  barley,  are  not  ground,  but  the  grain  is  cooked  in  various 
ways,  alone  or  mixed  with  other  dishes. 

The  Chinese  have  a long  list  of  culinary  vegetables,  and  much 
of  their  agriculture  consists  in  rearing  them.  Leguminous  and 
cruciferous  plants  occupy  the  largest  part  of  the  kitchen  garden ; 
many  sorts  of  peas  and  beans  are  cultivated,  and  the  pods  and 
seeds  of  two  species  of  Dolichos  are  eaten,  and  the  beans  of 
another  species  made  into  soy  by  boiling  and  powdering  the  ker- 
nels, and  then  fermenting  them  with 'yeast,  and  mixing  other 
ingredients  according  to  the  taste  of  the  maker  or  purchaser. 
Another  still  more  common  condiment  made  from  beans,  is  called 
bean  curd  or  bean  jam,  by  boiling  and  grinding  them,  and  mixing 
the  flour  with  water,  gypsum,  and  the  juice  of  yellow  seeds. 
Vegetables  are  mostly  cultivated  to  supply  the  region  where  they 
are  grown,  and  not  for  exportation  further  than  the  nearest  market 
town.  The  quantity  consumed  of  cabbage,  broccoli,  kale,  cau- 
liflower, cress,  colewort,  and  other  plants  of  the  same  family,  is 
enormous ; and  many  modes  are  adopted  for  cooking,  preserving, 
and  improving  them.  The  leaves  and  stems  of  many  plants 
besides  these  are  included  in  the  variety  of  greens,  and  a com- 
plete enumeration  of  them  would  form  a curious  list.  Lettuce, 
sow  thistle  ( Sonchus ),  spinach,  celery,  dandelion,  succory,  sweet 
basil,  ginger,  mustard,  radishes,  artemisia,  amaranthus,  tacca, 
pig  weed  ( Chenopodium ),  purslane,  shepherd’s  purse,  clover, 


44 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


beans,  peas,  and  others  having  no  English  names,  all  furnish  green 
leaves  for  Chinese  tables.  Garlics,  leeks,  scallions,  onions,  and 
chives,  are  eaten  by  all  classes,  perceived  upon  all  persons,  and 
smelt  in  all  rooms  where  they  are  eating  or  cooking.  Carrots, 
gourds,  squashes,  cucumbers,  watermelons,  tomatoes,  turnips, 
radishes,  brinjal,  pumpkins,  okers,  &c.,  are  among  the  list  of 
garden  vegetables  seen  in  the  streets  of  Canton ; the  variety  of 
cucurbitaceous  plants  extends  to  nearly  twenty.  Most  of  the 
vegetables  raised  are  inferior  to  the  same  articles  in  the  markets 
of  western  cities,  where  science  has  improved  their  size  or  flavor. 
Several  aquatic  plants  increase  the  list,  among  which  the  nelum- 
bium  covers  extensive  marshes  in  the  eastern  and  northern 
provinces,  otherwise  unsightly  and  barren.  The  root  is  two  or 
three  feet  long,  and  pierced  longitudinally  with  several  holes ; 
when  boiled  it  is  of  a yellowish  color  and  sweetish  taste  not  un- 
like a turnip.  Taro  is  used  less  than  the  nelumbium,  and  so  are 
the  water-caltrops  and  water-chestnuts.  The  taste  of  water-cal- 
trops when  boiled  resembles  that  of  new  cheese ; water-chest- 
nuts are  the  round  roots  of  a kind  of  sedge,  and  resemble  that 
fruit  in  color  more  than  in  taste,  which  is  mealy  and  crisp.  The 
sweet  potatoe  is  the  most  common  tuber,  for  although  the  Irish 
potatoe  has  been  cultivated  about  Canton  and  Whampoa  for 
scores  of  years,  it  has  not  become  a common  vegetable  among 
the  people. 

The  catalogue  of  fruits  comprises  most  of  those  occurring  else- 
where in  the  tropic  and  temperate  zones,  but  their  quality  is  infe- 
rior. This  is  particularly  the  case  with  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
and  plums,  none  of  which  have  received  the  care  or  attained 
the  flavor  given  to  them  in  Europe.  The  pears  are  large  and 
juicy,  sometimes  weighing  8 or  10  lbs.,  but  remarkably  tasteless 
and  coarse  ; the  apples  are  still  worse,  being  dry  and  spongy. 
The  peaches,  plums,  quinces,  and  apricots,  are  comparatively 
better  ; there  are  four  or  five  varieties  of  the  first,  one  of  them 
found  at  Shanghai  is  ten  inches  and  more  in  circumference. 
Cherries  are  almost  unknown.  The  orange  is  the  most  common 
fruit  at  the  south,  and  the  baskets,  stalls,  and  piles  of  this  golden 
fruit,  mixed  with  and  heightened  by  contrast  with  other  fruits 
and  green  vegetables,  which  line  the  streets  of  Canton  and 
Amoy  in  winter,  present  a beautiful  sight.  Ten  or  twelve  dis- 
tinct species  of  the  Citrus  grow  in  China,  including  the  lemon. 


VEGETABLES,  FRUITS,  AND  NUTS  USED  AS  FOOD.  45 

pumelo,  and  citron,  and  many  varieties  of  the  orange.  The 
most  delicious  is  the  chu-sha  kih,  or  mandarin  orange ; the  skin 
is  of  a cinnabar  red  color,  and  adheres  to  the  pulp  by  a few  loose 
fibres.  The  citron  is  more  prized  for  its  fragrance  than  taste, 
and  the  thick  rind  is  made  more  abundant  by  cutting  the  skin 
into  strips  when  growing,  each  of  which  becomes  a roundish  end 
like  a finger,  whence  the  name  of  Full  shau,  or  Budha’s  hand, 
given  it.  It  will  remain  uncorrupt  for  two  or  three  months, 
diffusing  an  agreeable  perfume. 

Chapter  VI.  contains  brief  notices  of  other  fruits.  The  shaddock, 
plantain,  and  persimmon,  are  common,  and  several  varieties  are 
enumerated  of  each  ; the  plantain  is  eaten  raw  and  cooked,  and 
forms  no  inconsiderable  item  in  the  subsistence  of  the  poor. 
The  pomegranate,  carambola  or  tree  gooseberry,  mango,  custard- 
apple,  pine-apple,  rose-apple,  breadfruit,  fig,  guava,  and  olive, 
some  of  them  as  good  and  others  inferior  to  what  are  found  in 
other  countries,  increase  the  list.  The  whampe,  HcM,  lungan,  or 
“ dragon’s  eyes,”  and  loquat,  are  the  native  names  of  four  indi- 
genous fruits  at  Canton.  The  first  resembles  a grape  in  size, 
and  a gooseberry  in  taste ; the  loquat  ( Eriobotrya ) is  a kind  of 
medlar.  The  lichi  looks  like  a strawberry  in  size  and  shape  ; 
the  tough,  rough  red  skin  incloses  a sweet  watery  pulp  of  a 
whitish  color  surrounding  a hard  seed.  Grapes  are  plenty  and 
tolerably  good,  but  the  Chinese  have  not  yet  ascertained  that  they 
contain  wine  ; at  least  none  is  made. 

Chestnuts,  walnuts,  ground-nuts,  filberts,  almonds,  and  the 
seeds  of  the  Salisburia  and  Nelumbium,  are  the  most  common 
nuts.  The  Chinese  date  is  a species  of  Rhamnus,  and  has  a 
sweetish,  pleasant  flesh ; the  olive  is  a species  of  Cannarium,  and 
used  chiefly  as  a pickle  : the  names  of  both  these  fruits  are  given 
them  chiefly  because  of  a partial  resemblance  to  the  western  sorts, 
for  neither  the  proper  date  nor  olive  grows  in  China.  Almost 
the  only  berry  at  Canton  is  the  mulberry  ; a pleasant  sweetmeat  is 
made  from  the  seeds  of  the  Arbutus  which  tastes  like  cranberry. 
The  currant,  gooseberry,  blackberry,  raspberry,  and  strawberry, 
are  not  seen  in  Canton,  though  the  latter  has  been  found  atFuhchau. 

Preserved  fruits  are  common  among  all  classes,  and  the  list  of 
sweetmeats  and  delicacies  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  many 
roots,  some  of  which  are  preserved  in  syrup  and  others  as  comfits. 
Ginger,  nelumbium  roots,  bamboo  shoots,  the  common  potatoe,  and 


46 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


other  vegetables  are  prepared  in  this  way,  and  form  articles  of 
export  as  well  as  domestic  consumption.  Pickles  of  an  inferior 
quality  are  abundant,  of  which  the  natives  consume  enormous 
quantities,  especially  cabbages  and  onions,  but  foreigners  consider 
them  detestable.  The  Chinese  eat  but  few  spices  ; pepper  is  used 
medicinally,  and  mustard  as  greens. 

Oils  and  fats  are  in  universal  use  for  cooking ; crude  lard  or 
pork  fat,  castor  oil,  and  that  expressed  from  two  species  of  Ca- 
mellia and  the  ground-nut,  are  all  employed  for  domestic  and 
culinary  purposes.  The  Chinese  use  little  from  the  dairy, 
as  milk,  butter,  or  cheese ; the  very  small  number  of  cattle 
raised  in  the  country,  and  the  consequent  dearness  of  these 
articles,  may  have  caused  them  to  fall  into  disuse,  for  they  are  all 
common  among  the  Manchus  and  Mongols.  A Chinese  table 
seems  ill  furnished  to  a foreigner,  when  he  sees  neither  bread, 
butter,  nor  milk  upon  it,  and  if  he  express  his  disrelish  of  the  oily 
dishes  or  alliaceous  stews  before  him,  the  Chinese  thinks  that  he 
distils  a sufficient  retort  to  his  want  of  taste,  when  he  answers, 
“ You  eat  cheese,  and  sometimes  when  it  can  almost  walk.” 
Milk  is  used  a little,  and  no  one  who  has  lived  in  Canton  can 
forget  the  prolonged  mournful  cry  ngau  naif  of  the  men  hawk- 
ing it  about  the  streets  late  at  night.  Women’s  milk  is  sold  in 
the  streets  of  Ningpo  and  elsewhere,  for  the  sustenance  of  infants 
and  superannuated  people,  the  idea  being  prevalent  that  it  is 
peculiarly  nourishing  to  aged  persons. 

Sugar  is  granulated  and  crystallized,  and  the  cane  in  small 
sticks  is  hawked  about  the  streets  warm  for  chewing,  and  coarse 
molasses  syrup  is  peddled  by  the  wayside,  as  an  accompaniment 
to  bean-curd.  The  tobacco  is  weaker  than  the  American  plant ; 
it  is  smoked  and  not  chewed,  and  but  little  is  made  into  cigars  ; 
snuff  is  largely  used.  The  betel-nut  is  a common  masticatory, 
consisting  of  a slice  of  the  areca-nut  and  the  fresh  leaf  of  the 
betel-pepper  with  a little  lime  rubbed  on  it.  The  common  beverages 
of  the  Chinese  are  tea  and  whiskey,  both  of  which  are  drunk 
warm  ; cold  water  is  not  often  drunk,  as  cold  liquids  of  any  kind 
are  considered  unwholesome.  The  constant  practice  of  boiling 
water  before  drinking  it,  in  preparing  tea,  doubtless  tends  to 
purify  it,  and  make  it  less  noxious,  when  the  people  are  not  par- 
ticular as  to  its  sources.  Coffee,  chocolate,  and  cocoa  are  un- 
known  ; and  also  beer,  cider,  porter,  wine,  and  brandv. 


RINDS  OF  ANIMAL  FOOD  EATEN. 


47 


The  meats  consumed  by  the  Chinese  comprise  perhaps  a 
greater  variety  than  are  used  in  other  countries ; while,  at  the 
same  time,  very  little  land  is  appropriated  to  rearing  animals  for 
food.  Beef  is  not  a common  meat,  nor  seen  upon  the  tables  of 
the  natives,  chiefly  from  a Budhistic  prejudice  against  killing  so 
useful  an  animal.  Mutton  is  both  rare  and  dear,  and  sheep  have 
profitably  been  brought  from  Sydney  to  Canton.  The  beef  of  the 
buffalo,  and  the  mutton  of  the  goat,  are  still  less  used ; pork  is 
consumed  more  than  all  other  kinds,  and  no  meat  can  be  raised 
so  economically.  Hardly  a family  can  be  found  so  poor  as  not 
to  be  able  to  possess  a pig,  and  they  are  kept  even  on  the  boats 
and  rafts,  to  consume  what  others  leave  till  they  are  themselves 
devoured.  Fresh  pork  probably  constitutes  more  than  half  of  the 
meat  eaten  by  the  Chinese  ; hams  are  tolerably  plenty,  but  corned 
or  salt  pork  is  little  used.  Horseflesh  and  venison  are  now  and 
then  seen,  and  probably  also  the  flesh  of  the  camel  in  those  parts 
where  he  is  reared,  but  in  passing  through  the  markets  and  streets, 
pork,  fowls,  and  fish  are  the  viands  which  everywhere  meet  the 
eye  ; the  rest  form  the  exception. 

A few  kittens  and  puppies  are  sold  alive  in  cages,  mewing  and 
yelping  as  if  in  anticipation  of  their  fate,  or  from  pain  caused  by 
the  pinching  and  handling  they  receive  at  the  hands  of  dissatis- 
fied customers.  Those  intended  for  the  table  are  usually  reared 
upon  rice,  so  that  if  the  nature  of  their  food  be  considered,  their 
flesh  is  far  more  cleanly  than  that  of  the  omnivorous  hog ; few 
articles  of  food  have,  however,  been  so  identified  with  the  tastes 
of  a people  as  kittens  and  puppies,  rats  and  snails,  have  with  the 
Chinese.  The  school  geographies  in  the  United  States  usually 
contain  pictures  of  a market-man  carrying  baskets  holding  these 
unfortunate  victims  of  a perverse  taste  (as  we  think),  or  else  a 
string  of  rats  and  mice  hanging  by  their  tails  to  a stick  across  his 
shoulders,  which  almost  necessarily  convey  the  idea  that  sucli 
things  form  the  usual  food  of  the  people.  Travellers  hear  be- 
forehand that  the  Chinese  devour  everything,  and  when  they 
arrive  in  the  country  straightway  inquire  if  these  animals  are 
eaten,  and  hearing  that  such  is  the  case  perpetuate  the  idea  that 
they  form  the  common  articles  of  food.  However  commonly  kit- 
tens and  puppies  may  be  exposed  for  sale,  the  writer  never  saw 
rats  or  mice  in  the  market  during  a residence  of  twelve  years 
there,  and  heard  of  but  one  gentleman  who  had  seen  them  j in 


48 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


fact,  they  are  not  so  easily  caught  as  to  be  either  common  or 
cheap.  He  once  asked  a native  if  he  or  his  countrymen  ever 
served  up  lau-shu  tang,  or  rat-soup,  on  their  tables ; who  replied 
that  he  had  never  seen  or  eaten  it,  and  added,  “ Those  who  do 
use  it  should  mix  cheese  with  it,  that  the  mess  might  serve  for 
us  both.”  Rats  and  mice  are  no  doubt  eaten  now  and  then,  and 
so  are  many  other  undesirable  things  by  those  whom  want  com- 
pels to  take  what  they  can  get,  but  to  put  these  and  other  strange 
eatables  in  the  front  of  the  list,  gives  a distorted  idea  of  the  every 
day  food  of  the  people. 

Frogs  are  eaten  by  all  classes.  They  are  caught  in  a curious 
manner  by  tying  a young  and  tender  jumper,  just  emerged  from 
tadpole  life,  by  the  waist  to  a fish-line,  and  bobbing  him  up  and 
down  in  the  grass  and  grain  of  a rice  field,  where  the  old 
croakers  are  wont  to  harbor.  As  soon  as  one  sees  the  young 
frog,  sprawling  and  squirming  in  the  grass,  he  makes  a plunge 
at  him  and  swallows  him  whole,  whereupon  he  is  immediately 
conveyed  to  the  frog-fisher’s  basket,  losing  his  life,  liberty,  and 
lunch  together,  for  the  bait  is  rescued  from  his  maw,  and  used 
again  as  long  as  life  lasts. 

Next  to  pork,  poultry  is  the  most  common  meat,  including 
chickens,  geese,  and  ducks ; of  these  three,  the  geese  are  the 
best  flavored,  the  flesh  of  the  fowls  and  ducks  being  stringy  and 
tasteless.  All  are  reared  cheaply,  and  supply  a large  portion  of 
the  poor  with  the  principal  meat  they  eat.  The  eggs  of  chickens 
and  ducks  are  hatched  artificially,  and  every  visitor  to  Canton 
remembers  the  duck-boats,  in  whicn  those  birds  are  hatched  and 
reared,  and  carried  up  and  down  the  river  seeking  for  pasture 
along  its  muddy  banks.  Hatching  ducks  and  poultry  is  prac- 
tised in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Sheds  are  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose, in  which  are  a number  of  baskets  well  plastered  with  mud, 
each  one  so  placed  over  a fireplace  that  the  heat  shall  be  equally 
conveyed  to  the  eggs  through  the  tile  in  its  bottom,  and  retained 
in  it  by  a close  cover.  When  the  eggs  are  brought,  a layer  is  put 
into  the  bottom  of  each  basket,  and  the  fire  kindled  underneath, 
a uniform  heat  of  about  100°  F.  being  maintained  for  four  or  five 
days.  They  are  then  carefully  taken  out,  and  looked  through  in 
a strong  light  to  separate  the  addled  ones ; the  others  are  replaced 
in  the  baskets,  and  the  heat  kept  up  for  ten  days  longer,  when 
they  are  all  placed  upon  shelves  in  the  centre  of  the  shed,  and 


MODE  OF  HATCHING  DUCKS’  EGGS. 


40 


covered  with  cotton  and  felt  for  fourteen  days.  At  the  end  of 
the  28th  day,  the  ducklings  break  their  shells,  and  are  sold  to 
persons  whose  business  is  to  rear  them.  Pigeons  are  raised  to 
some  extent ; their  eggs  form  an  ingredient  in  soups.  Wild  and 
water  fowl  are  caught  in  nets  or  killed  by  iron  shot ; the  wild 
duck,  teal,  grebe,  wild  goose,  plover,  snipe,  heron,  egret,  par- 
tridge, pheasant,  and  ortolan  or  rice  bird,  are  all  procurable  at 
Canton ; and  the  list  could  doubtless  be  increased  elsewhere. 

If  the  Chinese  eat  many  sorts  of  birds  and  beasts  rejected 
by  others,  they  are  still  more  omnivorous  with  respect  to  aquatic 
productions ; here  nothing  comes  amiss ; all  waters  are  vexed 
with  their  fisheries.  Their  nets  and  various  contrivances  for 
capturing  fish  display  great  ingenuity,  and  most  of  them  are 
admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose.  Rivers,  creeks,  and  stagnant 
pools,  the  great  ocean  and  the  little  tank,  mountain  lakes  and 
garden  ponds,  all  furnish  their  quota  to  the  sustenance  of  man, 
and  tend  to  explain,  in  a great  degree,  the  dense  population.  The 
right  to  fish  in  running  streams  and  natural  waters  is  open  to 
all,  whiie  artificial  reservoirs,  as  ponds,  pools,  tanks,  tubs,  &c., 
are  brought  into  available  use  ; even  rice  grounds  are  turned 
into  fishponds  in  winter,  if  they  will  thereby  afford  a more  pro- 
fitable return.  The  inhabitants  of  the  water  are  killed  with  the 
spear,  caught  with  the  hook,  scraped  up  by  the  dredge,  ensnared 
by  traps,  and  captured  by  nets ; they  are  decoyed  into  boats  by 
painted  boards,  and  frightened  into  nets  by  noisy  ones,  taken  out 
of  the  water  by  lifting  nets,  and  dived  for  into  it  by  birds  ; in 
short,  every  possible  way  of  catching  or  rearing  fish  is  practised 
among  the  Chinese.  Tanks,  with  water  running  through  them, 
are  placed  in  the  streets,  where  carp  or  salmon  are  reared 
until  they  become  so  large  they  can  hardly  turn  round  in  their 
pens  ; and  eels  and  water  snakes  o every  color  and  size  are  fed 
in  tubs  and  jars  until  customers  carry  them  off. 

King  crabs,  cuttle  fish,  sharks,  rays,  gobies,  tortoises,  turtles, 
crabs,  prawns,  crawfish,  and  shrimps,  are  all  consumed.  The 
best  fish  in  the  Canton  market  are  the  garoupa  or  rock  cod, 
pomfret,  sole,  mackerel,  bynni  carp  or  mango  fish,  and  the 
polynemus  (commonly  called  salmon).  Carp  and  tench  of  many 
kinds,  herring,  shad,  perch,  mullet,  and  bream,  with  others  less 
usual  at  the  west,  are  found  in  great  abundance.  They  are  usually 
eaten  fresh,  or  merely  opened  and  dried  in  the  sun,  as  stockfish } 

VOL.  II.  4 


50 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


for  salt  fish  require  too  much  salt,  and  are  too  expensive  for  the 
poorest.  Both  salt  and  freshwater  shell-fish  are  abundant.  The 
oysters  are  not  so  large  and  well  flavored  as  those  reared  in  this 
country  ; the  crabs  and  prawns  are  excellent,  but  the  clams, 
mussels,  and  other  freshwater  species  are  less  palatable.  Insect 
food  is  confined  to  locusts  and  grasshoppers,  ground  grubs  and 
silkworms;  the  latter  aje  fried  to  a crisp  when  cooked.  These 
and  the  water  snakes  are  decidedly  the  most  repulsive  things  the 
Chinese  eat. 

Many  articles  of  food  are  sought  after  by  this  sensual  people 
for  their  supposed  aphrodisiac  qualities,  and  most  of  the  singular 
productions  brought  from  abroad  for  food  are  of  this  nature. 
The  famous  birdsnest  soup  is  prepared  from  the  nest  of  a swallow 
(j Hirundo  esculenta)  found  in  caves  and  damp  places  in  some 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  ; the  bird  macerates  the  ma- 
terial of  her  nest  from  seaweed  and  other  marine  substances  with 
her  bill,  and  constructs  it  by  drawing  the  food  out  in  fibres  and 
attaching  them  to  the  rock,  from  whence  the  natives  of  those 
islands  collect  them.  The  nests  are  carefully  cleaned  and 
stewed  with  pigeons’  eggs,  spicery,  and  other  ingredients  into  a 
soup  ; when  cooked,  they  resemble  isinglass,  and  the  dish  de- 
pends upon  sauces  and  seasoning  for  most  of  its  taste.  The 
biche-de-mer,  tripang,  or  sea-slug,  is  a marine  substance  procured 
from  the  Polynesian  islands  ; it  is  sought  after  under  the  same 
idea  of  its  invigorating  qualities,  and  being  cheaper  than  the 
birdsnest  is  a more  common  dish  ; when  cooked,  it  resembles 
pork-rind  in  appearance  and  taste.  Sharks’  fins  and  fishmaws 
are  imported  and  boiled  into  gelatinous  soups  that  are  nourishing 
and  palatable  ; and  the  sinews,  tongues,  palates,  udders,  and 
other  parts  of  different  animals  arc  sought  after  as  delicacies. 
A large  proportion  of  the  numerous  made  dishes  gfeen  at  great 
feasts  among  the  Chinese  consists  of  such  odd  articles,  most  of 
which  are  supposed  to  possess  some  peculiar  strengthening 
quality. 

The  art  of  cooking  has  not  reached  any  high  degree  of  per- 
fection among  the  Chinese,  consisting  chiefly  of  stews  of  various 
kinds,  in  which  garlic  and  grease  are  more  abundant  than  pepper 
and  salt.  Meats  and  vegetables  are  cooked  by  boiling  and  fry- 
ing ; but  roast  or  baked  dishes  are  not  common,  owing  partly 
to  the  greater  amount  of  fuel  required,  and  the  idea  that  they 


UTENSILS  AND  MODES  OF  COOKING. 


51 


are  more  heating  than  moist  dishes.  The  articles  of  kitchen 
furniture  in  a dwelling  are  few  and  simple  ; an  iron  boiler, 
shaped  like  the  segment  of  a sphere,  for  stewing  or  frying,  a 
portable  earthen  furnace,  and  two  or  three  different  shaped  earth- 
enware pots  for  boiling  water  or  vegetables,  constitute  the  whole 
establishment  of  thousands  of  families.  A few  other  utensils,  as 
tongs,  ladles,  forks,  sieves,  mills,  &c.,  are  used  to  a greater  or 
less  extent ; though  the  variety  is  quite  commensurate  with  the 
simple  cookery.  Both  meats  and  vegetables,  previously  hashed 
into  mouthfuls,  are  stewed  or  fried  in  oil  or  fat ; they  are  not 
cooked  in  large  joints  or  steaks  for  the-  table  of  a household,  but 
hogs  are  baked  whole  for  sacrifices  and  for  sale  in  the  cookshops, 
and  when  eaten  are  hashed  and  fried  again.  Cutting  the  food 
into  small  pieces  secures  its  thorough  cooking  with  less  fuel 
than  it  would  otherwise  require,  and  is  moreover  indispensable 
for  eating  it  with  chopsticks.  Two  or  three  vegetables  are 
often  boiled  together ; meat  soups  are  seldom  seen,  and  the 
immense  variety  of  puddings,  pastry,  cakes,  pies,  custards, 
ragouts,  creams,  &c.,  made  in  western  lands  is  almost  unknown 
in  China. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


Social  Life  among  the  Chinese. 

The  preceding  chapter,  in  a measure,  exhibits  the  attainments 
the  Chinese  have  reached  in  the  comforts  and  elegances  of  liv- 
ing. The  terms  comfort  and  elegance  are,  however,  as  tests  of 
civilization  so  comparative,  that  it  is  rather  difficult  to  define 
them  ; for  the  notions  an  Englishman,  an  Egyptian,  and  a Chinese, 
severally  have  of  them  in  the  furniture  and  arrangement  of  thei; 
houses,  are  almost  as  unlike  as  their  languages.  If  Fisher's 
Views  of  China  be  taken  as  a guide,  one  can  easily  believe  that 
the  Chinese  need  little  from  abroad  to  better  their  condition  in 
these  particulars  ; while,  if  he  listen  to  the  descriptions  of  some 
persons  who  have  resided  among  them,  he  will  think  they  pos- 
sess neither  comfort  in  their  houses,  civility  in  their  manners,  nor 
cleanliness  in  their  persons.  In  passing  to  an  account  of  their 
social  life,  this  variety  of  tastes  should  not  be  overlooked ; and 
if  some  points  appear  objectionable  when  taken  alone,  a little 
further  examination  will  perhaps  show  that  they  form  part  of  a 
system  which  requires  complete  reconstruction  before  they  could 
be  happily  and  safely  altered. 

The  observations  of  a foreigner  upon  Chinese  society  are 
likely  to  be  modified  not  a little  by  his  own  feelings,  and  the 
way  in  which  he  has  been  treated  by  them ; and  their  behavior 
to  him  might  be  very  unlike  what  would  be  deemed  good  breed- 
ing among  themselves.  If  a Chinese  feared  or  expected  some- 
thing from  a foreigner,  he  might  act  towards  him  more  politely 
than  if  the  contrary  was  the  case  ; on  one  hand  better,  on  the 
other,  worse,  than  he  would  towards  one  of  his  own  countrymen 
in  like  circumstances.  In  doing  so,  it  may  be  remarked,  by  the 
way,  that  he  would  only  imitate  the  conduct  of  some  of  the 
foreigners  who  visit  China,  and  whose  coarse  remarks,  rude  ac- 
tions, and  general  supercilious  conduct  towards  the  natives,  ill 
comport  with  their  superior  civilization  and  advantages.  One 


FEATURES  AND  PROFESSIONS  IN  CHINESE  SOCIETY. 


53 


who  looked  at  the  matter  reasonably  would  not  expect  much 
true  politeness  among  a people  whose  conceit  and  ignorance, 
selfishness  and  hauteur,  were  nearly  equal ; nor  be  surprised  to 
find  the  intercourse  between  the  extremes  of  society  present  a 
strange  mixture  of  brutality  and  commiseration,  formality  and 
disdain.  The  separation  of  the  sexes  modifies  and  debases  the 
amusements,  even  of  the  most  moral,  leads  the  men  to  spend 
their  time  in  gambling,  devote  it  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  or 
dawdle  it  away  when  the  demands  of  business,  study,  or  labor, 
do  not  arouse  them.  Political  parties,  which  exert  so  powerful 
an  influence  upon  the  conduct  of  men  in  Christian  countries, 
leading  them  to  unite  and  communicate  with  each  other  for  the 
purpose  of  watching  or  resisting  the  acts  of  government,  do  not 
exist ; and  where  there  is  a general  want  of  confidence,  such 
institutions  as  insurance  companies,  banks,  corporate  bodies, 
and  associations  of  any  kind,  in  which  persons  unite  their  funds 
and  efforts  to  accomplish  an  object,  are  not  to  be  expected ; they 
do  not  exist  in  China,  nor  did  they  in  Rome  or  ancient  Europ-,. 
Nor  will  any  one  expect  to  hear  that  literary  societies,  or  volun- 
tary philanthropic  associations  are  common.  These,  as  they  are 
found  in  the  west,  are  the  products  of  Christianity  alone,  though 
a few  charitable  institutions  are  met  with.  The  legal  profession, 
as  distinct  from  the  possession  of  office,  is  not  an  occupation  in 
which  learned  men  can  obtain  an  honorable  livelihood ; the 
priesthood  is  confined  to  monasteries  and  temples,  and  its  mem- 
bers do  not  enter  into  society  ; while  the  practice  of  medicine  is 
so  frequently  taken  up  by  persons  possessed  of  little  experience 
and  less  knowledge,  that  the  few  intelligent  practitioners  are  not 
enough  to  redeem  the  class.  These  three  learned  professions, 
which  elsewhere  do  so  much  to  elevate  society  and  guide  public 
opinion,  being  wanting,  educated  men  have  no  stimulus  to  draw 
them  out  into  independent  action  ; and  the  competition  for  literary 
degrees  and  official  rank,  the  eager  pursuit  of  trade,  or  the  dull 
routine  of  mechanical  and  agricultural  labor,  form  the  leading 
avocations.  Unacquainted  with  the  intellectual  enjoyments  found 
in  books  and  the  conversation  of  learned  men,  and  having  no 
taste  for  them,  deprived  of  general  and  virtuous  female  society, 
and  suspicious  of  all  around  him,  the  Chinese  resorts  to  the  dice- 
box,  the  opium  pipe,  or  the  brothel,  for  his  pleasures,— rthough 
even  there  with  a loss  of  character. 


64 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM 


The  separation  of  the  sexes  has  many  bad  results,  only  par- 
tially  compensated  by  some  conservative  ones.  Woman  owes 
her  present  elevation  at  the  west  to  Christianity,  not  only  in  the 
degree  of  respect,  support,  freedom  from  servile  labor,  and  edu- 
cation, she  receives,  but  also  in  the  reflex  influences  she  exerts 
of  a purifying,  harmonizing,  and  elevating  character.  Where 
the  requirements  of  the  gospel  are  unacknowledged,  her  rights 
are  more  or  less  disregarded,  and  if  she  become  as  debased  as 
the  men,  she  can  exert  little  good  influence  even  upon  her  own 
family,  and  still  less  upon  the  community.  General  mixed 
society  can  never  be  maintained  with  pleasure  unless  the  better 
parts  of  human  nature  have  the  acknowledged  preeminence,  and 
where  she,  who  imparts  to  it  all  its  gracefulness  and  purity,  is 
herself  uneducated,  unpolished,  and  immodest,  the  common  sense 
of  mankind  sees  its  impropriety.  By  advocating  the  separation 
of  the  sexes,  legislators  and  moralists  in  China  have  acted  as 
they  best  could  in  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  and  by  prevent- 
ing the  evils  beyond  their  remedy,  provided  the  best  safeguards 
they  could  against  general  corruption.  In  her  own  domestic 
circle,  a Chinese  female,  in  the  character  and  duties  of  daughter, 
wife,  or  mother,  finds  as  much  employment,  and  probably  as 
many  enjoyments,  as  the  nature  of  her  training  has  fitted  her 
for.  She  does  not  hold  her  proper  place  in  society,  chiefly  be- 
cause she  has  never  been  taught  its  duties  or  exercised  its  privi- 
leges. 

In  ordinary  cases,  strict  separation  prevails  between  the  male 
and  female  branches  of  a household  ; not  only  the  servants,  but 
even  brothers  and  sisters  do  not  freely  associate  after  the  boys 
commence  their  studies.  At  this  period  of  life,  or  even  earlier, 
an  anxious  task  devolves  upon  parents,  which  is  to  find  suitable 
partners  for  their  children.  Betrothment  is  entirely  in  their 
hands,  and  is  conducted  through  the  medium  of  a class  of  persons 
called  mei-jin  or  go-betweens,  who  are  expected  to  be  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  character  and  circumstances  of  the  parties. 
Mothers  sometimes  contract  their  unborn  progeny  on  the  sole 
contingency  of  a difference  of  sex,  but  the  usual  age  of  forming 
these  engagements  is  ten,  twelve,  or  later,  experience  having 
shown  that  the  casualties  attending  it  render  an  earlier  period  un- 
desirable. There  are  six  ceremonies  which  constitute  a regular 
marriage.  1.  The  father  and  elder  brother  of  the  young  man  sen! 


PRELIMINARIES  OF  A MARRIAGE. 


55 


a go-between  to  the  father  and  brother  of  the  girl,  to  inquire  her 
name  and  the  moment  of  her  birth,  that  the  horoscope  of  the  two 
may  be  examined,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  proposed 
alliance  will  be  a happy  one.  2.  If  so,  the  boy’s  friends  send  the 
mei-jin  back  to  make  an  offer  of  marriage  ; 3.  if  that  be  accepted, 
the  second  party  is  again  requested  to  put  their  assent  in  writing. 
4.  Presents  are  then  sent  to  the  girl's  parents  according  to  the 
means  of  the  parties.  5.  The  go-between  requests  them  to  choose 
a lucky  day  for  the  wedding  ; and  6.  the  preliminaries  are  con 
eluded  by  the  bridegroom  going  or  sending  a party  of  his  friends 
with  music  to  bring  his  bride  to  his  own  house.  The  match- 
makers contrive  to  multiply  their  visits,  and  prolong  the  nego- 
tiations, when  the  parties  are  rich,  to  serve  their  own  ends. 

In  Fuhkien,  parents  often  send  pledges  to  each  other  when 
their  children  are  mere  infants,  and  registers  containing  their 
names  and  particulars  of  nativity  are  exchanged  in  testimony  of 
the  contract.  After  this  has  been  done,  it  is  impossible  to  retract 
the  engagement,  unless  one  of  the  parties  becomes  a leper  or  is 
disabled.  When  the  children  are  espoused  older,  the  boy  some- 
times accompanies  the  go-between  and  the  party  carrying  the 
presents  to  the  house  of  his  future  mother-in-law,  and  receives 
from  her  some  trifling  articles,  as  melon-seeds,  fruits,  &c.,  which 
he  distributes  to  those  around.  Among  the  presents  sent  to  the 
girl  are  fruits,  money,  vermicelli,  and  a ham,  of  which  she  gives  a 
morsel  to  each  one  of  the  party,  and  sends  the  foot  back.  These 
articles  are  neatly  arranged,  and  the  party  bringing  them  is  re- 
ceived with  a salute  of  fire-crackers. 

From  the  time  of  engagement  till  marriage,  a young  lady  is 
required  to  maintain  the  strictest  seclusion.  Whenever  friends 
call  upon  her  parents,  she  is  expected  to  retire  to  the  inner  apart- 
ments, and  in  all  her  actions  and  words  guard  her  conduct  with 
careful  solicitude.  She  must  use  a close  sedan  whenever  she 
visits  her  relations,  and  in  her  intercourse  with  "her  brothers  and 
the  domestics  in  the  household  maintain  the  strictest  reserve. 
Instead  of  having  any  opportunity  to  form  those  friendships  and 
acquaintances  among  her  own  sex,  which  among  ourselves  are  a 
source  of  so  much  pleasure  at  the  time  and  advantage  in  after 
life,  the  Chinese  maiden  is  confined  to  the  circle  of  her  relations 
and  her.  immediate  neighbors.  She  has  none  of  the  pleasing  re- 
membrances and  associations  that  are  usually  connected  with 


56 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


school-day  life,  nor  has  she  often  the  ability  or  opportunity  to 
correspond  by  letter  with  girls  of  her  own  age.  Seclusion  at  this 
time  of  life,  and  the  custom  of  crippling  the  feet,  combine  to  con- 
fine women  in  the  house  almost  as  much  as  the  strictest  laws 
against  their  appearing  abroad  ; for  in  girlhood,  as  they  know 
only  a few  persons  except  relatives,  and  can  make  very  few  after 
marriage,  the  difficulty  of  going  out  disinclines  them  to  extend 
their  acquaintances.  This  privacy  impels  them  to  learn  as  much 
of  the  world  as  they  can,  and  among  the  rich,  their  curiosity  is 
gratified  through  maid-servants,  matchmakers,  peddleresses,  visi- 
tors, and  others.  Curiosity  also  stimulates  young  ladies  to  learn 
something  of  the  character  and  appearance  of  their  intended 
husbands,  but  the  rules  of  society  are  too  strict  for  young  persons 
to  endeavor  to  form  a personal  attachment,  though  it  is  not  im- 
possible for  them  to  see  each  other  if  they  wish,  and  there  are,  no 
doubt,  many  contracts  suggested  to  parents  by  their  children. 

The  office  of  matchmaker  is  considered  honorable,  and  both 
men  and  women  are  employed  to  conduct  nuptial  negotiations. 
Great  confidence  is  reposed  in  their,  judgment  and  veracity,  and 
as  their  employment  depends  somewhat  upon  their  good  charac- 
ter, they  have  every  inducement  to  act  with  strict  propriety  in 
their  intercourse  with  families.  The  father  of  the  girl  employs 
their  services  in  collecting  the  sum  agreed  upon  in  the  contract, 
which,  in  ordinary  circumstances,  varies  from  twenty-five  to  forty 
dollars,  increasing  to  a hundred  and  over  according  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  bridegroom  ; until  that  is  paid  the  marriage  does  not 
take  place.  The  presents  sent  at  betrothment  are  sometimes 
costly,  consisting  of  silks,  rice,  cloths,  fruits,  &c-;  the  bride 
brings  no  dower,  but  both  parents  frequently  go  to  expenses  they 
can  ill  afford  when  celebrating  the  nuptials  of  their  children. 

The  principal  formalities  of  a marriage  are  everywhere  the 
same,  but  local  customs  are  observed  in  some  regions  which  are 
quite  unknown  arid  appear  very  singular  elsewhere.  In  Fuhkien, 
when  the  lucky  day  for  the  wedding  comes,  the  guests  assemble 
in  the  bridegroom’s  house  to  celebrate  it,  where  also  sedans,  a 
band  of  music,  and  porters  are  in  readiness.  The  courier,  who 
acts  as  guide  to  the  chairbearers,  takes  the  lead  of  the  procession, 
and  in  order  to  prevent  the  onset  of  malicious  demons  lurking  in 
the  road,  a baked  hog  or  large  piece  of  pork  is  carried  in  front, 
that  it  may  safely  pass  while  they  are  devouring  the  meat. 


MARRIAGE  CEREMONIES  AMONG  THE  FUHKIENESE. 


57 


Meanwhile  the  bride  arrays  herself  in  her  best  dress  and  richest 
jewels.  Her  girlish  tresses  have  already  been  bound  up,  and 
her  hair  arranged  by  a matron,  with  all  due  formality  ; an  orna- 
mental  and  complicated  headdress  made  of  rich  materials,  not 
unlike  a helmet  or  corona,  often  forms  part  of  her  coiffure.  Her 
person  is  nearly  covered  by  a large  mantle,  over  which  is  an 
enormous  hat  like  an  umbrella,  that  descends  to  the  shoulders 
and  shades  the  whole  figure.  Thus  attired,  she  takes  her  seat  in 
the  red  gilt  marriage  sedan,  called  hwa  kiau,  borne  by  four  men, 
in  which  she  is  completely  concealed.  This  is  locked  by  her 
mother  or  some  other  relative,  and  the  key  given  to  one  of  the 
bridemen,  who  hands  it  to  the  bridegroom  or  his  representative  on 
reaching  his  house. 

The  procession  is  now  rearranged,  with  the  addition  of  as  many 
red  boxes  to  contain  her  wardrobe,  kitchen  utensils,  and  the  feast, 
as  the  means  of  the  family,  or  the  extent  of  her  paraphernalia 
require.  As  the  procession  approaches  the  bridegroom’s  house, 
the  courier  hastens  forward  to  announce  its  coming,  whereupon 
the  music  at  his  door  strikes  up,  and  fire-crackers  are  let  off  until 
she  enters  the  gate.  As  she  approaches  the  door,  the  bridegroom 
conceals  himself,  and  the  go-between  brings  forward  a young 
child  to  salute  her,  while  she  goes  to  seek  the  closeted  bride- 
groom. He  approaches  with  becoming  gravity,  and  opens  the 
sedan  to  hand  out  his  bride,  she  still  retaining  the  hat  and  mantle  ; 
they  approach  the  ancestral  tablet,  which  they  salute  with  three 
bows,  and  then  seat  themselves  at  a table  upon  which  are  two 
cups  of  spirits.  The  go-between  serves  them,  though  the  bride 
can  only  make  the  motions  of  drinking,  as  the  large  hat  com- 
pletely covers  her  face.  They  soon  retire  into  a chamber,  where 
the  husband  takes  the  hat  and  mantle  from  his  wife,  and  sees  her, 
perhaps,  for  the  first  time  in  his  life.  After  he  has  considered 
her  for  some  time,  the  guests  and  friends  enter  the  room  to  survey 
her,  when  each  one  is  allowed  to  express  an  opinion,  but  the 
criticisms  of  the  women  are  severest,  perhaps  because  they 
remember  the  time  they  stood  in  her  unpleasant  position.  This 
cruel  examination  being  over,  she  is  introduced  to  her  husband’s 
parents,  and  then  salutes  her  own.  Such  are  some  of  the  customs 
among  the  Fuhkienese. 

The  bridegroom,  previous  to  the  wedding,  receives  a new  name 
or  “ style,”  and  is  formally  capped  by  his  father  in  presence  of 

VOL.  II.  4* 


58 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


his  friends,  as  an  introduction  to  manhood.  He  invites  the  guests, 
sending  two  red  cakes  with  each  invitation ; to  which  each  guest, 
a few  days  before  the  marriage,  returns  a present  or  a sum  of 
money  worth  about  ten  or  fifteen  cents,  equal  to  the  expenses  he 
will  be  considered  as  occasioning.  Another  invitation  is  sent  the 
day  after  to  a feast,  aod  the  bride  also  calls  on  the  ladies  who 
attended  her  wedding,  from  whom  she  receives  a ring  or  some  other 
article  of  small  value.  The  gentlemen  also  make  the  bridegroom 
a present  of  a pair  of  lanterns  to  hang  at  his  gateway.  On  the 
night  of  the  wedding,  they  sometimes  endeavor  to  get  into  the 
house  when  the  pair  is  supposed  to  be  asleep,  in  order  to  carry 
off  some  article,  which  the  bridegroom  must  ransom  at  their 
price. 

Among  the  poor,  the  expenses  of  a wedding  are  avoided  by 
purchasing  a girl,  whom  the  parents  bring  up  as  a daughter 
until  she  is  marriageable,  and  in  this  way,  moreover,  secure  her 
services  in  the  household.  A girl  already  affianced  is  for  a like 
reason  sometimes  sent  to  the  parents  of  the  boy  for  them  to  sup- 
port. In  small  villages,  the  people  call  upon  a newly  married 
couple  about  full  moon,  when  they  are  received  standing  near 
the  bedside.  The  men  enter  first  and  pay  their  respects  to  the 
bride,  while  her  husband  calls  the  attention  of  his  visitors  to  her 
charms,  praises  her  little  feet,  her  beautiful  hands,  and  other 
features,  and  then  accompanies  them  into  the  hall,  where  they 
are  regaled  with  refreshments.  After  the  men  have  retired,  the 
women  enter  and  make  their  remarks  upon  the  newly  married 
lady,  whose  future  character  depends  a good  deal  upon  the 
manner  in  which  she  conducts  herself.  If  she  shows  good  tem- 
per, her  reputation  is  made,  and  in  order  not  to  run  a risk  of 
offending,  many  say  nothing,  and  suffer  themselves  to  be  ex- 
amined without  saying  a word.*  Far  different  is  this  intro- 
duction to  married  life  from  the  bridal  tour  and  cordial  greetings 
of  friends,  western  ladies  receive  in  their  honeymoon  ! 

The  bridal  procession  is  as  showy  and  stylish  as  the  means  of 
the  parties  will  allow,  consisting  of  friends,  a band  of  music, 
sedans,  and  boxes  containing  the  marriage  feast  and  other 
things,  all  of  them  painted  red,  and  their  bearers  wearing  red 
jackets.  The  tablets  of  literary  rank  held  by  members  of  the 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  65-70.  Annales  de  la  Foi,  No.  XL. 
1835. 


STYLE  OF  MARRIAGE  PROCESSIONS. 


59 


family,  wooden  dragons’  heads,  titular  lanterns,  and  other  official 
insignia,  are  borne  in  the  procession,  which  with  all  these  additions 
sometimes  stretches  along  for  a quarter  of  a mile  or  more.  In 
some  cases,  an  old  man,  elegantly  dressed,  heads  the  procession, 
bearing  a large  umbrella  to  hold  over  the  bride  when  she  enters 
and  leaves  her  sedan  ; behind  him  come  bearers  with  tablets  and 
lanterns,  one  of  which  bears  the  inscription,  “ The  phoenixes 
sing  harmoniously.”  To  these  succeed  the  music  and  the 
honorary  tablets,  titular  flags,  state  umbrella,  &c.,  and  two 
stout  men  as  executioners  dressed  in  a fantastic  manner,  wearing 
long  feathers  in  their  caps,  and  lictors,  chain-bearers,  and  other 
emblems  of  office.  Parties  of  young  lads,  prettily  dressed  and 
playing  on  drums,  gongs,  and  flutes,  or  carrying  lanterns  and 
banners,  occasionally  form  a pleasing  variety  in  the  train,  which 
is  continued  by  the  trays  and  covered  tables  containing  the 
bride’s  trousseau,  and  ended  with  the  sedan  containing  herself. 
The  ceremonies  attending  her  reception  at  her  husband’s  house 
are  not  uniform.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  she  is  lifted  out 
of  the  sedan,  over  a pan  of  charcoal  placed  in  the  court,  and 
carried  into  her  chamber.  After  a brief  interval,  she  returns 
into  the  hall,  bearing  a tray  of  betel-nut  for  the  guests,  and  then 
worships  a pair  of  geese  brought  in  the  train  with  her  hus- 
band, this  bird  being  an  emblem  of  conjugal  affection.  On  re- 
turning to  her  chamber,  the  bridegroom  follows  her,  and  takes 
off  the  red  veil,  after  which  they  pledge  each  other  in  wine  ; the 
cups  being  joined  by  a thread.  While  there,  a matron  who  has 
borne  several  children  to  one  husband  comes  in  to  pronounce  a 
blessing  upon  them,  and  make  up  the  nuptial  bed.  The  assem- 
bled guests  then  sit  down  to  the  feast,  and  ply  the  sin  fang,  “ new 
man  ” or  bridegroom,  pretty  well  with  liquor  ; the  Chinese  on 
such  occasions  do  not,  however,  often  overpass  the  rules  of 
sobriety.  The  sin  fujin,  “ new  lady”  or  bride,  and  her  mother- 
in-law  also  attend  to  those  of  her  own  sex  who  are  present  in 
other  apartments,  but  among  the  poor  a pleasanter  sight  is  now 
and  then  seen  in  all  the  guests  sitting  at  one  table. 

In  the  morning,  the  pair  worship  the  ancestral  tablets  and 
salute  all  the  members  of  the  family.  The  pledging  of  the  bride 
and  groom  in  a cup  of  wine  and  their  worship  of  the  ancestral 
tablets,  and  in  some  cases  a united  prostration  to  his  parents,  may 
be  considered  as  the  important  ceremonies  of  a wedding,  after 


GO 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  procession  has  rea  ;hed  the  house.  Marriage  processions  are 
held  at  all  hours,  though  twilight  and  evening  are  considered  the 
most  propitious  ; and  the  spring  season,  or  the  last  month  in  the 
year,  are  regarded  as  the  most  felicitous  nuptial  periods.  From 
the  way  in  which  the  whole  matter  is  conducted,  there  is  some 
room  for  deception  by  sending  another  person  in  the  sedan  than 
the  one  betrothed,  or  the  man  may  mistake  the  name  of  the  girl 
he  wishes  to  marry.  Mr.  Smith  mentions  one  of  his  acquaint 
ances,  who,  having  been  captivated  with  a girl  he  saw  in  the 
street,  sent  a go-between  with  proposals  to  her  parents,  which 
were  accepted  ; but  he  was  deeply  mortified  on  receiving  his 
bride  to  find  that  he  had  mistaken  the  number  of  his  charmer, 
and  had  received  the  fifth  daughter  instead  of  the  fourth. 

The  Chinese  do  not  marry  another  woman  with  these  obser- 
vances, while  the  first  one  is  living,  but  they  may  bring  home  con- 
cubines with  no  other  formality  than  a contract,  with  her  parents 
though  it  is  considered  somewhat  discreditable  for  a man  to  take 
another  bedfellow,  if  his  wife  have  borne  him  sons,  unless  he  can 
afford  each  of  them  a separate  establishment.  It  is  not  unfre- 
quent for  a man  to  secure  a maidservant  in  the  family  with  the 
consent  of  his  wife,  by  purchasing  her  for  a concubine,  espe- 
cially if  his  occupation  frequently  call  him  away  from  home,  in 
which  case  he  takes  her  as  his  travelling  companion  and  leaves 
his  wife  in  charge  of  the  household.  The  fact  that  the  sons  of  a 
concubine  are  considered  as  legally  belonging  to  the  wife,  induces 
parents  to  betrothe  their  daughters  early,  and  thus  prevent  their 
entering  a man’s  family  in  this  inferior  capacity.  The  Chinese 
are  sensible  of  the  evils  of  a divided  household,  and  the  laws 
place  its  control  in  the  hands  of  the  wife.  If  she  has  no  sons 
and  heirs,  for  daughters  are  accounted  as  nothing  in  this  case, 
she  looks  out  for  a likely  boy  among  her  clansmen  to  adopt, 
knowing  that  otherwise  her  husband  will  probably  bring  a con- 
cubine into  the  family.  It  is  of  course  difficult  even  to  guess  at 
the  extent  of  polygamy,  for  no  statistics  have  or  can  be  easily 
taken.  Among  the  laboring  classes,  it  is  rare  to  find  more  than 
one  woman  to  one  man,  but  tradesmen,  official  persons,  land- 
holders, and  those  in  easy  circumstances,  frequently  take  one  or 
more  concubines  ; perhaps  two-fifths  of  such  families  have  them. 
Show  and  fashion  lead  some  to  increase  the  number  of  their 
women,  though  aware  of  the  discord  likely  to  arise,  for  they 


LAWS  REGULATING  MARRIAGES. 


61 


fully  believe  their  own  proverb,  That  nine  women  out  of  ten  are 
jealous  ; in  a few  instances,  the  multiplication  of  concubines 
seems  to  be  ascribable  to  the  wife,  who  wishes  to  have  a larger 
number  of  servants  and  handmaids  to  rule  over  and  assist  her, 
or  of  children  to  support  her.  The  Chinese  illustrate  the  rela- 
tion by  comparing  the  wife  to  the  moon  and  the  concubines  to 
the  stars,  both  of  which  in  their  appropriate  spheres  wait  upon 
and  revolve  around  the  sun. 

If  regard  be  had  to  the  civilization  of  the  Chinese,  and  their 
opportunities  for  moral  training,  the  legal  provisions  of  the  Code 
to  protect  females  in  their  acknowledged  rights,  and  punish 
crimes  against  the  peace  and  purity  of  the  family  relation,  reflect 
credit  upon  their  legislators.  In  these  laws,  the  obligation  of 
children  to  fulfil  the  contract  made  by  their  parents  is  enforced, 
even  to  the  annulling  of  an  agreement  made  by  a son  himself 
in  ignorance  of  the  arrangements  of  his  parents.  The  position 
of  the  tsi,  or  wife  taken  by  the  prescribed  formalities,  and  that 
of  the  tsieh,  or  women  purchased  as  concubines  without  them, 
are  accurately  defined,  and  the  degradation  of  the  former  or 
elevation  of  the  latter  so  as  to  interchange  their  places,  or  the 
taking  of  a second  Isi,  are  all  illegal  and  void.  The  relation 
between  the  two  is  more  like  that  which  existed  between  Sarah 
and  Hagar  in  Abraham’s  household,  or  Zilpah  and  Bilhah  and 
their  mistresses  in  Jacob’s,  than  that  indicated  by  the  terms 
first  and  second  wife.  The  degrees  of  unlawful  marriages  are 
comprehensive,  extending  even  to  the  prohibition  of  persons 
having  the  same  sing  or  family  name,  and  to  two  brothers  mar- 
rying sisters.  The  laws  forbid  the  marriage  of  a brother’s 
widow,  of  a father’s  or  grandfather’s  wife,  or  a father’s  sister, 
under  the  penalty  of  death  ; and  the  like  punishment  is  inflicted 
upon  whoever  seizes  the  wife  or  daughter  of  a freeman  and 
carries  them  away  to  marry  them. 

These  regulations  not  only  put  honor  upon  marriage,  but 
render  it  more  common  among  the  Chinese  than  almost  any 
other  people,  thereby  preventing  a vast  train  of  evils.  The 
tendency  of  unrestrained  desire  to  throw  down  the  barriers  to 
the  gratification  of  lust  must  not  be  lost  sight  of;  and  as  no 
laws  on  this  subject  can  be  effectual  unless  the  common  sense 
of  a people  aDprove  of  them,  the  Chinese,  by  separating  the 
sexes  in  general  society,  have  removed  a principal  provocation 


62 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


to  sin,  and  by  compelling  young  men  to  fulfil  the  marriage 
contracts  of  their  parents,  have  also  provided  a safeguard 
against  debauchery  at  the  age  when  youth  is  most  tempted  to 
indulge,  and  when  indulgence  would  most  strongly  disincline 
them  to  marry  at  all.  They  have,  moreover,  provided  for  the 
undoubted  succession  of  the  inheritance  by  disallowing  more 
than  one  wife  ; and  yet  have  granted  men  the  liberty  they  would 
otherwise  take,  and  which  immemorial  usage  in  Asiatic  coun- 
tries lias  sanctioned.  They  have  done  as  well  as  they  could  in 
regulating  a difficult  matter,  and  better  on  the  whole  perhaps 
than  in  most  other  unchristianized  countries.  If  any  one  sup- 
poses, however,  that  because  these  laws  exist,  sins  against  the 
seventh  commandment  are  uncommon  in  China,  he  will  be  as  mis- 
taken as  those  who  infer  that  because  the  Chinese  are  pagans, 
nothing  like  modesty,  purity,  affection,  or  love  exists  between 
the  sexes. 

When  a girl  “ spills  the  tea,”  that  is,  loses  her  intended 
husband  by  death,  public  opinion  honors  her  if  she  refuse  a 
second  engagement ; and  instances  are  cited  of  young  ladies 
committing  suicide  rather  than  contract  a second  marriage. 
They  sometimes  leave  their  father’s  house  and  live  with  the 
parents  of  their  affianced  husband  as  if  they  had  been  really 
widows.  It  is  considered  reproachful  for  widows  to  marry ; 
though  it  may  be  that  the  instances  quoted  in  books  with  so 
much  praise  only  indicate  how  rare  the  practice  is  in  reality. 
The  widow  is  occasionally  sold  as  a concubine  by  her  father- 
in-law,  and  the  grief  and  contumely  of  her  degradation  is  en- 
hanced by  separation  from  her  children,  whom  she  can  no 
longer  retain.  Such  cases  are,  however,  not  common,  for  the 
impulses  of  maternal  affection  are  too  strong  to  be  thus  trifled 
with,  and  widows  usually  look  to  their  friends  for  support,  or  to 
their  own  exertions  if  their  children  be  still  young ; and  they 
are  assisted  too  by  their  relatives  in  this  laudable  industry  and 
care.  A widower  is  not  restrained  by  any  laws,  and  weds  one 
of  his  concubines  or  whoever  he  chooses ; nor  is  he  expected  to 
defer  the  nuptials  for  any  period  of  mourning  for  his  first  wife. 

The  seven  legal  reasons  for  divorce,  viz.  barrenness,  lasci- 
viousness, jealousy,  talkativeness,  thievery,  disobedience  to  her 
husband’s  parents,  or  leprosy,  are  almost  nullified  by  the  single 
provision  that  a woman  cannot  be  put  away  whose  parents  are 


PRIVILEGES  AND  POSITION  OF  WIVES  AND  WIDOWS.  63 


noi  living  to  receive  her  back  again.  Parties  can  separate  on 
mutual  disagreement,  but  the  Code  does  not  regulate  the  ali- 
mony ; and  a husband  is  liable  to  punishment  if  he  retain  a 
wife  convicted  of  adultery.  If  a wife  merely  elopes,  she  can 
be  sold  by  her  husband ; but  if  she  marry  while  absent,  she  is 
to  be  strangled  ; if  the  husband  be  absent  thiee  years,  a woman 
must  state  her  case  to  the  magistrates  before  presuming  to  re- 
marry. In  regard  to  the  condition  of  females  in  China,  the 
remark  of  De  Guignes  is  applicable,  “ that  though  their  lot  is 
less  happy  than  that  of  their  sisters  in  Europe,  their  ignorance 
of  a better  state  renders  their  present  or  prospective  one  more 
supportable  ; happiness  does  not  always  consist  in  absolute 
enjoyment,  but  in  the  idea  which  we  have  formed  of  it.’5*  She 
does  not  feel  that  any  injustice  is  done  her  by  depriving  her  of 
the  right  of  assent  as  to  whom  shall  be  her  partner  ; her  wishes 
and  her  knowledge  go  no  further  than  her  domestic  circle,  and 
where  she  has  been  trained  in  her  mother’s  apartments  to  the 
various  duties  and  accomplishments  of  her  sex,  her  removal  to  a 
husband’s  house  is  no  great  change. 

This,  however,  is  not  always  the  case,  and  the  power  ac- 
corded to  the  husband  over  his  wife  and  family  is  sometimes 
used  with  great  tyranny.  The  young  wife  finds  in  her  new 
■lome  little  of  the  sympathy  and  love  her  sisters  in  Christian 
ands  receive.  Her  mother-in-law  is  not  unfrequently  the 
source  of  her  greatest  trials,  and  demands  from  her  both  the 
submission  of  a child  and  the  labor  of  a slave,  which  is  not 
seldom  returned  by  bitter  revilings.  If  the  husband  interfere, 
she  has  less  likelihood  of  escaping  his  exactions  ; though  in  the 
lower  walks  of  life,  his  cruelty  is  restrained  by  fear  of  losing 
her  and  her  services,  and  in  the  upper  diverted  by  a sort  of 
indifference  to  what*  she  does,  in  the  pursuit  of  other  objects. 
If  the  wife  behave  well  till  she  herself  becomes  a mother  and 
a mother-in-law,  from  being  a menial  she  then  becomes  almost 
a goddess.  The  Chinese  moralist  Luhchau,  mentions  an  in- 
direct mode  of  reproving  a mother-in-law.  “ Loh  Yang  travelled 
seven  years  to  improve  himself,  during  which  time  his  wife 
diligently  served  her  mother-in-law,  and  supported  her  son  at 
school.  The  poultry  from  a neighbor’s  house  once  wandered 


Voyages  a Peking,  Vol.  II.,  p.  283. 


64 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


into  her  garden,  and  her  mother-in-law  stole  and  killed  them  for 
eating.  When  she  sat  down  to  table  and  saw  the  fowls,  she 
would  not  dine,  but  burst  into  tears,  at  which  the  old  lady  was 
much  surprised,  and  asked  the  reason.  * I am  much  distressed 
that  I am  so  poor  and  cannot  afford  to  supply  you  with  all  I 
wish  I could,  and  that  I should  have  caused  you  to  eat  flesh 
belonging  to  another.’  Her  parent  was  affected  by  this,  and 
threw  away  the  dish.” 

The  evils  attending  early  betrothment  induce  many  parents 
to  defer  engaging  their  daughters  until  they  are  grown,  and  a 
husband  of  similar  tastes  can  be  found  ; for  even  if  the  condi- 
tion of  the  families  in  the  interval  of  betrothment  and  mar- 
riage unsuitably  change,  or  the  lad  grows  up  to  be  a dissipated, 
worthless,  or  cruel  man,  totally  unworthy  of  the  girl ; still  the 
contract  must  be  fulfilled,  and  the  worse  party  generally  is  most 
anxious  for  it.  The  unhappy  bride  in  such  cases  often  escapes 
from  her  present  sufferings  and  dismal  prospects  by  suicide.  A 
case  occurred  in  Canton  in  1833,  where  a young  wife  visiting 
her  parents  shortly  after  marriage,  so  feelingly  described  her 
sufferings  at  the  hands  of  a cruel  husband  to  her  sisters  and 
friends,  that  she  and  three  of  her  auditors  joined  their  hands 
together  and  drowned  themselves  in  a pond,  she  to  escape  present 
misery,  and  they  to  avoid  its  future  possibility^.  Another  young 
lady,  having  heard  of  the  worthless  character  of  her  intended, 
carried  a bag  of  money  with  her  in  the  sedan,  and  when  they 
retired  after  the  ceremonies  were  over,  thus  addressed  him  : 
“ Touch  me  not ; I am  resolved  to  abandon  the  world,  and  be- 
come a nun.  I shall  this  night  cut  off  my  hair.  I have  saved 
$200,  which  I give  you  ; with  the  half  you  can  purchase  a 
concubine,  and  with  the  rest  enter  on  some  trade.  Be  not  lazy 
and  thriftless.  Hereafter,  remember  me.’1  Saying  this,  she 
cut  off  her  hair,  and  her  husband  and  his  kindred  fearing  sui- 
cide if  they  opposed  her,  acquiesced,  and  she  returned  to  her 
father’s  house.*  Such  cases  are  not  uncommon,  and  young 
ladies  implore  their  parents  to  rescue  them  in  this  or  some  other 
way  from  the  sad  fate  which  awaits  them.  Sometimes  girls  be- 
come skilled  in  female  accomplishments  to  recommend  them- 
selves to  their  husbands,  and  their  disappointment  is  the  greater 


Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  I.,  p.  293 


EVILS  OF  EARLY  BETROTHMENT.  f #«* 

when  they  find  him  to  be  a brutal,  depraved  tyrant.  A melan- 
choly instance  of  this  occurred  in  Canton  in  1840,  which  ended 
in  the  wife  committing  suicide.  Her  brother  had  been  a scholar 
of  one  of  the  American  missionaries,  and  took  a commendable 
pride  in  showing  specimens  of  his  sister’s  exquisite  embroidery, 
and  not  a few  of  her  attainments  in  writing,  which  indicated 
their  reciprocal  attachment.  The  contrary  happens  too,  some- 
times, where  the  husband  finds  himself  compelled  to  wed  a 
woman  totally  unable  to  appreciate  or  share  his  pursuits,  but  he 
has  means  of  alleviating  or  avoiding  such  misalliances  which 
the  weaker  vessel  has  not. 

Pursuing  this  brief  account  of  the  social  life  of  the  Chinese, 
the  right  of  parents  in  managing  their  children  comes  into  notice. 
It  is  great  though  not  unlimited,  and  in  allowing  them  very 
extensive  power,  legislators  have  supposed  that  the  natural  af- 
fection of  the  parents,  a desire  to  see  their  children  come  to 
honor,  and  continue  the  succession  of  the  family,  and  the  influ- 
ence of  proper  education,  were  as  good  securities  against  pater- 
nal cruelty  and  neglect  as  any  laws  which  could  be  made. 
Fathers  give  their  sons  the  ju  tiling,  or  “ milk  name,”  about 
a month  after  birth.  The  mother,  on  the  day  appointed  for 
this  ceremony,  worships  and  thanks  the  goddess  of  Mercy,  and 
the  boy,  dressed  and  having  his  head  shaved,  is  brought  into 
the  circle  of  assembled  friends,  where  the  father  confers  the 
name,  and  celebrates  the  occasion  by  a feast.  The  milk  name 
is  kept  until  the  lad  enters  school,  at  which  time  the  shu  rning,  or 
school  name,  is  conferred  upon  him,  as  already  mentioned.  The 
shu  ming  generally  consists  of  two  characters,  selected  with  refer- 
ence to  the  boy’s  condition,  prospects,  studies,  or  some  other 
event  connected  with  him  ; sometimes  the  milk  name  is  con- 
tinued, as  the  family  have  become  accustomed  to  it.  Such  names 
as  Ink-grinder,  Promising-study,  Opening-olive,  Entering-virtue, 
Rising-advancement,  &c.,  are  given  to  young  students ; while 
children  are  called  by  the  names  of  flowers,  virtues,  or  some 
endearing  or  fanciful  epithet,  and  sometimes  by  their  number,  as 
Wei  Ayih,  Wei  Asan,  i.  e.  No.  1 Wei,  No.  3 Wei,  &c.  The  per- 
sonal names  of  the  Chinese  are  written  contrariwise  to  our  own, 
the  sing  or  surname  coming  first,  then  the  ming  or  given  name,  and 
then  the  complimentary  title  ; as  Liang  Wantai  siensang,  where 
Liang  or  Millet  is  the  family  name,  Wantai  or  Terrace  of  Let- 


66 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


ters,  the  given  name,  and  siensang,  Mr.  (i.  e.  Master),  or  Teach- 
er. A few  of  the  surnames  are  double,  as  Sz’jna  Tsien , where 
Sz’ma  is  the  family  name,  and  Tsien  the  official  title.  A curi- 
ous idea  prevails  among  the  people  of  Canton,  that  foreigners 
have  no  surname,  which,  as  Pliny  thought  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Mt.  Atlas,  they  regard  as  one  of  the  proofs  of  their  barbarism  ; 
perhaps  this  notion  came  by  inference  from  the  fact  that  the 
Manchus  have  only  one  name,  as  Kishen,  Kiying,  flipu,  &c. 
When  writing  Chinese  names  in  translations  and  elsewhere,  some 
attention  should  be  paid  to  these  particulars,  but  the  names  of 
Chinese  persons  and  places  are  constantly  written  so  as  to  ap- 
pear as  singular  as  Williamhenryharrison , Rich- Ard-  Ox-Ford,  or 
Phila  DeTphia-cily , do  in  English.  The  name  being  in  a different 
language,  and  its  true  nature  unknown  to  most  of  those  who  write 
it,  accounts  for  the  misarrangement. 

In  Canton  and  its  vicinity,  the  names  of  people  are  abbreviated 
in  conversation  to  one  character,  and  an  A prefixed  to  it ; as 
Tsinleh  is  called  Ateli.  In  Amoy,  the  A is  placed  after,  as 
Chin-a  ; and  in  other  parts  not  employed  at  all.  Some  families, 
perhaps  in  imitation  of  the  imperial  usage,  distinguish  their  mem- 
bers from  others  in  the  clan  by  adopting  a constant  character  for 
the  first  one  in  the  rrdng  or  given  name  ; thus,  a family  of  brothers 
will  be  named  Lin  Tungpei,  Lin  Tungfung,  Lin  Tungpeh, 
where  the  word  Tung  distinguishes  this  branch  of  the  clan  Lin 
from  all  others.  There  are  no  characters  exclusively  appro- 
priated to  proper  names  or  different  sexes,  as  George,  Julia,  &e., 
all  being  chosen  out  of  the  language  with  reference  to  their 
meanings.  Consequently,  a name  is  sometimes  felt  to  be  incon- 
gruous, as  Naomi,  when  saluted  on  her  return  to  Bethlehem,  felt 
its  inappropriateness  to  her  altered  condition,  and  suggested  a 
change  to  Mara.  Puns  on  names  and  sobriquets  are  common, 
from  the  constant  contrast  of  the  sounds  of  the  characters  with 
circumstances  suggesting  a comparison  or  a play  upon  their 
meanings ; sly  jokes  are  also  played  upon  foreigners,  when  writ- 
ing their  names,  by  choosing  such  characters  as  have  a ridiculous 
meaning. 

When  a man  marries,  he  adopts  a third  name  called  tsz’  or 
style,  by  which  he  is  usually  known  through  life  ; this  is  either 
entirely  new,  or  combined  from  previous  names.  When  a girl 
is  married,  her  family  name  becomes  her  given  name,  and  the 


NUMBER  AND  CHANGES  OF  PERSONAL  NAMES. 


67 


given  name  is  disused,  her  husband’s  name  becoming  her  family 
name.  Thus  Wa  Salali  married  to  Wei  Sanwei  drops  the  Salah, 
and  is  called  Wei  Wa  sin,  i.  e.  Mrs.  Wei  [of  the  clan]  Wa,  though 
her  husband  or  near  relatives  sometimes  retain  it  as  a trivial  ad- 
dress. Among  friends  and  relatives,  a man  is  frequently  known  by 
another  compellation,  called  pieh  tsz\  or  “ second  style,”  which 
the  public  do  not  presume  to  employ.  When  a young  man  is 
successful  in  attaining  a degree,  or  enters  on  office,  he  takes  a 
title  called  kwan  ming,  or  “ official  name,”  by  which  he  is  known 
to  government.  The  members  or  heads  of  licensed  mercantile 
companies  each  have  an  official  name,  which  is  entered  in  their 
permit,  from  whence  it  is  called  among  foreigners,  their  chop 
name.  Each  of  the  heads  of  the  co-hong  or  companies,  formerly 
licensed  to  trade  with  foreigners  at  Canton,  had  such  an  official 
name.  Besides  these  various  names,  old  men  of  fifty,  shopkeep- 
ers, and  others,  take  a luiu  or  “ designation  ;”  tradesmen  use  it 
on  their  signboards,  as  the  name  of  their  shop,  and  not  unfrequent- 
ly  receive  it  as  their  personal  appellation.  Of  this  nature  are 
the  names  of  the  tradesmen  who  deal  with  foreigners,  as  Cut- 
shing,  Chanlung,  Linchong,  &c.,  which  are  none  of  them  the 
names  of  the  shopmen,  but  the  designation  of  the  shop.  It  is  the 
usual  way  in  Canton  for  foreigners  to  go  into  a shop  and  ask  Is 
Mr.  Wanglik  in  l which  would  be  almost  like  one  in  New  York 
inquiring  if  Mr.  Alhambra,  or  Mr.  Atlantic  House  was  at  home, 
though  it  does  not  sound  quite  so  ridiculous  to  a Chinese.  The 
names  taken  by  shopkeepers  allude  to  trade  or  its  prospects, 
such  as  Mutual  Advantage,  Obedient  Profit,  Extensive  Harmony, 
Rising  Goodness,  Great  Completeness,  &c.,  all  of  which  are 
translations  of  real  shop-names.  The  names  of  the  partners  as 
such,  are  not  employed  to  form  the  firm  as  with  us.  Besides 
this  use  of  the  hail,  it  is  also  employed  as  a brand  upon  goods ; 
the  terms  Hoyuen,  Kinghing,  Yuenki,  meaning  Harmonious 
Springs,  Cheering  Prospects,  Fountain’s  Memorial,  &c.,  are  ap- 
plied to  particular  parcels  of  tea,  silk,  or  other  goods,  just  as 
brands  are  placed  on  lots  of  wine,  flour,  or  pork.  This  is  called 
tsz' -hau,  or  mark-designation,  but  foreigners  call  both  it  and  the 
goods  it  denotes,  a chop.  When  a man  dies,  he  receives  another 
and  last  name  in  the  hall  of  ancestors,  though  not  necessarily 
a new  one  ; emperors  and  empresses  have  new  ones  given  them, 
as  Benevolent,  Pious,  Discreet,  &c.,  by  which  they  are  wor- 


68 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


shipped,  and  referred  to  in  history,  as  that  designation  which  is 
most  likely  to  be  permanent. 

In  their  common  intercourse,  the  Chinese  are  not  more  formal 
than  is  elsewhere  considered  to  be  well-bred  ; it  is  on  extraordi- 
nary or  official  occasions,  that  they  observe  the  precise  etiquette 
for  which  they  are  famous.  The  proper  mode  of  behavior  to- 
wards all  classes  is  perhaps  more  carefully  inculcated  upon 
youth  than  it  is  in  the  west,  and  habit  renders  easy  what  custom 
requires  to  be  observed.  The  ceremonial  obeisance  of  a court  or 
a levee,  or  the  salutations  proper  for  a festival,  are  not  carried 
into  the  everyday  intercourse  of  life  ; for  as  one  chief  end  of 
the  formalities  prescribed  for  such  times  is  to  teach  due  subordi- 
nation among  persons  of  different  rank,  they  are  in  a measure 
laid  aside  with  the  robes  which  suggested  them.  True  polite- 
ness, exhibited  in  an  unaffected  regard  for  the  feelings  of  others, 
cannot,  of  course,  be  taught  by  rules  merely  ; but  a great  degree 
of  urbanity  and  kindness  is  everywhere  shown,  whether  owing 
to  the  naturally  placable  disposition  of  the  people,  or  to  the 
effects  of  their  early  instruction  in  the  forms  of  politeness. 
Whether  in  the  crowded  and  narrow  thoroughfares,  the  village 
green,  the  bustling  market,  the  jostling  ferry,  or  the  thronged 
procession, — wherever  the  people  are  assembled  promiscuously, 
good  humor  and  courtesy  are  observable  ; and  when  altercations 
do  arise,  wounds  or  serious  injuries  seldom  ensue,  although  from 
the  furious  clamor  one  would  imagine  half  the  crowd  were  in 
danger  of  their  lives. 

Chinese  ceremonial  requires  superiors  to  be  honored  according 
to  their  station  and  age,  and  equals  to  depreciate  themselves  while 
lauding  those  they  address.  The  emperor,  considering  himself 
as  the  representative  of  divine  power,  exacts  the  same  prostration 
which  is  paid  the  gods  ; and  the  ceremonies  which  are  performed 
in  his  presence,  partake,  therefore,  of  a religious  character,  and 
are  not  merely  particular  forms  of  etiquette,  which  may  be 
altered  according  to  circumstances.  There  are  eight  gradations 
of  obeisance,  commencing  “ with  the  lowest  form  of  respect 
called  kung  sliau,  which  is  merely  joining  the  hands  and  raising 
them  before  the  breast.  The  next  is  Iso  yih,  bowing  low  with 
the  hands  thus  joined.  The  third  is  la  tsien,  bending  the  knee  as 
if  about  to  kneel  ; and  kwei,  an  actual  kneeling,  is  the  fourth. 
The  fifth  is  ko  taxi,  kneeling  and  striking  the  head  on  the  ground. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHINESE  CEREMONIAL. 


69 


which  when  thrice  repeated  makes  the  sixth  called  san  kau,  or 
‘ thrice  knocking.’  The  seventh  is  the  luh  kau,  or  kneeling  and 
knocking  the  head  thrice  upon  the  ground,  then  standing  upright 
and  again  kneeling  and  knocking  the  head  three  times  more. 
The  climax  is  closed  by  the  san  kwei  kiu  kau,  or  thrice  kneeling 
and  nine  times  knocking  the  head.  Some  of  the  gods  of  China 
are  entitled  to  the  san  kau,  others  to  the  lull  kau,  while  the  empe- 
ror and  heaven  are  worshipped  by  the  last.  The  Tartar  family 
now  on  the  throne  consider  this  last  form  as  expressing  in  the 
strongest  manner  the  submission  and  homage  of  one  state  to 
another.”*  The  extreme  submission  which  the  emperor  demands 
is  partaken  by  and  transferred  to  his  officers  of  every  grade  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree  ; the  observance  of  these  forms  is  deemed, 
therefore,  of  great  importance,  and  a refusal  to  render  them  is 
considered  to  be  nearly  equivalent  to  a rejection  of  their 
authority. 

Minute  regulations  for  the  times  and  modes  of  official  inter- 
course are  made  and  promulgated  by  the  Board  of  Rites  ; and  to 
learn  and  practise  them  is  one  indispensable  part  of  official  duty. 
In  court,  the  master  of  ceremonies  stands  in  a conspicuous  place, 
and  with  a loud  voice  commands  the  courtiers  to  rise  and  kneel, 
stand  or  march,  just  as  an  orderly  sergeant  directs  the  drill 
of  recruits.  The  same  attention  to  the  ritual  is  observed  in  their 
mutual  intercourse,  for  however  much  an  inferior  may  desire  to 
dispense  with  the  ceremony,  his  superior  will  not  fail  to  exact  it. 
In  the  salutations  of  entree  and  exit  among  officers,  these  forms 
are  particularly  conspicuous  ; but  when  well  acquainted  with 
each  other  and  in  moments  of  conviviality,  they  are  in  a great 
measure  laid  aside  ; but  the  juxtaposition  of  art  and  nature  among 
them,  at  one  moment  laughing  and  joking,  ar.d  the  next  bow- 
ing and  kneeling  to  each  other  as  if  they  had  never  met,  some- 
times produces  very  amusing  scenes  to  a foreigner. 

Without  particularizing  the  tedious  forms  of  official  etiquette, 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  describe  w hat  is  generally  required  in  good 
society.  Military  men  pay  visits  on  horseback,  but  civilians  and 
others  go  in  sedans  or  afoot.  Common  visiting  cards  are  made 
of  vermilioned  paper,  cut  into  slips  about  eight  inches  long  and 
three  wide,  and  are  single  or  folded  four,  six,  eight,  or  more 


Memoir  of  Dr.  Morrison,  Vol.  II.,  page  142. 


70 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


times,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  visitor.  If  he  is  in  recent 
mourning,  the  paper  is  white  and  the  name  written  in  blue  ink, 
but  after  a stated  time  this  is  indicated  by  an  additional  character. 
The  simple  name  is  stamped  on  the  upper  right  corner,  or  if  written 
on  the  lower  corner,  with  an  addition  thus,  “ Your  humble  servant 
(lit.  stupid  younger  brother)  Pi  Chiwan  bows  his  head  in  saluta- 
tion.” On  approaching  the  house,  his  attendant  takes  a card  out 
of  the  case  hanging  at  the  side  of  the  sedan,  and  hands  it  to  the 
doorkeeper  to  carry  in.  If  he  cannot  be  received,  instead  of 
saying  “ not  at  home,”  the  host  sends  out  to  “ stay  the  gentle- 
man’s approach,”  and  the  card  is  left ; if  contrariwise,  the  sedan 
is  carried  through  the  doorway,  and  he  comes  forth  to  receive 
his  guest  as  he  steps  out,  each  one  advancing  just  so  far,  bowing 
just  so  many  times,  and  going  through  the  ceremonies  which 
they  mutually  understand  and  expect,  until  both  have  taken  their 
places  on  the  couch  at  the  head  of  the  hall,  the  guest  sitting  on 
the  left  of  the  host,  and  his  companions,  if  he  have  any,  in  the 
chairs  on  each  side.  The  inquiries  made  after  the  mutual  wel- 
fare of  friends  and  each  other  are  couched  in  a form  of  studied 
laudation  and  depreciation,  which  when  literally  translated  seem 
somewhat  affected,  but  to  them  convey  no  more  than  similar  civi- 
lities do  among  ourselves, — in  truth,  perhaps  not  so  much  of  sin- 
cere goodwill.  For  instance,  to  the  remark,  “ It  is  a long  time 
since  we  have  met,  Sir,”  the  host  replies,  (literally)  “ How  pre- 
sume to  receive  the  trouble  of  your  honorable  footsteps;  is  the 
person  in  the  chariot  well  ?” — which  means  simply,  “ I am  much 
obliged  for  your  visit,  and  hope  you  enjoy  good  health.” 

Tea  and  pipes  are  always  presented,  and  betel-nut  or  sweet- 
meats on  some  occasions,  but  it  is  not,  as  among  the  Turks,  con- 
sidered disrespectful  to  refuse  them,  though  it  would  be  looked 
upon  as  singular.  If  the  guest  inquire  after  the  health  of  rela- 
tives, he  should  commence  with  the  oldest  living,  and  then  ask 
how  many  sons  the  host  has  ; but  it  is  not  considered  good  breed- 
ing for  a formal  acquaintance  to  make  any  remarks  respecting 
his  wife.  If  the  sons  of  the  host  are  at  home  they  are  generally 
sent  for,  and  make  their  obeisance  to  their  father’s  friend,  by 
coming  up  before  him  and  performing  the  kotau  as  rapidly  as 
possible,  each  one  making  haste,  as  if  he  did  not  wish  to  delay 
him.  The  guest  raises  them  with  a slight  bow,  and  the  lads  stand 
facing  him  at  a respectful  distance.  He  will  then  remark,  per- 


MODES  OF  SALUTATION  AND  ADDRESS. 


71 


haps,  if  one  of  them  happen  to  be  at  his  studies,  that  “ the  boy  will 
perpetuate  the  literary  reputation  of  his  family”  {lit.  he  will 
fully  carry  on  the  fragrance  of  the  books)  ; to  which  his  father 
rejoins,  “ The  reputation  of  our  family  is  not  great  {lit.  hills  and 
fields’  happiness  is  thin),  high  expectations  are  not  to  be  enter- 
tained of  him  ; if  he  can  only  gain  a livelihood  it  will  be 
enough.”  After  a few  such  compliments,  the  boys  say  shau  pei, 
“ slightly  waiting  on  you,”  i.  e.  pray  excuse  us,  and  retire. 
Girls  are  seldom  brought  in,  and  young  ladies,  never. 

The  periphrases  employed  to  denote  persons  and  thus  avoid 
speaking  their  names,  in  a measure  indicate  the  estimation  in 
which  they  are  held.  For  instance,  “ Does  the  honorable  great 
man  enjoy  happiness  ?”  means  “ Is  your  father  well  ?”  “ Dis- 

tinguished and  aged  one  what  honorable  age  ?”  is  the  mode  of 
asking  how  old  he  is  ; for  among  the  Chinese,  as  it  seems  to  have 
been  among  the  Egyptians,  it  is  polite  to  ask  the  names  and  ages 
of  all  ranks  and  sexes.  “ The  old  man  of  the  house,”  “ excel- 
lent honorable  one,”  and  “ venerable  great  prince,”  are  terms 
used  by  a \isitor  to  designate  the  father  of  his  host.  A child 
terms  his  father  “ family’s  majesty,”  “ old  man  of  the  family,” 
“ prince  of  the  family,”  or  “ venerable  father.”  When  dead,  a 
father  is  called  “ former  prince,”  and  a mother  “ venerable  great 
one  in  repose  and  there  are  particular  characters  to  distinguish 
deceased  parents  from  living.  The  request,  “ Make  my  respects 
to  your  mother,”  for  no  Chinese  gentleman  ever  asks  to  see  the 
ladies,  is  literally,  “ Excellent-longevity  hall  place  for  me  wish 
repose,”  the  first  two  words  denoting  she  who  remains  there. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  the  same  expressions  when  speak- 
ing of  the  relatives  of  the  guest,  and  one’s  own ; thus,  in  asking, 
“ How  many  worthy  young  gentlemen  (sons)  have  you  ?”  the 
host  replies,  “ I am  unfortunate  in  having  had  but  one  boy,” 
literally,  “ My  fate  is  niggardly,  I have  only  one  little  bug.”  This 
runs  through  their  whole  Chesterfieldian  code.  A man  calls  his 
wife  tsien  nui,  i.  e.  “the  mean  one  of  the  inner  apartments,” 
or  “ the  foolish  one  of  the  family  while  another  speaking  of 
her,  calls  her  “ the  honorable  lady,”  “ worthy  lady,”  “ your 
favored  one,”  &c.  Something  of  this  is  found  in  all  oriental 
languages,  and  to  become  familiar  with  the  right  application  of 
these  terms  in  Chinese  is  no  easy  lesson  for  a foreigner.  In  their 
salutations  of  ceremony,  they  are,  however,  far  behind  the  Arabs, 


72 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


with  their  kissing,  bowing,  touching  foreheads,  and  repeated  mo- 
tions  of  obeisance.  The  Chinese  seldom  embrace  or  touch  each 
other,  except  on  unusual  occasions  of  joy,  or  among  family  friends. 
When  the  visitor  rises  to  depart,  he  remarks,  “ Another  day  I 
will  come  to  receive  your  instructions;”  to  which  his  friend 
replies,  “ You  do  me  too  much  honor,  I rather  ought  to  wait  on 
you  to-morrow.”  The  common  form  of  salutation  among  equals 
is  for  each  to  clasp  his  own  hands  before  his  breast,  and  make  a 
slight  bow,  saying  Tsing ! Tsing  ! i.  e.  Hail ! Hail ! This  is 
repeated  by  both  at  the  same  time,  on  meeting  as  well  as  separat- 
ing. The  formalities  of  leave-taking  correspond  to  those  of 
saluting  in  the  degree  of  respect  paid  the  guest,  but  if  the  parties 
are  equal  or  nearly  so,  the  host  sees  his  friend  quite  to  the  door 
and  into  his  sedan.* 

Officers  avoid  meeting  each  other,  especially  in  public,  except 
when  etiquette  requires  them.  An  officer  of  low  rank  is  obliged 
to  stop  his  chair  or  horse,  and  on  his  feet  to  salute  his  superior, 
who  receives  and  returns  the  civility  without  moving.  Those  of 
equal  grades  leave  their  place,  and  go  through  a mock  struggle 
of  deference  to  get  each  first  to  return  to  it.  The  common  people 
never  presume  to  salute  an  officer  as  he  passes  through  the  streets, 
nor  look  at  him  very  carefully.  In  his  presence,  they  speak  to 
him  on  their  knees,  but  an  old  man,  or  one  of  consideration,  is 
usually  requested  to  rise  when  speaking,  and  even  criminals  with 
grey  hairs  are  treated  with  respect.  Officers  do  not  allow  their 
inferiors  to  sit  in  their  presence,  and  have  always  been  unwilling 
to  concede  this  to  foreigners,  those  of  the  lowest  rank  considering 
themselves  far  above  the  best  of  them. 

Children  are  early  taught  the  forms  of  politeness  towards  their 
parents,  their  superiors,  and  their  teachers.  The  duties  owed  by 
younger  to  elder  brothers  are  peculiar,  the  former  having  a sort 
of  birthright  in  the  ancestral  worship,  in  the  division  of  property, 
and  in  the  direction  of  the  family  after  the  father’s  decease.  The 
degree  of  formality  in  the  domestic  circle  inculcated  in  the  Book 
of  Rites  is  seldom  observed  to  its  full  extent,  and  would  perhaps 
chill  the  affection  which  should  exist  among  its  members,  did  not 
habit  render  it  easy  and  proper  ; and  the  extent  to  wffiich  it  is 
actually  carried  depends  a good  deal  upon  the  education  of  the 


* Chinese  Chrestomathy,  Chap.  V.,  Sect  12,  page  182- 


ETIQUETTE  OF  DINNERS. 


73 


family.  In  sending  presents  it  is  customary  to  send  a list  with 
the  note,  and  if  the  person  deems  it  proper  to  decline  some  of 
them,  he  marks  on  the  list  those  he  takes  and  returns  the  rest ; 
a douceur  is  always  expected  by  the  bearer,  and  needy  fellows 
sometimes  pretend  to  have  been  sent  with  some  insignificant  pre- 
sent from  a grandee  in  hopes  of  receiving  more  than  its  equiva- 
lent as  a cumshaw  from  the  person  thus  honored.  De  Guignes 
mentions  one  donor  who  waited  until  the  list  came  back,  and  then 
sent  out  and  purchased  the  articles  he  had  marked  for  his  friend. 

The  Chinese  formal  dinners  have  been  so  often  described  by 
travellers,  that  they  have  almost  become,  abroad,  one  of  their 
national  traits,  though  so  many  of  these  banquets  were  given  by 
or  in  the  name  of  the  sovereign,  that  they  are  hardly  a fair 
criterion  of  usual  private  feasts.  The  Chinese  are  both  a social 
and  a sensual  people,  and  the  pleasures  of  the  table  form  a prin- 
cipal item  in  the  list  of  their  enjoyments,  nor  are  the  higher 
delights  of  mental  recreation  altogether  wanting,  though  this 
part  of  the  entertainment  is  according  to  their  taste  and  not  ours. 
Private  meals  and  public  feasts  among  the  higher  classes,  are 
both  dull  and  long  to  us,  because  the  ladies  do  not  participate  ; 
but  perhaps  we  think  more  of  what  our  own  tables  would  be 
without  their  cheerful  presence,  while  in  China,  each  sex  thinks 
they  best  enjoy  their  tables  by  themselves. 

An  invitation  to  dinner  is  written  on  a slip  of  red  paper  like  a 
visiting-card,  and  sent  some  days  before.  It  reads,  “ On  the  — 
day,  a trifling  entertainment  will  await  the  light  of  your  counte- 
nance : Tsau  Sanwei’s  compliments.”  Another  card  is  sent  on 
the  day  itself  stating  the  hour  of  dinner,  or  a servant  comes  to 
call  the  guests.  The  host,  dressed  in  his  cap  and  robes,  awaits 
their  arrival,  and  after  they  are  all  assembled,  requests  them  to 
follow  his  example  and  lay  aside  their  dresses  of  ceremony. 
The  usual  way  of  arranging  guests  is  by  twos  on  each  side  of 
small  uncovered  tables,  placed  in  lines  ; an  arrangement  as  con- 
venient for  serving  the  numerous  courses  which  compose  the 
feast,  and  removing  the  dishes,  as  the  Roman  way  of  reclining 
around  a hollow  table  ; it  also  allows  a fair  view  of  the  musical 
or  theatrical  performances.  On  some  occasions,  however,  a 
single  long  table  is  laid  out  in  a tasteful  manner,  having  pyra- 
mids of  cakes  alternating  with  piles  of  fruits  and  dishes  of  pre- 
serves, all  covered  more  or  less  with  flowers,  and  the  table  itself 
VOL.  II.  5 


74 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


partly  hidden  from  view  by  nosegays  and  leaves.  If  the  party 
be  large,  ten  minutes  or  more  are  consumed  by  the  host  and 
guests  going  through  a tedious  repetition  of  requests  and  refusals 
to  take  the  highest  seats,  for  not  a man  will  sit  down  until  he 
sees  the  host  just  filling  his  chair,  it  being  always  considered  a 
breach  of  etiquette  for  a visitor  to  be  seated  before  his  host. 

On  commencing,  the  host,  standing  up,  salutes  his  guests,  in  a 
cup,  apologizing  for  the  frugal  board  spread  before  them,  his 
only  desire  being  to  show  his  respects  to  them.  At  a certain 
period  in  the  entertainment,  they  reply  by  simultaneously  rising 
and  drinking  his  health.  The  western  custom  of  giving  a senti- 
ment is  not  known  ; and  politeness  requires  a person  when 
drinking  healths  to  turn  the  bottom  of  the  tiny  wine-cup  outwards 
to  show  that  it  is  drained.  Glass  dishes  are  not  common,  most 
of  the  table  furniture  consisting  of  porcelain  cups,  bowls,  and 
saucers  of  various  sizes  and  quality,  porcelain  spoons  shaped 
like  a child’s  pap-boat,  and  two  smooth  sticks  made  of  bamboo, 
ivory,  or  wood,  of  the  size  of  quills,  well  known  as  the  chop- 
sticks, from  the  native  name  kwai  tsz’,  i.  e.  nimble  lads.  Grasp- 
ing these  implements  on  each  side  of  his  forefinger,  the  eater 
pinches  up  the  meat,  fish,  or  vegetables,  already  cut  into  mouth- 
fuls, from  the  disheg,  and  conveys  one  to  his  mouth.  The  bowl 
of  rice  or  millet  is  brought  to  the  lips,  and  the  grain  shovelled  into 
the  mouth  in  an  expeditious  manner,  quite  suitable  to  the  name 
of  the  tools  employed.  Less  convenient  than  forks,  chopsticks 
are  still  an  improvement  on  the  fingers,  as  every  one  will 
acknowledge  who  has  seen  the  Hindus  throw  the  balls  of  curried 
rice  into  their  mouths. 

The  succession  of  dishes  is  not  uniform  ; soups,  meats,  stews, 
fruits,  and  preserves,  are  introduced  somewhat  at  the  discretion 
of  the  major-domo,  but  the  end  is  announced  by  a bowl  of  plain 
rice  and  a cup  of  tea.  The  fruit  is  often  brought  in  after  a 
recess,  during  which  the  guests  rise  and  refresh  themselves  bv 
walking  and  chatting,  for  three  or  four  hours  are  not  unfiequently 
required  even  to  taste  all  the  dishes.  It  is  not  deemed  impolite 
for  a guest  to  express  his  satisfaction  with  the  good  fare  before 
him,  and  exhibit  evidences  of  having  stuffed  himself  to  repletion  ; 
nor  is  it  a breach  of  manners  to  retire  before  the  dinner  is  ended. 
The  guests  relieve  its  tedium  by  playing  the  game  of  cliai  mei,  or 
morra  (the  micare  digitis  of  the  Romans),  which  consists  in  show- 


USE  OF  SPIRITS  AMONG  THE  CHINESE. 


75 


ing  the  fingers  to  each  other  across  the  table,  and  mentioning  a 
number  at  the  same  moment ; as,  if  one  opens  out  two  fingers 
and  mentions  the  number  four,  the  other  instantly  shows  six  fin- 
gers, and  repeats  that  number ; if  he  mistake  in  giving  the 
complement  of  ten,  he  pays  the  forfeit  by  drinking  a cup.  This 
convivial  game  is  common  among  all  ranks,  and  the  boisterous 
merriment  of  parties  at  their  meals  is  frequently  heard  as  one 
passes  through  the  streets  in  the  afternoon.  The  Chinese  gene- 
rally have  but  two  meals  a day,  breakfast  at  nine  and  dinner  at 
four,  or  thereabouts. 

The  liquor  is  drunk  warm,  and  usually  at  meals;  the  compa- 
rative temperance  of  the  Chinese  is  ascribable  more  to  its  being 
taken  with  the  food  and  at  a high  temperature,  than  to  any 
notions  of  sobriety  or  dislike  of  spirits.  A little  flushes  their 
faces,  mounts  into  their  heads,  and  induces  them  when  flustered 
to  remain  in  the  house  to  conceal  the  suffusion,  although  they 
are  not  drunk.  The  spirit  is  distilled  from  the  yeasty  liquor  in 
which  boiled  rice  has  fermented  under  pressure  many  days. 
Only  one  distillation  is  made  for  common  liquor,  but  when  more 
strength  is  wanted,  it  is  distilled  two  or  three  times,  and  for 
foreign  sailors,  who  wish  it  very  fiery,  oil  of  tobacco,  cubebs, 
aniseed,  or  other  stimulating  ingredients  are  put  in ; the  term 
samshoo  or  sam  shin,  by  which  this  noxious  stuff  is  called,  means 
thrice  fired.  The  Chinese  moralists  have  always  inveighed 
against  the  use  of  spirits,  and  f-tih,  the  name  of  the  discoverer 
of  the  deleterious  drink,  more  than  two  thousand  years  before 
Christ,  has  been  handed  down  with  opprobrium,  as  he  was  him- 
self banished  by  the  great  Yu  for  his  discovery.  The  etymo- 
logy of  the  character  tsiu  signifies  “ sacrificial  water,”  to  which 
there  seems  to  be  a reference  in  the  following  extract  from  the 
Book  of  Records,  called  the  Wine  Announcement  of  Wu  wang, 
dated  b.  c.  1120,  and  the  oldest  temperance  address  on  record. 
He  thus  spoke  to  his  brother  Fung,  “ Your  venerable  predeces- 
sor Wan  wang  founded  a kingdom  in  the  western  land,  and 
warned  and  cautioned  all  the  states,  all  the  officers,  together  with 
the  assistants  and  managers,  morning  and  evening,  saying,  ‘ In 
sacrifices  use  this  wine.’  Heaven  only  sent  down  the  decree  at 
first  for  our  people  [to  make  wine]  on  account  of  the  great  sacri- 
fices. Heaven’s  sending  down  inflictions  on  our  people,  and 
causing  formidable  rebellions  [among  them],  and  the  destruction 


76 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  virtue,  is  invariably  on  account  of  wine : only  that  does  it. 
And  the  cause  of  the  ruin  of  small  and  large  states  [by  princes] 
is  also  invariably  on  account  of  wine.  Wan  wang  instructed 
the  youth,  the  office-holders,  and  men  of  business,  thus : ‘ Don’t 
be  constantly  guzzling  wine  ; let  the  occasion  of  a national 
drinking  be  when  sacrifices  are  offered,  and  then  use  it  mode- 
rately, so  as  not  to  become  drunk.’  ”* 

The  general  and  local  festivals  of  the  Chinese  are  numerous, 
but  only  a few  of  them  are  observed  by  entire  cessation  from 
labor.  The  first  three  days  of  the  year,  one  or  two  in  the  spring 
to  worship  at  the  tombs,  the  two  solstices,  and  the  festival  of 
dragon-boats,  are  common  days  of  relaxation  and  merry-making, 
but  only  on  the  first  named  are  shops  shut  and  business  suspend- 
ed. Some  persons  have  expressed  their  surprise  that  the  unceas- 
ing round  of  toil,  which  the  Chinese  laborer  pursues,  has  not 
rendered  him  more  degraded.  It  is  usually  said  that  a weekly 
rest  is  necessary  for  the  continuance  of  the  powers  of  body  and 
mind  in  man  in  their  full  activity,  and  that  decrepitude  and  insa- 
nity would  oftener  result  were  it  not  for  this  relaxation  The 
arguments  in  favor  of  this  observation  seem  to  be  deduced  from 
undoubted  facts  in  countries  where  its  obligations  are  acknow- 
ledged, though  where  the  vast  majority  cease  from  business  and 
labor,  it  is  not  easy  for  a few  to  work  all  the  time  even  if  they  wish, 
owing  to  the  various  ways  in  which  their  occupations  are  involved 
with  those  of  others  ; yet,  in  China,  people  who  apparently  tax 
themselves  uninterruptedly  to  the  utmost  stretch  of  body  and 
mind,  live  in  health  to  old  age.  A few  facts  of  this  sort  incline 
one  to  suppose  that  the  Sabbath  was  designed  by  its  Lord  as  a 
day  of  rest  from  mental  and  physical  labor,  in  order  that  man- 
kind might  have  leisure  for  attending  to  the  paramount  duties  of 
religion,  and  not  alone  as  a day  of  invigorating  rest,  without 
which  they  could  not  live  out  all  their  days.  Nothing  like  a 
seventh  day  of  rest,  or  religious  respect  to  that  interval  of  time, 
is  known  among  the  Chinese,  but  they  do  not,  as  a people,  exer- 
cise their  minds  to  the  intensity,  or  upon  the  high  subjects  com- 
mon among  Christian  nations,  and  this  perhaps  is  one  reason  why 
their  yearly  toil  produces  no  disastrous  effects.  The  countless 
blessings  which  flow  from  an  observance  of  the  fourth  command- 
ment can  be  better  appreciated  by  seeing  the  wearied  condition  of 
* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XV.,  page  433. 


CUSTOMS  FORETOKENING  THE  APPROACH  OF  NEWYEAR.  77 

the  society  where  it  is  not  acknowledged,  and  whoever  sees  such 
a society  can  hardly  fail  to  wish  for  its  introduction. 

The  return  of  the  year  is  an  occasion  of  unbounded  festivity 
and  hilarity,  as  if  the  whole  population  threw  off  the  old  year 
with  a shout,  and  clothed  themselves  in  the  new  with  their 
change  of  garments.  The  evidences  of  the  approach  of  this 
chief  festival  appear  some  weeks  previous.  The  principal 
streets  are  lined  with  tables,  upon  which  articles  of  dress,  furni- 
ture, and  fancy  are  disposed  for  sake  in  the  most  attractive  man- 
ner. Necessity  compels  many  to  dispose  of  rare  articles  or 
superfluous  things  at  this  season,  and  sometimes  very  curious 
articles,  long  laid  up  in  families,  can  be  procured  at  a cheap 
rate.  It  is  customary  for  superiors  to  give  their  dependents  and 
employees  a present  at  this  season,  and  for  shopmen  to  send  an 
acknowledgment  of  favors  to  their  customers ; one  of  the  most 
common  gifts  among  the  lower  classes  is  a pair  of  new  shoes. 
Among  the  stands  for  presents  are  other  tables,  at  which 
persons  are  seated,  provided  with  pencils  and  gilt  red  paper  of 
various  sizes,  on  which  they  write  sentences  appropriate  to  the 
season  in  various  styles,  to  be  pasted  upon  the  doorposts  and  lin- 
tels of  dwellings  and  shops,*  or  suspended  from  the  halls.  The 
shops  also  appear  very  brilliant  with  an  array  of  these  papers 
interspersed  among  the  kin  hwa,  or  golden  flowers,  which  are 
sprigs  of  artificial  leaves  and  flowers  made  of  brass  tinsel  and 
fastened  upon  wires ; the  latter  are  made  for  an  annual  offering 
in  temples,  or  before  the  household  tablet.  Small  strips  of  red 
and  gilt  paper,  some  bearing  the  word  fuh,  or  happiness,  large 
and  small  red  candles,  gaily  painted,  and  other  things  used  in 
idolatry,  are  likewise  sold  in  stalls  and  shops,  and  with  the 
increased  throng  impart  an  unusually  lively  appearance  to  the 
streets.  Another  evident  sign  of  the  approaching  change  is  the 
use  of  water  upon  the  doors,  shutters,  and  other  woodwork  of 
houses  and  shops,  washing  chairs,  utensils,  clothes,  &c.,  as  if 
cleanliness  had  not  a little  to  do  with  joy,  and  a well-washed 
person  and  tenement  were  indispensable  to  the  proper  celebra- 
tion of  the  festival.  The  small  craft,  tanka-boats,  and  lighters, 
are  also  beached  and  turned  inside  out  for  a scrubbing. 

A still  more  praiseworthy  custom  attending  and  announcing 

• A like  custom  existed  among  the  Hebrews,  now  continued  in  the 
modern  mezuzaw.  Deut.  vi.,  9.  Jahn’s  Archaeology. 


78 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


this  season  is  that  of  settling  accounts  and  paying  debts  ; and 
shopkeepers  are  very  busy  waiting  upon  their  customers,  and 
creditors  on  their  debtors,  to  arrange  these  important  matters. 
No  debt  is  allowed  to  overpass  newyear  without  a settlement 
or  satisfactory  arrangement,  if  it  can  be  avoided  ; and  those 
whose  liabilities  altogether  exceed  their  means,  are  generally 
obliged  to  wind  up  their  concerns,  and  give  all  their  available 
property  into  the  hands  of  their  creditors.  The  consequences 
of  this  general  payday  are  a high  rate  of  money,  great  resort 
to  the  pawnbrokers,  and  low  price  of  most  kinds  of  produce  and 
goods.  Many  good  results  flow  from  the  practice,  and  the  gene- 
ral experience  of  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  resorting  to  legal 
proceedings  to  recover  debts,  induces  all  to  observe  and  maintain 
it.  De  Guignes  mentions  one  expedient  to  oblige  a man  to  pay 
his  debts  at  this  season,  which  is,  to  carry  off  the  door  of  his 
shop  or  house,  for  then  his  premises  and  person  will  be  exposed 
to  the  entrance  and  anger  of  all  the  hungry  and  malicious 
demons  prowling  around  the  streets,  and  happiness  no  more  re- 
visit his  abode  ; to  avoid  this  he  had  better  settle  his  accounts. 
It  is  a common  practice  among  devout  persons  to  settle  with  the 
gods,  and  during  a few  days  before  the  newyear,  the  temples 
are  unusually  thronged  by  devotees,  both  male  and  female,  rich 
and  poor.  Some  persons  fast  and  engage  the  priests  to  intercede 
for  them  that  their  sins  may  be  pardoned,  while  they  prostrate 
themselves  before  the  images  amidst  the  din  of  gongs,  drums, 
and  bells  ; and  thus  clear  off  the  old  score.  On  newyear’s  eve, 
the  streets  are  full  of  people,  all  hurrying  to  and  fro,  to  con- 
clude the  many  matters  which  press  upon  them.  Some  are 
busy  pasting  the  five  papers  upon  their  lintels,  signifying  their 
desire  that  the  five  blessings  which  constitute  the  sum  of  all 
human  felicity,  namely,  longevity,  riches,  health,  love  of  virtue, 
and  a natural  death,  may  be  their  favored  portion.  Such  sen- 
tences as  “ May  the  five  blessings  descend  upon  this  door,” 
“ May  heaven  confer  happiness,”  “ May  rich  customers  ever 
enter  this  door,”  are  placed  above  them ; and  the  doorposts 
are  adorned  with  others  on  plain,  or  sprinkled  gilt  red  paper, 
making  the  entrance  altogether  look  quite  picturesque.  In  the  hall 
are  suspended  scrolls  more  or  less  costly,  containing  antithetical 
sentences  carefully  chosen.  A literary  man  would  have,  for 
instance,  a distich  like  the  following : — 


MODES  Of  ADORNING  HOUSES  AT  NEWYEAR. 


79 


May  I be  so  learned  as  to  secrete  in  my  mind  three  myriads  of 
volumes : 

May  I know  the  affairs  of  the  world  for  six  thousand  years. 

Other  professions  and  tastes  would  exhibit  sentences  of  a differ- 
ent character. 

Boat-people  are  peculiarly  liberal  of  their  paper  prayers, 
pasting  them  on  every  board  and  oar  in  the  boat,  and  suspending 
them  from  the  stern  in  scores,  making  the  vessel  flutter  with 
gaiety.  The  farmers  paste  them  upon  their  barns,  trees, 
wattles,  baskets,  and  implements,  as  if  nothing  was  too  insignificant 
for  a blessing.  The  house  is  arranged  in  the  most  orderly 
manner,  and  purified  with  many  religious  ceremonies  and  lus- 
trations, firing  of  crackers,  &c.,  and  as  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions occupy  a considerable  portion  of  the  night,  the  streets  are 
not  quiet  till  nearly  dawn.  In  addition  to  the  bustle  arising 
from  business  and  religious  observances,  which  marks  this  pas- 
sage of  time,  the  constant  explosion  of  fire-crackers,  and  the 
clamor  of  gongs,  make  it  still  more  noisy.  Strings  of  these 
crackling  fireworks  are  burned  at  the  doorposts,  before  the  out- 
going and  incoming  of  the  year,  designed  to  expel  and  deter 
evil  spirits  from  the  house  ; and  the  consumption  is  so  great  as 
to  cover  the  streets  with  the  fragments,  and  farmers  come  the 
week  after  and  sweep  up  hundreds  of  bushels  for  manure. 

The  first  day  of  the  year  may  moreover  be  regarded  as  the 
birthday  of  the  entire  population,  for  the  practice  among  the 
Hebrews  of  dating  their  ages  from  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
prevails  also  in  China  ; so  that  a child  born  only  a week  before 
newyear,  is  considered  as  entering  its  second  year  on  the  first 
day  of  the  first  month.  This  does  not,  however,  altogether  su- 
persede the  observance  of  the  real  anniversary,  and  parents 
frequently  make  a gala  day  of  the  birthday  of  their  young  sons. 
Mr.  Lowrie  (Miss.  Chronicle,  1846)  describes  tb^  CCrCir.Gnies 
observed  by  one  father,  who  came  to  a temple  in  Ningpo  to  cele- 
brate the  sixth  birthday  of  his  son.  “ The  little  fellow  was 
dressed  in  his  best  clothes,  and  his  father  had  brought  gilt  paper, 
printed  prayers,  and  a large  number  of  bowls  of  meats,  rice, 
vegetables,  spirits,  nuts,  &c.,  as  an  offering  to  be  spread  out  before 
the  idols.  The  ceremonies  were  performed  in  the  apartment  of 
the  Tau  Mu , or  Bushel  Mother,  who  has  special  charge  of 


80 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


infants  before  and  after  birth.  The  old  abbot  was  dressed  in  a 
scarlet  robe,  with  a gilt  image  of  a serpent  fastened  in  his  hair ; 
one  of  the  monks  wore  a purple,  another  a grey  robe.  A mul- 
titude of  prayers,  seemingly  a round  of  repetitions,  were  read 
by  the  abbot,  occasionally  chanting  a little,  when  the  attendants 
joined  in  a chorus,  and  a deafening  clamor  of  bells,  cymbals, 
and  wooden  blocks,  added  force  to  their  cry  ; genuflexions  and 
prostrations  were  repeatedly  made.  One  part  of  the  ceremony 
was  to  pass  a live  cock  through  a barrel,  which  the  assistants 
performed  many  times,  shouting  some  strange  words  at  each 
repetition  ; this  act  symbolized  the  dangers  through  which  the 
child  was  to  pass  in  his  future  life,  and  the  priests  had  prayed 
that  he  might  as  safely  come  out  of  them  all,  as  the  cock  had 
passed  through  the  barrel.  In  conclusion,  some  of  the  prayers 
were  burned  and  a libation  poured  out,  and  a grand  symphony 
of  bell,  gong,  drum,  and  block,  closed  the  scene.” 

A great  diversity  of  local  usages  are  observed  at  this  period 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  In  Amoy,  the  custom  of 
“ surrounding  the  furnace”  is  generally  practised.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  family  sit  down  to  a substantial  supper  on  newyear’s 
eve,  with  a pan  of  charcoal  under  the  table,  as  a supposed  pre- 
servative against  fires.  After  the  supper  is  ended,  the  wooden 
lamp-stands  are  brought  out  and  spread  upon  the  pavement  with 
a heap  of  gold  and  silver  paper,  and  set  on  fire  after  all  de- 
mons have  been  warned  off  by  a volley  of  fire-crackers.  The 
embers  are  then  divided  into  twelve  heaps,  and  their  manner  of 
going  out  carefully  watched  as  a prognostic  of  the  kind  of 
weather  to  be  expected  the  ensuing  year.  Many  persons  wash 
their  bodies  in  warm  water,  made  aromatic  by  the  infusion  of 
leaves,  as  a security  against  disease  ; this  ceremony,  and  orna- 
menting the  ancestral  shrine,  and  garnishing  the  whole  house 
with  inscriptions,  pictures,  flowers,  and  fruit,  in  the  gayest  man- 
HCr  the  >r,pans  Of  the  family  will  allow,  occupy  most  of  the 
night. 

The  stillness  of  the  streets  and  closed  shops  on  newyear’s  morn- 
ing presents  a striking  contrast  to  the  usual  bustle  and  crowd, 
resembling  the  Christian  Sabbath.  The  red  papers  on  the  doors 
are  here  and  there  interspersed  with  blue  ones,  announcing  that 
during  the  past  year  death  has  come  among  the  inmates  of  the 
house, — a silent  but  expressive  intimation  to  passers  that  some  who 


CONGRATULATIONS  AT  NEWYEAR. 


81 


saw  the  last  newyear  have  passed  away.  In  some  places, 
white,  yellow,  and  carnation  colored  papers  are  employed,  as 
well  as  blue,  to  distinguish  the  degree  of  the  deceased  kindred. 
Etiquette  requires  that  those  who  mourn  remain  at  home  at  this 
period.  In  a few  hours,  the  streets  begin  to  be  filled  with  well- 
dressed  persons,  hastening  in  sedans  or  afoot  to  make  their  calls ; 
and  those  who  cannot  afford  to  buy  a new  suit,  hire  one  for  this 
purpose,  so  that  a man  hardly  knows  his  own  domestics  in  their 
finery  and  robes.  The  meeting  of  friends  in  the  streets,  both 
bound  on  the  same  errand,  is  attended  with  particular  demon- 
strations of  respect,  each  politely  struggling  who  shall  be  most 
affectedly  humble.  On  this  day,  parents  receive  the  prostrations 
of  their  children,  teachers  expect  the  salutations  of  their  pupils, 
magistrates  look  for  the  calls  of  their  inferiors,  and  ancestors  of 
every  generation,  and  gods  of  various  powers,  are  presented  with 
the  offerings  of  devotees  in  the  hall  or  temple.  Much  of  the 
visiting  is  done  by  cards,  on  which  is  stamped  an  emblematic 
device  representing  the  three  happy  wishes  of  children,  rank, 
and  longevity ; a common  card  suffices  for  distant  acquaint- 
ances and  customers.  It  might  be  a subject  of  speculation 
whether  the  custom  of  visiting  and  renewing  one’s  acquaint- 
ances on  newyear’s  day  practised  among  the  Dutch  and  in  some 
parts  of  America,  was  not  originally  imitated  from  the  Chinese  : 
but  as  in  some  other  things,  so  in  this,  the  westerns  have  improved 
upon  the  easterns,  in  calling  upon  the  ladies.  Persons,  as  they 
meet,  salute  each  other  with  Kunghi ! Kunglii  ! i.  e.  I respect- 
fully wish  you  joy  ! which  from  its  use  at  this  season,  is  quite 
like  the  Happy  Newyear!  of  Englishmen.  Towards  evening, 
the  merry  sounds  proceeding  from  the  closed  doors  announce 
that  the  sacrifice  provided  for  presentation  before  the  shrines  of 
departed  parents  is  cheering  the  worshippers  ; while  the  great 
numbers  who  resort  to  the  gambling-shops  show  full  well  that 
the  routine  of  ceremony  soon  becomes  tiresome,  and  a more 
exciting  stimulus  is  needed.  The  extent  to  which  play  is 
carried  at  this  season  is  almost  indescribable.  Jugglers,  moun- 
tebanks,  and  actors,  also  endeavor  to  collect  a few  coppers  by 
amusing  the  crowds.  Generally  speaking,  however,  the  three 
days  devoted  to  this  festival  pass  by  without  turmoil,  and  busi- 
ness and  work  gradually  resume  their  usual  course  for  another 
twelvemonth. 


VOL.  II. 


5* 


82 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  festival  of  the  dragon-boats,  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  fifth 
month,  presents  a very  lively  scene.  Pairs  of  long  narrow 
boats,  holding  sixty  or  more  rowers,  race  up  and  down  the 
rivers  with  huge  clamor,  as  if  searching  for  some  one  who  had 
been  drowned.  This  festival  was  instituted  in  memory  of  the 
statesman  Wuh  Yuen,  about  300  b.c.,  who  drowned  himself  in 
the  Yangtsz’  kiang  ; search  was  made  for  his  body  by  the  peo- 
ple, who  loved  him  for  his  virtues,  and  this  mode  of  remember- 
ing him  has  been  since  continued.  The  bow  of  the  boat  is 
ornamented  or  carved  into  the  head  of  a dragon,  and  men  beat- 
ing gongs  and  drums,  and  waving  flags,  inspirit  the  rowers  to 
renewed  exertions.  The  exhilarating  exercise  of  racing  leads 
the  people  to  prolong  the  festival  two  or  three  days,  and  gene- 
rally with  commendable  good  humor,  but  their  eagerness  to 
excel  often  breaks  the  boats,  or  leads  them  into  so  much  danger 
that  the  magistrates  sometimes  forbid  the  races  to  save  the  peo- 
ple from  drowning. 

The  first  full  moon  of  the  year  is  the  feast  of  lanterns,  a child- 
ish and  dull  festival  compared  with  the  two  preceding.  Its  origin 
is  not  certainly  known,  but  it  was  observed  as  early  as  a.  d.  700. 
Its  celebration  merely  consists  in  suspending  lanterns  of  different 
forms  and  materials  before  each  door,  and  illuminating  those  in 
the  hall,  but  their  united  brilliancy  is  dimness  itself  compared 
with  the  light  of  the  moon.  Fireworks  are  also  exhibited  by  the 
rich,  some  of  them  very  elegant.  Magaillans  describes  one  he 
saw,  which  was  an  arbor  covered  with  a vine,  the  woodwork  of 
which  seemed  to  burn,  while  the  trunk,  leaves,  and  clusters  of  the 
plant  gradually  consumed,  yet  so  that  the  redness  of  the  grapes, 
the  greenness  of  the  leaves,  and  natural  brown  of  the  stem,  were 
all  maintained  until  the  whole  was  burned.  The  feast  of  lanterns 
coming  so  soon  after  newyear,  and  being  somewhat  expensive,  is 
not  very  enthusiastically  observed,  at  least  in  the  southern  cities. 

In  the  manufacture  of  lanterns  the  Chinese  surely  excel  all 
other  people ; the  variety  of  their  forms,  their  elegant  carving, 
gilding,  and  coloring,  and  the  laborious  ingenuity  and  taste  dis- 
played in  their  construction,  render  them  among  the  prettiest 
ornaments  of  their  dwellings.  They  are  made  of  paper,  silk, 
cloth,  glass,  horn,  basket-work,  and  bamboo,  exhibiting  an  infi- 
nite variety  of  shapes  and  decorations,  varying  in  size  from  a 
small  hand  light  costing  two  or  three  cents,  up  to  a magnificent 


FEAST  AND  SHOWS  OF  LANTERNS. 


83 


chandelier,  or  a complicated  lantern  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  con- 
taining  several  lamps  within  it,  and  worth  three  or  four  hundred 
dollars.  The  uses  to  which  they  are  applied  are  not  less  various 
than  the  pains  and  skill  bestowed  upon  their  construction  are  re- 
markable. One  curious  kind  is  called  the  tsau-ma  tang,  or  horse- 
racing lantern,  which  consists  of  one,  two,  or  more  wire  frames, 
one  within  the  other,  and  arranged  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
smoke-jack,  by  which  the  current  of  air  caused  by  the  flame  sets 
them  revolving.  The  wire  framework  is  covered  with  paper 
figures  of  men  and  animals  placed  in  the  midst  of  appropriate 
scenery,  and  represented  in  various  attitudes ; or,  as  Magaillans 
describes  them,  “ You  shall  see  horses  run,  draw  chariots  and  till 
the  earth  ; vessels  sailing,  kings  and  princes  go  in  and  out  with 
large  trains,  and  great  numbers  of  people,  both  afoot  and  a horse- 
back, armies  marching,  comedies,  dances,  and  a thousand  other 
divertisements  and  motions  represented.” 

One  of  the  prettiest  shows  of  lanterns  is  seen  in  a festival  ob- 
served in  the  spring  or  autumn  by  fishermen  to  propitiate  the 
spirits  of  the  waters.  One  indispensable  part  of  the  procession  is 
a dragon  fifty  feet  or  more  long,  made  of  light  bamboo  frames  of 
the  size  and  shape  of  a barrel,  connected  and  covered  with  strips 
of  colored  cotton  or  silk ; the  extremities  represent  the  gaping 
head  and  frisking  tail.  This  monster  symbolizes  the  ruler  of  the 
watery  deep,  and  is  carried  through  the  streets  by  men  holding 
the  head  and  each  joint  upon  poles,  to  which  are  suspended  lan- 
terns ; and  as  they  walk  they  give  the  body  a wriggling,  waving 
motion.  Huge  figures  of  fish,  similarly  lighted,  precede  the  dra- 
gon, and  music  and  fireworks — the  never-failing  warning  to  way- 
side  demons  to  keep  out  of  the  way — accompany  the  procession, 
which  presents  a very  brilliant  sight  as  it  winds  its  way  through 
the  dark  streets.  These  sports  and  processions  give  idolatry  its 
hold  upon  a people  ; and  although  none  of  them  are  required  or 
patronized  by  government,  still,  in  China  as  in  other  heathen 
countries,  most  of  the  scenes  and  games  which  please  the  people 
are  recommended  by  connecting  with  them  the  observances  or 
hopes  of  religion,  and  the  merrymaking  of  the  festive  board. 

In  the  middle  of  the  sixth  month,  lanterns  are  hung  from  the 
top  of  a pole  placed  on  the  highest  part  of  the  house.  A single 
small  lantern  is  deemed  sufficient,  but  if  the  night  be  calm,  a 
greater  display  is  made  by  some  householders,  and  especially  in 


84 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


boats,  by  exhibiting  colored  glass  lamps  arranged  in  various  ways. 
The  illumination  of  a city  like  Canton,  as  seen  from  a high  spot, 
there  made  still  more  brilliant  by  the  moving  boats  on  the  river, 
is  extremely  beautiful.  On  one  of  these  festivals  at  Canton,  an 
almost  total  eclipse  of  the  moon  called  out  the  entire  population 
bearing  every  description  of  noise-making  implements,  kettles, 
pans,  sticks,  drums,  gongs,  guns,  crackers,  and  what  not,  to 
raise  a din  and  frighten  away  the  dragon  of  the  sky  from  his 
hideous  feast.  The  advancing  shadow  gradually  showed  the 
myriads  of  lanterns  more  and  more  distinctly,  and  started  a still 
increasing  clamor,  till  the  darkness  and  the  noise  were  both  at 
their  climax  ; after  which  silence  gradually  resumed  its  sway  as 
the  moon  recovered  her  fulness. 

The  Chinese  are  fond  of  processions,  and  if  marriages  and 
funerals  be  included,  have  them  far  more  frequently  than  any 
other  people.  There  are  numerous  livery  establishments  in 
every  city  and  town,  where  processions  are  arranged  and  sup- 
plied with  everything  necessary  for  bridal  and  funeral  occasions 
as  well  as  religious  festivals.  Not  only  sedans,  bands  of  music, 
biers,  pavilions  for  carrying  idols,  shrines,  and  sacrificial  feasts, 
boxes  for  holding  the  bride’s  trousseau,  &c.,  are  supplied,  but 
also  banners,  tables,  stands,  curiosities,  and  uniforms,  in  great 
variety.  The  men  and  boys  required  to  carry  them  and 
perform  the  various  parts  are  hired,  and  a uniform  just  thrown 
over  their  ragged  garments  and  dirty  limbs.  Guilds  often  go  to 
a heavy  expense  in  getting  up  a procession  in  honor  of  their 
patron  saint,  whose  image  is  carried  through  the  streets,  attended 
by  the  members  of  the  corporation  dressed  in  holiday  robes  and 
boots.  Splendid  silken  banners  worked  with  rich  embroidery, 
alternating  with  young  girls  bedizened  with  paint  and  flowers, 
and  perched  on  high  seats  under  an  artificial  tree,  or  apparently 
almost  in  the  air,  resting  upon  frames  cn  men’s  shoulders  ; add 
to  the  pomp.  Bands  of  music,  sacrificial  meats  and  fruits 
adorned  with  flowers,  shrines,  images,  and  curious  rarities  laid 
out  upon  red  pavilions,  still  further  enliven  the  scene.  Some- 
times boys  gaily  dressed  like  officers  and  riding  upon  ponies,  or 
harnessed  up  in  a covered  framework  to  represent  horses,  so  con- 
trived and  painted  that  the  spectator  can  hardly  believe  they  are 
not  riding  Lilliputian  ponies  as  big  as  dogs,  add  to  the  diversion 
of  the  spectacle.  A child  standing  in  a car,  and  carrying  a 


COMPOSITION  AND  STYLE  OF  PROCESSIONS. 


85 


branch  on  its  shoulder,  on  one  twig  of  which  stands  another 
child  on  one  foot ; or  a girl  holding  a plate  of  cakes  in  her  hand, 
on  the  top  of  which  stands  another  miss  on  tiptoe,  the  whole 
borne  by  coolies,  are  among  the  parts  of  the  exhibition.  Small 
companies  dressed  in  a great  variety  of  military  uniforms,  carry, 
ing  spears,  shields,  halberds,  &c.,  now  and  then  volunteer  for  the 
occasion,  and  give  it  a more  martial  appearance.  The  carpen- 
ters at  Canton  are  famous  for  their  splendid  processions  in  honor 
of  their  hero,  Lupan,  in  which  also  other  craftsmen  join,  for  this 
demi-god,  the  Tubal-cain  of  Chinese  legends,  is  regarded  as  the 
patron  of  all  workmen.  Besides  these  festivities  and  processions, 
there  are  several  more  strictly  religious,  such  as  the  annual  mass 
of  the  Budhists,  the  supplicatory  sacrifice  of  farmers  for  a good 
crop,  and  others  of  more  or  less  importance,  which  add  to  the 
number  of  days  of  recreation. 

Theatrical  representations  constitute  a common  amusement, 
and  when  public  are  connected  with  the  religious  celebration  of 
the  festival  of  the  god  before  whose  temple  they  are  exhibited. 
They  are  got  up  by  the  priests,  who  send  their  neophytes  around 
with  a subscription  paper,  and  then  engage  as  large  and  skilful 
a band  of  performers  as  their  funds  will  allow.  There  are  no 
permanent  buildings  erected  for  theatres,  but  the  Thespian  band 
still  retains  its  original  strolling  character,  and  stands  ready  to 
pack  up  its  trappings  at  the  first  call.  The  erection  of  sheds  for 
playing  constitutes  a separate  branch  of  the  carpenter’s  trade ; 
one  large  enough  to  accommodate  two  thousand  persons  can  be 
put  up  in  a day,  and  almost  the  only  part  of  the  materials  wasted 
is  the  rattan  which  bind  the  posts  and  mats  together.  There  is 
usually  one  large  shed  for  the  stage,  and  three  smaller  ones  be- 
fore it,  inclosing  an  area,  and  furnished  with  rude  seats  for  the 
spectators.  The  collections  are  acknowledged  by  pasting  red 
sheets  containing  the  names  and  amounts  upon  the  walls  of  the 
temple.  The  purlieus  are  let  as  stands  for  the  sale  of  refresh- 
ments, for  gambling  tables,  or  for  worse  purposes,  and  by  all 
these  means  the  priests  generally  contrive  to  make  gain  of  their 
devotion. 

Parties  of  actors  and  tumblers  are  numerous,  and  can  be  hired 
cheaply,  and  their  performances  frequently  relieve  the  tedium 
of  the  private  life  of  rich  families  who  engage  them  to  come  to 
their  houses.  They  are  constituted  into  separate  corporations  or 


86 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


guilds,  and  each  takes  a distinguishing  name,  as  the  Happy  and 
Blessed  company,  the  Glorious  Appearing  company,  &c. 

The  performances  usually  extend  through  three  entire  days, 
with  brief  recesses  for  sleeping  and  eating,  and  in  villages  where 
they  are  comparatively  rare,  the  people  act  as  if  they  were  be- 
witched, neglecting  everything  to  attend  them.  The  female 
parts  are  performed  by  lads,  who  not  only  paint  and  dress  like 
women,  but  even  squeeze  their  toes  into  the  “golden  lilies,”  and 
imitate,  upon  the  stage,  a mincing,  wriggling  gait.  These  fellows 
personate  the  voice,  tones,  and  motions  of  the  sex  with  wonder- 
ful exactness,  taking  every  opportunity,  indeed,  that  the  play  will 
allow  to  relieve  their  feet  by  sitting  when  on  the  boards,  or  retir- 
ing into  the  greenroom  when  not  speaking.  The  acting  is  chiefly 
pantomime,  and  its  fidelity  shows  the  excellent  tuition  of  the 
players  ; this  development  of  their  imitative  faculties  is  probably 
still  more  encouraged  by  the  difficulty  the  audience  find  to  un- 
derstand what  is  said ; for,  owing  to  the  differences  in  the  dia- 
lects, the  open  construction  of  the  theatre,  the  high  falsetto  reci- 
tative key  in  which  the  words  are  spoken,  and  the  din  of  the 
orchestra  intervening  between  every  few  sentences,  not  one 
quarter  of  the  people  hear  or  understand  a word. 

The  scenery  is  very  simple,  consisting  merely  of  rudely 
painted  mats  arranged  on  the  back  and  sides  of  the  stage,  a few 
tables,  chairs,  or  beds,  which  successively  serve  for  many  uses, 
and  are  brought  in  and  out  from  the  robing-room.  The  orches- 
tra is  seated  on  the  side  of  the  stage,  and  not  only  play  interludes 
but  strike  a crashing  noise  by  way  of  emphasis,  or  to  add  energy 
to  the  rush  of  opposing  warriors.  No  falling  curtain  divides  the 
acts  or  scenes,  and  the  play  is  carried  to  its  conclusion  without 
intermission.  The  dresses  are  made  of  gorgeous  silks,  and  pre- 
sent the  best  specimens  of  ancient  Chinese  costume  of  former 
dynasties  now  to  be  seen.  The  imperfections  of  the  scenery 
require  much  to  be  suggested  by  the  spectator’s  imagination, 
though  the  actors  themselves  supply  the  defect  in  a measure  by 
each  man  stating  what  part  fie  performs,  and  what  the  person  he 
represents  has  been  doing  while  absent.  If  a courier  is  to  be 
sent  to  a distant  city,  away  he  strides  across  the  boards,  or  per- 
haps gets  a whip  and  cocks  up  his  leg  as  if  mounting  a horse, 
and  on  reaching  the  edge  of  the  stage,  cries  out  that  he  has 
arrived,  and  there  delivers  his  message.  Passing  a bridge,  or 


THEATRICAL  PERFORMANCES  AND  PLAVACTORS. 


87 


crossing  a river,  are  indicated  by  stepping  up  and  then  down,  or 
by  the  rolling  motion  of  a boat.  If  a city  is  to  be  impersonated, 
two  or  three  men  lie  down  upon  each  other,  when  warriors  rush 
on  them  furiously,  overthrow  the  wall  which  they  formed,  and 
take  the  place  by  assault.  Ghosts,  or  supernatural  beings,  are 
introduced  through  a wide  trap-door  in  the  stage,  and  if  he  thinks 
it  necessary,  the  impersonator  cries  out  from  underneath  that  he 
is  ready,  or  for  assistance  to  help  him  up  through  the  hole. 

Mr.  Lay  describes  a play  he  saw  in  which  a medley  of  celes- 
tial and  terrestrial  personages  were  introduced.  “ The  first 
scene  was  intended  to  represent  the  happiness  and  splendor  of 
beings  who  inhabit  the  upper  regions,  with  the  sun  and  moon  and 
the  elements  curiously  personified  playing  around  them.  The 
man  who  personated  the  sun  held  a round  image  of  the  sun’s 
disk,  while  the  female,  who  acted  the  part  of  the  moon,  had  a 
crescent  in  her  hand.  The  actors  took  care  to  move  so  as  to 
mimic  the  conjunction  and  opposition  of  these  heavenly  bodies  as 
they  revolve  round  in  their  apparent  orbs.  The  Thunderer 
wielded  an  axe,  and  leaped  and  dashed  about  in  a variety  of  extra- 
ordinary somersets.  After  a few  turns  the  monarch,  who  had 
been  so  highly  honored  as  to  find  a place,  through  the  partiality 
of  a mountain  nymph,  in  the  abodes  of  the  happy,  begins  to  feel 
that  no  height  of-  good  fortune  can  secure  a mortal  against  the 
common  calamities  of  this  frail  life.  A wicked  courtier  disguises 
himself  in  a tiger’s  skin,  and  in  this  garb  imitates  the  animal 
itself.  He  rushes  into  the  retired  apartments  of  the  ladies, 
frightens  them  out  of  their  wits,  and  throws  the  heir-apparent 
into  a moat.  The  sisters  hurry  into  the  royal  presence,  and  cast- 
ing themselves  on  the  ground  divulge  the  sad  intelligence  that  a 
tiger  has  borne  off  the  young  prince,  who  it  appears  was  the  son 
of  the  mountain  nymph  aforesaid.  The  loss  the  bereaved  mon- 
arch takes  so  much  to  heart,  that  he  renounces  the  world,  and 
deliberates  about  the  nomination  of  a successor.  By  the  influ- 
ence of  a crafty  woman,  he  selects  a young  man  who  has  just 
sense  enough  to  know  that  he  is  a fool.  The  settlement  of  the 
crown  is  scarcely  finished,  when  the  unhappy  king  dies,  and  the 
blockhead  is  presently  invested  with  the  crown,  but  instead  of 
excelling  in  his  new  preferment,  the  lout  bemoans  his  lot  in  the 
most  awkward  strains  of  lamentation,  and  cries  ‘ O dear ! what 
shall  I do  V with  such  piteous  action,  and  yet  withal  so  truly  ludi- 


88 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


crous,  that  the  spectator  is  at  a loss  to  know  whether  to  laugli  or 
to  weep.  The  courtier,  who  had  taken  off  the  heir  and  broken 
the  father’s  heart,  finds  the  new  king  an  easy  tool  for  prosecuting 
his  traitorous  purposes,  and  the  state  is  plunged  into  the  depths 
of  civil  discord  at  home  and  dangerous  wars  abroad. 

“ In  the  sequel  a scene  occurred,  in  which  the  reconciliation 
of  this  court  and  some  foreign  prince  depends  upon  the  surrender 
of  a certain  obnoxious  person.  The  son-in-law  of  the  victim  is 
charged  with  the  letter  containing  this  proposal,  and  returns  to 
his  house  and  disguises  himself  for  the  sake  of  concealment. 
When  he  reaches  the  court  of  the  foreign  prince,  he  discovers 
that  he  has  dropped  the  letter  in  changing  his  clothes,  and  nar- 
rowly escapes  being  taken  for  a spy  without  his  credentials.  He 
hurries  back,  calls  for  his  garments,  and  shakes  them  one  by  one 
in  an  agony  of  self-reproach,  but  no  letter  appears.  He  sits 
down,  throwing  himself  with  great  violence  upon  the  chair,  with 
a countenance  inexpressibly  full  of  torture  and  despair : reality 
could  have  added  nothing  to  the  imitation.  But  while  every  eye 
was  riveted  upon  him,  he  called  the  servant-maid,  and  inquired  if 
she  knew  anything  about  the  letter ; she  replied  she  overheard 
her  mistress  reading  a letter  whose  contents  were  so  and  so. 
The  mistress  had  taken  her  seat  at  a distance  from  him,  and  was 
nursing  her  baby  ; and  the  instant  he  ascertained  the  letter  was 
in  her  possession,  he  looked  towards  her  with  such  a smile  upon 
his  cheek,  and  with  a flood  of  light  in  his  eye,  that  the  whole 
assembly  heaved  a loud  sigh  of  admiration,  for  the  Chinese  do 
not  applaud  by  clapping  and  stamping,  but  express  their  feelings 
by  an  ejaculation  that  is  between  a sigh  and  a groan.  The  aim 
of  the  husband  was  to  wheedle  his  wife  out  of  the  letter,  and  this 
smile  and  look  of  affection  were  merely  the  prelude;  for  he 
takes  his  chair,  places  it  beside  her,  lays  one  hand  softly  on  her 
shoulder,  and  fondles  the  child  with  the  other  in  a style  so  exqui- 
sitely natural,  and  so  completely  English,  that  in  this  dramatic 
picture  it  was  seen  that  nature  fashioneth  men’s  hearts  alike. 
His  addresses  were,  however,  ineffectual,  and  her  father’s  life  was 
not  sacrificed.”* 

The  morals  of  the  Chinese  stage,  so  far  as  the  sentiments  of 
♦he  pieces  are  concerned,  are  better  than  the  acting,  which  some- 
times panders  to  depraved  tastes,  but  no  indecent  exposure,  as  of 
* Chinese  as  They  Are,  page  114. 


PREVALENCE  AND  MODES  OF  GAMBLING. 


89 


the  persons  of  dancers,  is  ever  seen  in  China.  The  audience  stand 
in  the  area  fronting  the  stage,  or  sit  in  the  sheds  around  it,  and 
the  women  present  are  usually  seated  in  the  galleries.  The 
police  are  at  hand  to  maintain  order,  but  the  crowd,  although  in 
an  irksome  position,  and  sometimes  exposed  to  a fierce  sun,  is 
remarkably  peaceable.  Accidents  seldom  occur  on  these  occa- 
sions, but  whenever  the  people  are  alarmed,  or  the  stage  takes 
fire,  loss  of  life  or  limb  generally  ensues.  A dreadful  destruction 
of  life  took  place  at  Canton  in  May,  1845,  by  the  conflagration  of 
a stage  during  the  performances,  by  which  more  than  2000  per- 
sons lost  their  lives  ; and  the  survivors  remembered  that  fifty  per- 
sons were  killed  many  years  before  in  the  same  place  and  occasion 
by  the  falling  of  a wall.* 

Active,  manly  plays  are  not  popular  in  the  south,  and  instead 
of  engaging  in  a cricket-match  or  regatta,  going  to  a bowling 
alley  or  fives’  court,  to  exhibit  their  strength  and  skill,  they  lift 
beams  headed  with  heavy  stones  to  prove  their  brawn,  or  kick  up 
their  heels  in  a game  of  shuttlecock.  The  outdoor  amusements 
of  gentlemen  consist  in  flying  kites,  carrying  birds  on  perches, 
sauntering  hand  in  hand  through  the  fields,  or  lazily  boating  on 
the  water,  while  pitching  coppers,  fighting  crickets  or  quails, 
kicking  a shuttlecock,  snapping  sticks,  chucking  stones,  or  guess- 
ing the  number  of  seeds  in  an  orange,  are  plays  for  lads. 

Gambling  is  universal.  Hucksters  at  the  roadside  are  provid- 
ed with  a cup  and  saucer,  and  the  clicking  of  their  dice  is  heal’d 
at  every  corner.  A boy  with  two  cash  prefers  to  risk  their  loss 
on  the  throw  of  a die,  to  simply  buying  a cake  without  trying  the 
chance  of  getting  it  for  nothing.  Gaming-houses  are  opened  by 
scores,  their  keepers  paying  a bribe  to  the  local  officers,  who 
can  hardly  be  expected  to  be  very  severe  against  what  they  were 
brought  up  in  and  daily  practise  ; and  women  in  the  privacy  of 
their  apartments  while  away  their  time  at  cards  and  dominoes. 
Porters  play  by  the  wayside  while  waiting  for  employment,  and 
hardly  have  the  retinue  of  an  officer  seen  their  superiors  enter  the 
house,  than  they  pull  out  their  cards  or  dice,  and  squat  down  to 
a game.  The  most  coalmen  game  played  at  Canton  is  called 
fan  ian  or  quadrating  cash,  and  so  simple  as  to  be  almost  child- 
ish. The  keeper  of  the  table  is  provided  with  a pile  of  bright 
coin,  of  which  he  takes  a double  handful,  and  lays  them  on  the 
‘Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XIV.,  page  335. 


90 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


table,  covering  them  with  a bowl.  The  persons  standing  outside 
the  rail  guess  the  remainder  there  will  be  left  after  the  pile  has 
been  divided  by  four,  whether  1,  2,  8,  or  nothing,  the  guess  and 
stake  of  each  person  being  first  recorded  by  a clerk  ; the  keeper 
then  carefully  picks  out  the  coins  four  by  four,  all  narrowly 
watching  his  movements.  Cheating  is  almost  impossible  in  this 
game,  and  twenty  people  can  play  at  it  as  easily  as  two.  Their 
cards  are  smaller  and  more  numerous  than  our  own  ; but  the 
dominoes  are  the  same. 


Boys  gambling  with  Crickets 


Combats  between  crickets  are  contested  with  great  spirit,  and 
tubfuls  of  them  are  caught  in  the  autumn,  and  sold  in  the 
streets  to  supply  gamesters.  Two  well  chosen  combatants  are 
put  into  a basin,  and  irritated  with  a straw,  until  they  rush  upon 
each  other  with  the  utmost  fury,  chirruping  as  they  make  the 
onset,  and  the  battle  seldom  ends  without  a tragical  result  in  loss 
of  life  or  limb.  Quails  are  also  trained  to  mortal  combat ; two 
are  placed  on  a railed  table,  on  which  a handful  of  millet  has 
been  strown,  and  as  soon  as  one  picks  up  a kernel,  the  other 
flies  at  him  with  beak,  claws,  and  wings,  and  the  struggle  is 
kept  up  till  one  retreats  by  hopping  into  the  hand  of  his  disap- 
pointed owner.  Hundreds  of  dollars  are  occasionally  betted 


CRICKET  AND  QUAIL  FIGHTS,  CHESS,  ETC. 


91 


upon  these  cricket  or  quail  fights,  which,  if  not  as  sublime,  are 
perhaps  less  inhuman  than  the  pugilistic  fights  and  bull-baits  of 
Christian  countries,  while  both  show  the  same  brutal  love  of 
sport  at  the  expense  of  life.  The  flying  of  paper  kites  is  a 
favorite  amusement  of  men  as  well  as  children  ; they  are  made 
in  imitation  of  birds,  butterflies,  lizards,  and  other  living  crea- 
tures, and  flown  in  a manner  that  is  unequalled  ; contrivances 
are  sometimes  attached  to  make  a whistling  sound  in  the  air. 

Chess  and  draughts  are  unlike  the  same  games  in  Europe.  In 
chess  each  player  has  sixteen  pieces  arranged  on  the  intersec- 
tions of  the  lines ; the  board  contains  72  squares,  divided  from 
each  other  by  a line  representing  a river,  on  the  banks  of  which 
the  battle  is  supposed  to  be  fought.  There  are  five  pawns  sta- 
tioned in  the  van,  two  artillery-men  in  their  rear,  and  the  king, 
with  his  suite  of  two  aids,  two  elephants,  tsvo  horsemen,  and  two 
charioteers,  stands  in  the  top  row.  The  king  and  his  two  aids 
cannot  go  out  of  the  foursquare  inclosure  in  which  they  stand, 
but  the  other  men  can  cross  the  river ; the  horsemen,  and  cha- 
rioteers  correspond  to  our  knights  and  castles,  but  the  aids,  artil- 
lery-men, and  elephants,  have  different  powers  from  any  pieces  in 
European  chess.  Draughts  are  not  often  played ; the  number 
of  men  is  360,  half  of  them  white  and  half  black,  intended  to 
represent  the  number  of  days  in  a year ; it  partly  resembles  our 
game  of  fox  and  geese. 

If  this  sketch  of  the  customs  and  amusements  of  the  Chinese 
in  their  social  intercourse  and  public  entertainments  is  neces- 
sarily brief,  it  is  perhaps  enough  to  exhibit  their  character. 
Dr.  Johnson  has  well  remarked,  that  no  man  is  a hypocrite  in 
his  amusements.  The  absence  of  some  of  the  violent  and  gladi- 
atorial sports  of  other  countries,  and  of  the  adjudication  of 
doubtful  questions  by  ordeals  or  duels;  the  general  dislike  of  a 
resort  to  force,  their  inability  to  cope  with  enemies  of  vastly  less 
resources  and  number,  and  the  comparative  disesteem  of  war- 
like achievements,  all  indicate  the  peaceful  traits  of  Chinese 
character.  Duels  are  unknown,  assassinations  are  infrequent, 
betting  on  horseraces  is  still  to  begin,  and  running  a muck  a la 
Malay  is  unheard  of ; and  when  two  persons  fall  out  upon  a 
matter,  after  a vast  variety  of  gesture  and  huge  vociferation  of 
opprobrium,  they  will  blow  off  their  wrath,  and  separate  almost 
without  touching  each  other.  Some  contrarieties  in  their  ideas 


92 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


and  customs  from  those  practised  among  ourselves,  have  fre- 
quently been  noticed  by  travellers,  a few  of  which  are  grouped 
in  the  following  sketch  : — 

“ On  inquiring  of  the  boatman  in  which  direction  Macao  lay,  I was 
answered  west-north  ; and  the  wind,  he  said,  was  east-south.  ‘ We  do 
not  say  so  in  Europe,’  thought  I,  but  imagine  my  surprise  when  in 
explaining  the  utility  of  the  compass,  he  added  that  the  needle  pointed 
south.  On  landing,  the  first  object  that  attracted  my  attention  was  a 
military  officer,  who  wore  an  embroidered  petticoat,  with  a string  of 
beads  around  his  neck,  and  a fan  in  his  hand.  His  insignia  of  rank 
was  a peacock  feather  pointing  downwards  instead  of  a plume  turning 
upwards,  and  a button  on  the  apex  of  his  sugar-loaf  cap  instead  of  a 
star  on  his  breast,  or  epaulettes  on  his  shoulders  ; and  it  was  with  some 
dismay  I observed  him  mount  on  the  right  side  of  his  horse.  Several 
scabbards  hung  from  his  belt,  which,  of  course,  I thought  must  contain 
dress-swords  or  dirks,  but  on  venturing  near  through  the  crowd,  I was 
snrprised.to  see  a pair  of  chopsticks  and  a knife-handle  sticking  out  of 
one,  and  soon  his  fan  was  folded  up  and  put  into  the  other,  whereupon  I 
concluded  he  was  going  to  a dinner  instead  of  a review.  The  natives 
around  me  had  all  shaved  their  hair  on  the  front  of  their  heads,  and  let 
it  grow  long  behind  ; many  of  them  did  not  shave  their  faces,  but  their 
mustaches  grew  over  their  mouths,  and  lest  some  straggling  hairs  should 
diverge  cheek-ways,  the  owners  were  busily  employed  pulling  them 
down.  ‘ We  arrange  our  toilets  differently,’  thought  I,  but  I acknow- 
ledged the  happy  device  of  chopsticks,  which  enabled  these  gentlemen 
to  put  their  food  irtto  the  mouth  endwise  underneath  this  natural 
fringe. 

“ On  my  way  to  the  hotel,  I saw  a group  of  old  people,  some  of  whom 
were  greybeards  ; a few  were  chirruping  and  chuckling  to  singing- 
birds,  which  they  carried  perched  on  a stick  or  in  cages,  others  were 
catching  flies  to  feed  them,  and  the  remainder  of  the  party  seemed  to  be 
delightfully  employed  in  flying  fantastic  paper  kites  ; while  a group  of 
boys  were  gravely  looking  on  and  regarding  these  innocent  occupations 
of  their  seniors  with  the  most  serious  and  gratified  attention. 

“ As  I had  come  to  the  country  to  reside  for  some  time,  I made  in- 
quiries respecting  a teacher,  and  happily  found  one  who  understood 
English.  On  entering,  he  stood  at  the  door,  and  instead  of  coming 
forward  and  shaking  my  hands,  he  politely  bowed  and  shook  his  own, 
clasping  them  before  him  : I looked  upon  this  mode  as  a decided  improve- 
ment, especially  in  doubtful  cases,  and  requested  him  to  be  seated.  I 
knew  I was  to  study  a language  without  an  alphabet,  but  was  some- 
what astonished  to  see  him  begin  at  what  I considered  to  be  the  end  of 
the  book.  He  read  the  date  of  publication,  * the  fifth  year,  tenth  month, 


CONTRARIETIES  IN  CHINESE  AND  WESTERN  USAGES. 


93 


and  first  day.’  ‘ We  arrange  our  dates  differently,’  I observed,  and 
begged  him  to  read,  which  he  did  from  top  to  bottom,  and  proceeding 
from  right  to  left.  ‘ You  have  an  odd  book  here,’  remarked  I,  taking  it 
up  ; ‘ what  is  the  price  ?’  ‘ A dollar  and  eight  thirds,’  said  he  ; upon 
which  I counted  out  $3},  and  went  on  looking  at  it.  The  paper  was 
printed  only  on  one  side,  the  running  title  was  on  the  edge  of  the  leaves 
instead  of  the  top  of  the  page,  the  paging  was  near  the  bottom,  the 
number  and  contents  of  the  chapters  were  at  their  ends,  the  marginal 
notes  on  the  top,  where  the  blank  was  double  the  size  at  the  foot,  and  a 
broad  black  line  across  the  middle  of  each  page  separated  the  two 
works  composing  the  volume,  instead  of  one  being  printed  after  the 
other.  The  back  was  open  and  sewed  outside,  and  the  name  of  the 
work  written  on  the  bottom  edge.  4 You  have  given  me  too  much,’ 
said  he,  handing  me  and  then  explained  that  eight  thirds  was  eight 
divided  by  three,  or  only  three  eighths.  A small  vocabulary  he  carried 
with  him  had  the  sounds  arranged  according  to  their  termination,  ming, 
sing,  king  being  all  in  a row,  and  the  first  word  in  it  was  sien.  ‘ Ah  ! 
my  friend,’  said  I,  ‘ English  won’t  help  you  find  a word  in  that  book ; 
please  give  me  your  address.’  He  accordingly  took  out  a red  card  as 
big  as  a sheet  of  paper,  instead  of  a neat  white  strip,  and  wrote  Wu 
Tanyuen.  ‘I  thought  your  name  was  Mr.  Wu;  why  do  you  write 
your  name  wrong  end  first  ?’  inquired  I.  ‘ It  is  you  who  are  wrong,’ 
replied  he  ; ‘ look  in  your  own  Directory,  where  alone  you  write  names 
as  they  should  be,  placing  the  honored  family  name  first.’ 

44  I could  only  say,  4 customs  differ  ;’  and  giving  back  the  book,  begged 
him  to  speak  of  ceremony.  He  commenced, 1 When  you  receive  a distin- 
guished guest,  do  not  fail  to  place  him  on  your  left,  for  that  is  the  seat 
of  honor  ; and  be  cautious  not  to  uncover  the  head,  as  it  would  be  an 
unbecoming  act  of  familiarity.’  This  was  a severe  blow  to  my  esta- 
blished notions ; but  when  he  reopened  the  volume  and  read,  ‘ The  most 
learned  men  are  decidedly  of  opinion  that  the  seat  of  the  human  under- 
standing is  in  the  belly,’  I exclaimed,  4 Better  say  it  is  in  the  feet !’  and 
immediately  shut  up  the  book,  dismissing  him  until  another  day,  for  this 
shocked  all  my  principles  of  correct  philosophy,  even  if  Solomon  was 
against  me. 

“ On  going  abroad,  I met  so  many  things  contrary  to  all  my  precon- 
ceived ideas  of  propriety  that  I readily  assented  to  a friend’s  observa- 
tion, 4 that  the  Chinese  were  our  antipodes  in  many  things  besides 
location.’  4 Indeed,’  said  1, 4 they  are  so  ; I shall  expect  shortly  to  see  a 
man  walking  on  his  head : look ! there’s  a woman  in  trousers,  and  a 
party  of  gentlemen  in  petticoats  ; she  is  smoking  a segar,  and  they  are 
fanning  themselves  ;’  but  I was  taught  not  to  trust  to  appearances  too 
much,  as  on  passing,  I saw  the  latter  wore  tight  under-garments.  We 
soon  after  met  the  steward  of  the  house  dressed  in  white,  and  I stopped 


94 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


to  ask  him  what  merrymaking  he  was  invited  to ; with  a look  of  the 
deepest  concern  he  told  me  he  was  then  returning  from  his  father’s 
funeral.  Soon  we  passed  where  we  heard  sobbing  and  crying,  and  I 
inquired  who  was  ill ; the  man,  suppressing  a smile,  said,  ‘ It  is  a 
girl  about  leaving  home  to  be  married,  who  is  lamenting  with  her  fel- 
lows.’ 

“ I thought,  after  these  unlucky  essays,  I would  ask  no  more  ques- 
tions, but  use  my  eyes  instead.  Looking  into  a shop,  I saw  a stout 
fellow  sewing  lace  on  a bonnet  for  a Portuguese  lady ; and  going  on  to 
the  landing-place,  behold  ! all  the  ferry-boats  were  rowed  by  women,  and 
from  a passage-boat  just  arrived,  I saw  the  females  get  out  of  the  cabin 
in  the  bow.  ‘ What  are  we  coming  to  next  ?’  said  I,  and  just  then,  saw 
a carpenter  take  his  foot-rule  out  of  his  stocking  to  measure  some  tim- 
ber which  his  apprentice  was  cutting  with  a saw  whose  blade  was  set 
nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  frame.  Before  the  door  sat  a man  busily 
engaged  in  whitening  the  thick  soles  of  a pair  of  shoes  ; ‘ that’s  a shoe- 
wrhite,  I suppose,’  said  I ; 4 and  he  answers  to  the  shoeblack  of  other 
lands.’  ‘Just  so,’  said  my  friend,  ‘and  beyond  him  is  a poor  wretch 
with  a board  round  his  neck  for  a shirt-collar,  who  has  got  into  chokey; 
an  article  of  his  toilet  which  answers  to  the  gyves  with  which  those 
lads  in  the  Tombs  are  garnished  instead  of  bangles.’ 

“In  the  alleys  called  streets,  the  signs  stood  on  their  ends,  and  the 
pigs  were  packed  in  baskets,  which  coolies  were  carrying  to  the  infinite 
satisfaction  of  the  inmates ; and  the  shops  seemed  to  have  lost  their 
fronts,  and  ejected  their  inmates  into  the  streets,  where  they  were  eat- 
ing, cooking,  working,  selling,  and  sleeping  in  every  imaginable  way. 
A loud  voice  led  us  to  look  in  at  an  open  door  to  see  what  was  going 
on,  when  we  saw  it  wTas  a school,  and  the  boys  learning  their  lessons  all 
crying  like  auctioneers.  *We  next  passed  a fashionable  lady  step- 
ping out  of  her  chair,  her  feet  only  three  inches  long,  her  plaited  and 
embroidered  petticoat  a foot  longer  than  her  gown,  and  smallest  at  bot- 
tom, and  her  waist  quite  concealed.  Then  came  an  acquaintance  of  my 
friend’s,  accompanying  a splendidly  carved  coffin.  ‘ Who’s  dead  ?’ 
asked  he.  ‘ No  man  hab  die,’  replied  the  celestial,  ‘this  one  piece  coffin 
I present  my  olo  fader ; he  lik-ee  too  much,  count-a  my  number  one 
proper  ; ’spose  he  die,  he  can  us-ee  he  !’  ‘ So,  eh  !’  rejoined  my  friend  ; 

‘ how  muchy  price  can  catchee  one  all  same  same  for  that  ?’  ‘ I tinky  can 
catcbee  one  alia  same  so  fashion  one  tousand  dollar  so  ; this  hab  first 
chop,  handsome,  lo.’ 

“ ‘ Do  you  call  that  gibberish  English  or  Chinese  ?’  said  I,  for  the 
language  sounded  no  less  strange  than  the  custom  of  presenting  a 
coffin  to  a live  father  differed  from  my  preconceived  notions  of  filial 
affection.  ‘That’s  the  pure  Canton-English,’  said  he;  ‘you  must  be 
the  Jack  Downing  of  Canton  to  immortalize  it.’  ‘ Come,  rather  let  us 


COMMENDABLE  TRAITS  OF  CHINESE  CHARACTER. 


95 


go  home,’  said  I,  ‘ for  I am  getting  dizzy,  and  shall  soon  be  upside-down 
ir.  this  strange  country.’  ”* 

In  summing  up  the  moral  traits  of  Chinese  character,  a far 
more  difficult  task  than  the  enumeration  of  its  oddities,  we  must 
necessarily  compare  it  with  that  perfect  standard  given  us  from 
above  ; while  also  we  should  not  forget  that  the  teachings  of  that 
book  are  unknown.  While  their  contrarieties  indicate  a differ- 
ent external  civilization,  a slight  acquaintance  with  their  morals 
proves  their  similarity  to  their  fellowmen  in  the  lineaments  of  a 
fallen  and  depraved  nature.  As  among  other  people,  the  lights 
and  shadows  of  virtue  and  vice  are  blended  in  their  character, 
and  the  degree  of  advancement  they  have  made  while  destitute 
of  the  great  encouragements  offered  to  perseverance  in  well- 
doing in  the  Bible,  afford  grounds  for  hoping  that  when  they 
are  taught  out  of  that  book,  they  will  receive  it  as  the  rule  of 
their  conduct.  Some  of  the  better  traits  of  their  character  have 
been  remarkably  developed.  They  have  attained,  by  the  ob- 
servance of  peace  and  good  order,  to  a high  degree  of  security 
for  life  and  property  ; the  various  classes  of  society  are  linked 
together  in  a remarkably  homogeneous  manner  by  the  diffusion 
of  education  and  property,  and  equality  of  competition  for 
office;  and  industry  receives  its  just  reward  of  food,  raiment,  and 
shelter,  with  a uniformity  which  encourages  its  constant  exer- 
tion. If  any  one  asks  how  they  have  reached  this  point,  we 
would  primarily  ascribe  it  to  the  blessing  of  the  Governor  of  the 
nations,  who  has,  for  his  own  purposes,  continued  one  people 
down  to  the  present  time  from  remote  antiquity.  The  roots  of 
society  among  them  have  never  been  broken  up  by  emigration  or 
the  overflowing  conquest  of  a superior  race,  but  have  been  fully 
settled  in  a great  regard  for  the  family  compact  and  deep  reve- 
rence for  parents  and  superiors.  Education  has  strengthened 
and  disseminated  the  morality  they  had,  and  God  has  blessed 
their  filial  piety  by  making  their  days  long  in  the  land  which  he 
has  given  them.  Davis  lays  rather  too  much  stress  upon  geo- 
graphical and  climatic  causes  in  accounting  for  their  advance- 
ment in  these  particulars,  though  their  isolation  has  no  doubt 
had  much  to  do  with  their  security  and  progress. 

When,  however,  these  traits  have  been  mentioned,  the  Chinese 

• Chinese  Repository  Vol  X.,  page  106. 


96 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


are  still  more  left  without  excuse  for  their  wickedness,  since  being 
without  law,  they  are  a law  unto  themselves:  they  have  always 
known  better  than  they  have  done.  With  a general  regard  for 
outward  decency,  they  are  vile  and  polluted  in  a shocking  degree, 
their  conversation  is  full  of  filthy  expressions  and  their  lives  of 
impure  acts.  They  are  somewhat  restrained  in  the  latter  by  the 
fences  put  around  the  family  circle,  so  that  seduction  and  adul- 
tery are  comparatively  infrequent,  the  former  may  even  be  said 
to  be  rare  ; but  brothels  and  their  inmates  occur  everywhere  on 
land  and  on  water.  One  danger  attending  young  girls  going 
abroad  alone,  is,  that  they  will  be  stolen  for  incarceration  in  these 
gates  of  hell.  By  pictures,  songs,  and  aphrodisiacs,  they  excite 
their  sensuality,  and,  as  the  apostle  says,  “ receive  in  themselves 
that  recompense  of  their  error  which  is  meet.”  As  long  as  they 
love  to  wallow  in  this  filth,  they  cannot  advance,  and  all  experience 
proves  that  nothing  but  the  gospel  can  cleanse  and  purify  its 
fountain. 

More  uneradicable  than  the  sins  of  the  flesh  is  the  falsity  of  the 
Chinese,  and  its  attendant  sin  of  base  ingratitude  ; their  disregard 
of  truth  has  perhaps  done  more  to  lower  their  character  in  the 
eyes  of  Christendom  than  any  other  fault.  They  feel  no  shame 
at  being  detected  in  a lie,  though  they  have  not  gone  quite  so  far 
as  not  to  know  when  they  do  lie,  nor  do  they  fear  any  punish- 
ment from  their  gods  for  it.  Every  resident  among  them,  and 
all  travellers  declaim  against  their  mendacity,  but  can  it  be  ex- 
pected that  the  heathen  should  practise  truth  without  knowing  a 
God  of  truth,  who  is  everywhere  present  to  see  the  infractions  of 
his  law,  when  even  fhose  who  do  know  it  fail  so  much  in  this 
particular  ? It  would  be  a strange  wonder  in  the  world  to  find  a 
heathen  people  who  did  speak  the  truth  ; and  yet  the  necessity 
of  the  case  compels  them,  in  their  daily  intercourse  with  each 
other,  to  pay  some  regard  to  it,  and  each  man,  from  his  own 
consciousness,  knows  just  about  how  much  to  expect.  Ambassa- 
dors and  merchants  have  not  been  in  the  best  position  to  ascertain 
their  real  character  in  this  respect ; for  on  the  one  hand  the 
courtiers  of  Peking  thought  themselves  called  upon  by  the  mere 
presence  of  an  embassy  to  put  on  some  fictitious  appearances,  and 
on  the  other,  the  integrity  and  fair  dealing  of  the  hong-merchants 
and  great  traders  at  Canton,  is  in  advance  of  the  usual  mercan- 
tile honesty  of  their  countrymen.  A Chinese  requires  but  little 


MENDACITY  OF  THE  CHINESE. 


97 


motive  to  falsify,  and  he  is  constantly  sharpening  his  wits  to 
cozen  his  customer,  wheedle  him  by  promises,  and  cheat  him  in 
goods  or  work.  There  is  nothing  which  tries  one  so  much  when 
living  among  them  as  their  disregard  of  truth,  and  renders  him  so 
indifferent  as  to  what  calamities  befall  so  mendacious  a race ; an 
abiding  impression  of  suspicion  rests  upon  the  mind  towards  every- 
body, which  chills  the  warmest  wishes  for  their  welfare,  and 
thwarts  many  a plan  to  benefit  them.  Their  better  traits  diminish 
in  the  distance,  and  the  patience  is  exhausted,  when  in  daily 
proximity  and  friction  with  this  ancestor  "of  sins.  Their  prone- 
ness to  this  fault  is  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  their  per- 
manent improvement  as  a people,  while  it  constantly  disheartens 
those  who  are  making  efforts  to  teach  them.  Mr.  Abeel  men- 
tions a case  of  deceit,  which  may  serve  as  a specimen. 

“ Soon  after  we  arrived  at  Kulang  su,  a man  came  to  us  who  professed 
to  be  the  near  relation  and  guardian  of  the  owners  of  the  house  in  which 
we  live,  and  presented  a little  boy  as  the  joint  proprietor  with  his  widowed 
mother.  From  the  appearance  of  the  house  and  the  testimony  of  others, 
we  could  easily  credit  his  story  that  the  family  were  now  in  reduced  cir- 
cumstances, having  not  only  lost  the  house  when  the  English  attacked 
the  place,  but  a thousand  dollars  besides  by  native  robbers  ; we  therefore 
allowed  him  a small  rent,  and  gave  the  dollars  to  the  man  who  put  them 
into  the  hands  of  the  child.  The  next  month  he  made  his  appearance, 
but  our  servant,  whom  we  had  taken  to  be  peculiarly  honest  for  a heathen, 
suggested  the  propriety  of  inquiring  whether  the  money  was  ever  given 
to  those  for  whom  it  was  professedly  received ; and  soon  returned  with 
the  information  that  the  mother  had  heard  nothing  of  the  money,  the  man 
who  received  it  not  living  in  the  family,  but  had  now  sent  a lad  to  us 
who  would  receive  it  for  her,  and  who  our  servants  assured  us  would 
give  it  to  the  proper  person.  A day  or  two  afterwards  our  cook  whis- 
pered to  me  that  our  honest  servant,  who  had  taken  so  much  pains  to 
prevent  all  fraud  in  the  matter,  had  made  the  lad  give  him  one  half  of  the 
money  for  his  disinterestedness  in  preventing  it  from  falling  into  improper 
hands ; and  further  examination  showed  us  that  this  very  cook  had  him- 
self received  a good  share  to  keep  silent.” 

Thieving  is  exceedingly  common,  and  the  illegal  exactions  of 
the  rulers  are  burdensome.  This  vice,  too,  is  somewhat  restrained 
by  the  punishments  inflicted  on  criminals,  though  the  root  of  the 
evil  is  not  touched.  While  the  licentiousness  of  the  Chinese  may 
be  in  part  ascribed  to  their  ignorance  of  pure  intellectual  plea. 


99 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


sures,  and  the  want  of  virtuous  female  society,  so  may  their  lying 
be  attributed  partly  to  their  truckling  fear  of  officers,  and  their 
thievery  to  the  want  of  sufficient  food  or  work.  Hospitality  is 
not  a trait  of  their  character  ; on  the  contrary,  the  number  and 
wretched  condition  of  the  beggars  show  that  public  and  private 
charity  is  almost  extinct ; yet  here  too,  the  sweeping  charge 
must  be  modified  when  we  remember  the  efforts  they  make  to 
sustain  their  relatives  and  families  in  so  densely  peopled  a coun- 
try. Their  avarice  is  not  so  distinguishing  a feature  as  their  love 
of  money,  but  the  industry  which  this  desire  induces  or  presup- 
poses is  the  source  of  most  of  their  superiority  to  their  neighbors. 
The  politeness  which  they  exhibit  seldom  has  its  motive  in  good- 
will, and  consequently,  when  the  varnish  is  off,  the  rudeness, 
brutality,  and  coarseness  of  the  material  is  seen ; still,  among 
themselves,  this  exterior  polish  is  not  without  some  good  results 
in  preventing  quarrels,  where  both  parties,  fully  understanding 
each  other,  are  careful  not  to  overpass  the  bounds  of  etiquette. 

On  the  whole,  the  Chinese  present  a singular  mixture  ; if  there 
is  something  to  commend,  there  is  more  to  blame ; if  they  have 
some  glaring  vices,  they  have  more  virtues  than  most  pagan 
nations.  Ostentatious  kindness  and  inbred  suspicion,  ceremo- 
nious civility  and  real  rudeness,  partial  invention  and  servile 
imitation,  industry  and  waste,  sycophancy  and  self-dependence, 
are  with  other  dark  and  bright  qualities,  strangely  blended.  In 
trying  to  remedy  the  faults  of  their  character  by  the  restraints  of 
law  and  the  diffusion  of  education,  they  have  no  doubt  hit  upon 
the  right  mode ; and  their  shortcomings  show  how  ineffectual 
both  must  be  until  the  Gospel  comes  to  the  aid  of  ruler  and  sub- 
ject, in  elevating  the  moral  sense  of  the  whole  nation.  This  has 
now  commenced,  and  every  day  adds  fresh  proof  of  the  necessity 
of  missionary  labors  among  this  remarkable  people.  Facts  of 
daily  occurrence  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  missionaries 
reveal  the  prevalence  of  the  most  fearful  immoralities,  and  fur- 
nish a melancholy  insight  into  the  desolating  horrors  of  pagan- 
ism. Female  infanticide  in  some  parts  openly  confessed,  and 
divested  of  all  disgrace  and  penalties  everywhere  ; the  dreadful 
prevalence  of  all  the  vices  charged  by  the  apostle  Paul  upon  the 
ancient  heathen  world  ; the  alarming  extent  of  the  use  of  opium 
(furnished  too  by  British  and  American  merchants),  destroying 
the  productions  and  natural  resources  of  the  people  ; the  unjyer- 


SUMMARY  OF  CHINESE  CHARACTER. 


99 


sal  practice  of  lying  and  dishonest  dealings;  the  unblushing 
lewdness  of  old  and  young  ; harsh  cruelty  towards  prisoners  by 
officers,  and  tyranny  over  slaves  by  masters ; — all  forming  a full 
unchecked  torrent  of  human  depravity,  and  proving  the  existence 
of  a kind  and  degree  of  moral  degradation,  of  which  an  excessive 
statement  can  scarcely  be  made,  or  an  adequate  conception  hardly 
be  formed. 

We  do  not  wish  to  depict  the  Chinese  worse  than  they  are,  nor 
to  dwell  so  much  on  their  good  qualities  as  to  lead  one  to  suppose 
they  stand  in  no  need  of  the  Gospel.  Barrow  says  missionaries 
“ might  have  had  their  motives  for  setting  the  Chinese  in  the 
fairest  point  of  view and  he  goes  on  to  criticise  them  for  their 
too  favorable  coloring.  On  the  other  side,  McCulloch  remarks, 
speaking  of  China,  “ that  it  is  so  obviously  the  interest  of  the 
missionaries,  by  depreciating  the  moral  and  religious  character 
of  those  they  are  laboring  amongst,  to  exalt  their  own  utility  and 
importance,  and  to  justify  their  claims  to  the  patronage  and  sup- 
port of  the  Christian  public,  that  their  statements  can  hardly  be 
supposed  to  be  free  from  bias.”*  Who  shall  decide  ? It  is 
abundantly  easy  for  persons  in  their  closets,  as  these  gentlemen 
were,  to  criticise ; but  until  they  have  themselves  engaged  in 
such  labors,  and  speak  from  personal  knowledge,  let  not  their 
opinion  be  taken  for  more  than  it  is  worth. 

* Barrow's  Travels  in  China,  page  30.  ftfcCulloch’s  Geographical 
Dictionary,  Vol.  I.,  page  605.  Smith’s  China,  page  4S9 


CHAPTER  XV. 


Industrial  Arts  of  the  Chinese. 

The  superiority  of  the  Chinese  over  their  neighbors  in  the  enjoy- 
ments of  life,  and  the  degree  of  security  individuals  can  look 
for  under  the  protection  of  law,  are  owing  chiefly  to  their  indus- 
try. Agriculture  holds  the  first  place  in  their  estimation,  among 
the  branches  of  labor,  and  the  honors  paid  to  it  by  the  annual 
ploughing  ceremony  are  given  from  a deep  sense  of  its  import- 
ance to  the  public  welfare  ; not  alone  to  provide  a regular  supply 
of  food  and  labor  for  so  ignorant  a population,  but  also  to  meet 
the  wants  of  government  by  moderate  taxes,  and  long  experience 
of  the  greater  ease  of  governing  an  agricultural  than  a mercan- 
tile or  warlike  community.  Notwithstanding  the  encouragement 
given  to  tillage,  vast  tracts  of  land  still  lie  waste,  some  of  it  the 
most  fertile  in  the  country;  partly  because  the  people  have 
not  the  skill  and  capital  to  drain  and  render  it  productive,  and 
partly  because  they  have  not  sufficient  security  or  prospect  of 
remuneration  to  encourage  them  to  make  the  necessary  outlay. 

Landed  property  is  held  in  clans  or  families  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, but  it  is  not  entailed,  nor  are  overgrown  estates  frequent. 
The  land  is  held  as  a freehold  so  long  as  the  sovereign  receives 
his  rent,  which  is  estimated  at  about  one  tenth  of  the  produce, 
and  the  proprietors  record  their  names  in  the  district  magistrate’s 
office  as  responsible  for  the  tax,  feeling  themselves  secure  in  the 
possession  while  that  is  paid.  The  paternal  estate  and  the 
houses  upon  it  descend  to  the  eldest  son,  but  his  brothers  can 
remain  upon  it  with  their  families,  and  devise  their  portion  in 
perpetuo  to  their  children,  or  an  amicable  composition  can  be 
made  ; daughters  never  inherit,  nor  can  an  adopted  son  of 
another  clan  succeed.  A mortgagee  must  actually  enter  into 
possession  of  the  property,  and  make  himself  personally  respon- 
sible for  the  payment  of  the  taxes,  before  his  mortgage  is  valid ; 
unless  explicitly  stated,  the  land  can  be  redeemed  any  time 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


101 


within  thirty  years  on  payment  of  the  original  sum.  Secs.  xc. 
to  c.  of  the  Code  contain  the  laws  relating  to  this  subject,  some 
of  which  bear  a resemblance  to  those  established  among  the 
Hebrews,  and  intended  to  secure  a similar  object  of  retaining 
the  land  in  the  same  clan  or  tribe. 

The  Chinese  are  rather  gardeners  than  farmers,  not  only  in 
the  small  size  of  their  grounds,  but  in  their  ignorance  of  those 
operations  whereby  soils  naturally  unfruitful  are  made  fertile, 
those  which  produce  few  kinds  of  plants  made  to  bring  forth  a 
greater  variety,  and  their  natural  fertility  sustained  at  the  cheap- 
est rate  by  a proper  manuring  and  rotation  of  crops.  They 
make  up  for  the  disadvantages  of  poor  implements  by  hard  work, 
repeatedly  turning  over  the  soil,  and  sustaining  its  productiveness 
by  constant  manuring.  Their  agricultural  utensils  are  few  and 
simple,  and  are  probably  now  made  similar  to  those  used  centu- 
ries ago.  The  broad  hoe,  a less  efficient  tool  than  our  spade,  is 
used  more  than  any  other;  the  edge  of  the  large  wooden  blade 
is  guarded  with  iron,  and  the  weight  adds  impetus  to  the  blow. 
Spades,  shovels,  and  mattocks  are  employed  in  kitchen  gardening, 
and  the  plough  and  harrow  in  rice  cultivation.  The  plough  is 
made  of  wood,  except  the  iron  edged  share,  which  lies  so  flat  that 
it  cannot  penetrate  the  soil  more  than  five  inches.  The  whole 
implement  is  so  simple  and  rude  that  one  would  think  the  invent- 
or of  it  was  a laborer,  who,  tired  of  the  toil  of  spading,  called 
the  ox  to  his  aid,  and  tied  his  shovel  to  a rail ; — fastening  the 
animal  at  one  end  and  guiding  the  other,  he  was  so  pleased  with 
the  relief,  that  he  never  thought  of  improving  it  much  further 
than  to  sharpen  the  spade  to  a coulter,  and  bend  the  rail  to  a 
beam  and  handle.  The  harrow  is  a heavy  stick  armed  with  a 
single  row  of  stout  wooden  teeth,  and  furnished  with  a frame- 
work to  guide  it ; or  a triangular  machine,  with  rows  of  teeth,  on 
which  the  driver  rides. 

The  buffalo  is  most  used  in  rice  cultivation,  and  the  ox  and 
ass  in  dry  ploughing  ; horses,  mules,  cows,  and  goats  likewise 
render  service  to  the  farmer  in  various  ways,  and  are  often 
yoked  in  most  ludicrous  combinations.  But  the  team  which 
Nieuhoff  describes  of  a man  driving  his  wife  and  his  ass  yoked 
to  the  same  plough  is  too  bad  for  China  often  to  present,  though 
it  has  been  so  frequently  quoted  that  one  almost  expects  on  land- 
ing to  see  half  the  women  in  the  harness. 


102 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  early  rain  is  so  necessary  to  the  preparation  of  rice  fields 
that  the  work  is  delayed  in  case  of  drought,  except  where  water- 
courses can  be  turned  upon  them.  The  grain  is  first  soaked  in 
water,  and  when  it  begins  to  swell,  is  sown  very  thickly  in  a 
small  plat,  in  which  liquid  manure  has  been  previously  mixed. 
When  about  six  inches  high,  the  shoots  are  taken  up  and  trans- 
planted into  the  adjacent  grounds,  which,  from  being  an  unsightly 
marsh,  ai'e  in  a few  days  transformed  to  fields  clothed  with  living 
green.  Holding  the  seedlings  in  one  hand,  the  laborer  wades 
ihrough  the  mud,  sticking  five  or  six  of  them  into  it  at  every 
step,  which  take  root  without  further  care ; six  men  can  trans- 
plant two  acres  a day,  one  or  two  of  whom  are  engaged  in  sup- 
plying the  others  with  shoots.  The  amount  of  grain  required  to 
sow  a Chinese  mail  in  this  way  is  37%  catties,  or  330  lbs. — about 
2%  bushels  to  an  English  acre.  The  produce  is  on  an  average 
tenfold.  Land  is  usually  rented  at  half  the  crop,  the  landlord 
paying  the  taxes,  and  the  tenant  stocking  the  farm  ; leases  are 
for  three,  four,  or  seven  years,  but  the  terms  vary  according  to 
the'erop  and  goodness  of  the  soil. 

Wheat,  barley,  and  millet  are  planted  in  holes  or  rows,  not  so 
much  because  the  farmer  thinks  they  produce  a better  crop  than 
when  sown  broadcast,  though  that  is  often  done,  as  to  allow  of 
interspacing  them  with  other  plants,  which  will  ripen  at  a differ- 
ent season.  Barrow  describes  a sort  of  drill-plough  for  sowing 
he  saw  in  Kiangsu  designed  to  economize  time  and  seed.  “ It 
consisted  of  two  parallel  poles  of  wood  shod  at  the  lower  extre- 
mity with  iron  to  open  the  furrows ; these  poles  were  placed 
upon  wheels  ; a small  hopper  was  attached  to  each  pole  to  drop 
the  seeds  into  the  furrow,  which  were  covered  with  earth  by  a 
transverse  piece  of  wood  fixed  behind,  that  just  swept  the  face 
of  the  ground.” 

The  extent  to  which  terrace  cultivation  has  been  supposed  to 
be  carried  in  China  is  a good  instance  of  the  way  in  which  erro- 
neous impressions  concerning  that  country  obtain  currency  from 
accounts  not  exactly  incorrect,  perhaps,  but  made  to  convey 
wrong  notions  by  the  mode  of  their  description.  The  hills  are 
seldom  terraced  except  for  rice  cultivation  or  to  retain  the  soil 
which  would  otherwise  be  washed  away ; and  this  restricts  their 
graduation  generally  speaking  to  the  southern  and  eastern  pro- 
vinces. Most  of  the  hills  in  Kwangtung  and  Fuhkien  are  unfit 


MODES  OF  PLANTING  AND  EXTENT  _.F  TERRACE  CULTIVATION.  103 


for  the  plough  except  near  their  bases,  while,  in  the  north,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  go  to  the  expense  of  terracing  for  cultivating 
cotton,  wheat  or  millet.  Great  labor  has  been  expended  in  ter- 
racing, and  many  hill-sides  otherwise  useless  are  thus  rendered 
productive ; but  this  does  not  mean  that  every  hill  is  cut  into 
plats,  nor  that  the  entire  face  of  the  country  is  one  vast  garden. 
Terracing  was  probably  carried  much  further  in  Palestine  than 
it  is  in  China. 

Rice  requires  abundance  of  water,  and  the  ingenuity  of  the 
farmer  is  well  exhibited  in  the  various  modes  he  employs  to 
insure  a supply.  In  some  places,  pools  are  made  in  level  fields 
to  receive  the  rain  from  which  the  water  is  lifted  by  well-sweeps. 
It  is  also  expeditiously  raised  by  men  each  side  of  the  pond  hold- 
ing a pail  between  them  by  ropes,  and  with  a swinging  motion 
rapidly  dipping  the  water  out  of  the  tank  and  pouring  it  into  lit- 
tle furrows.  A more  favorite  plan,  however,  is  to  avail  of  a natu- 
ral brooklet  flowing  down  a hill-side,  and  conduct  it  from  one 
plat  to  another  till  it  has  irrigated  the  whole.  It  is  where  such 
water  privileges  offer  that  the  terrace  cultivation  is  oftenest  seen, 
especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  cities,  where  the  demand 
for  provisions  promises  the  cultivator  a sure  reward  for  his  labor. 
The  appearance  of  a hill-side  thus  graduated  into  small  ledges 
is  beautiful ; each  plat  is  divided  by  a bank  serving  the  triple 
purpose  of  fence,  path,  and  dyke,  and  near  which  the  rills  glide 
with  refreshing  lapse,  turning  whithersoever  the  master  willeth. 
Wheels  of  various  sorts  are  also  contrived  to  assist  in  this  labor, 
some  worked  by  cattle,  some  by  human  toil,  and  others  carried 
round  by  the  stream  whose  waters  they  elevate.  The  last  are 
very  common  on  the  banks  of  the  Kan  kiang,  where  high  wheels 
of  bamboo,  firmly  fixed  on  an  axle  in  the  bank,  or  on  pillars 
driven  into  the  bed,  and  furnished  with  buckets,  pursue  their 
stately  round,  and  pour  their  earnings  of  250  or  300  tons  a day 
into  troughs  fixed  at  an  elevation  of  20  or  30  feet  above  the 
stream.  The  box-trough  represented  in  Staunton  with  two  men 
turning  the  axle  with  their  feet  as  if  in  a treading-mill,  and  since 
copied  so  often,  is  a more  clumsy  contrivance,  but  is  much  used 
for  slight  elevations ; the  chain  of  paddles  runs  around  two  axles 
and  in  the  trough  as  closely  as  possible,  and  raises  the  water  ten 
or  twelve  feet  in  an  equable  current.  Comparatively  few  carts  or 
wagons  are  used  with  animals,  human  strength  supplying  the 


104 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


means  of  transportation  ; the  implements  of  husbandry  and  the 
grain  taken  from  the  fields  both  being  carried  home  on  the  back 
of  the  laborer.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  sight  to  see  a ploughman, 
''vhen  he  has  done  his  work,  turn  his  buffalo  loose,  and  shoulder 
his  plough,  harrow,  and  hoe,  with  the  harness,  and  carry  them  all 
home.  Barrows  are  contrived  with  sails  upon  them  in  which 
peddlers  arrange  their  wares,  or  farmers  and  cartmen  transport 
their  burdens. 


Peddler’s  Barrow. 


The  Chinese  manure  the  plant  rather  than  the  ground,  both  in 
the  seed  and  growing  grain.  The  preparation  of  manure  from 
night  soil,  by  mixing  it  with  earth  and  drying  it  into  cakes,  fur- 
nishes  employment  to  thousands,  and  the  transportation  of  their 
noisome  loads  through  the  narrow  streets  is  an  insufferable  nui- 
sance. Tanks  are  dug  by  the  wayside,  pails  are  placed  in  the 


SOURCES  AND  PREPARATION  OF  MANURE. 


105 


streets,  and  retiring  stalls  opened  among  the  dwellings,  whose 
contents  are  carried  away  in  boats  and  buckets  ; but  it  is  a small 
compensation  for  this  constant  pollution  of  the  sweet  breath  of 
heaven,  to  know  that  the  avails  are  to  be  by  and  by  brought  to 
market.  Besides  this  principal  ingredient  of  manure  vats,  other 
substances  are  diligently  collected,  as  hair  from  the  barber’s  shop, 
exploded  fire-crackers  and  sweepings  from  the  streets,  lime  and 
plaster  from  kitchens  and  old  buildings,  soot,  bones,  fish  and 
animal  remains,  the  mud  from  the  bottom  of  canals  and  tanks, 
and  dung  of  every  kind.  In  Chusan  and  the  main  opposite,  two 
species  of  clover  are  grown  through  the  winter  upon  ridges  raised 
in  the  rice  fields,  and  the  plants  pulled  up  in  the  spring  and  scat- 
tered over  the  fields,  to  be  ploughed  and  harrowed  into  the  wet 
soil  with  the  stubble,  their  decomposition  forming  large  quanti- 
ties of  ammonia  to  the  seedlings.  Vegetable  rubbish  is  also  col- 
lected and  covered  with  turf,  and  then  slowly  burned  ; the  resi- 
due is  a riel)  black  earth  which  is  laid  upon  the  seeds  themselves 
when  planted.  The  refuse  left  after  expressing  the  oil  from 
ground-nuts,  beans,  tallow,  tea,  and  cabbage-seeds,  &c.,  is  mixed 
with  earth  and  made  into  cakes,  to  be  sold  to  the  farmers. 

The  ripe  grain  is  cut  with  bill-hooks  and  sickles,  or  pulled  up 
by  the  roots ; scythes  and  cradles  are  unknown.  Rice  straw  is 
made  into  brooms  and  brushes,  and  in  order  to  preserve  it,  the 
rice  is  thrashed  out  against  the  side  of  a tub  having  a curtain  on 
one  side,  or  bound  into  sheaves  and  carried  away  to  be  stacked. 
The  thrashing-floors  about  Canton  are  made  of  a mixture  of 
sand  and  lime,  well  pounded  upon  an  inclined  surface  inclosed 
by  a curb  ; a little  cement  added  in  the  last  coat  makes  it  imper- 
vious to  the  rain  ; with  proper  care  it  lasts  many  years,  and  is 
used  by  all  the  villagers  for  thrashing  rice,  peas,  mustard,  tur- 
nips, and  other  seeds,  either  with  unshod  oxen  or  flails. 

The  cultivation  of  plants  and  grain  for  food  forms  so  large  a 
proportion  of  those  demanding  the  attention  of  the  Chinese,  that 
except  hemp,  indigo,  cotton,  silk,  and  tea,  those  raised  for  manu- 
facture are  quite  unimportant.  The  great  cotton  district  is  the 
basin  of  the  Yangtsz’  kiang,  and  the  two  varieties,  white  and 
yellow,  grow  side  by  side.  The  manure  used  is  the  mud  taken 
from  the  canals,  and  spread  dry  over  the  ploughed  fields,  in 
which  the  seeds  are  sown  broadcast  about  the  beginning  of  May, 
and  trodden  into  the  ground  by  the  feet.  These  same  fields 

vol.  ir.  6* 


106 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


frequently  produce  a crop  of  wheat  during  the  winter,  and  the 
cotton  is  often  sown  before  the  wheat  is  harvested.  While  grow- 
ing,  cotton  is  carefully  tended,  thinned,  hoed,  and  weeded,  until 
the  flowers  begin  to  appear  about  August.  As  soon  as  the  pods 
begin  to  ripen  and  burst,  the  cultivator  collects  them  before  they 
fall,  and  carries  them  to  his  house  to  clean  the  cotton  of  seeds 
and  husks.  The  weather  is  carefully  watched,  for  a dry  sum- 
mer or  a wet  autumn  are  alike  unpropitious,  and  as  the  pods  are 
ripening  from  August  to  October,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the 
crop  to  be  partially  lost.  The  seeds  are  separated  by  a wheel 
turning  two  rollers,  and  the  cotton  sold  by  each  farmer  to  mer- 
chants in  the  towns.  Some  he  keeps  for  weaving  at  home,  and 
spinning-wheels  and  looms  are  common  articles  of  furniture  in 
the  houses  of  the  peasantry  around  Shanghai.* 

Hemp  is  cultivated  in  the  provinces  north  of  the  Mei  ling,  but 
the  plant  also  grows  in  Fuhkien  ; the  grasscloth  made  from  it  is 
not  so  much  used  for  common  dresses  as  cotton  and  silk.  There 
are  three  plants  which  produce  a fibre  made  into  cloth  known 
under  this  name,  viz.  the  Cannabis  sativa  or  hemp  at  Canton, 
the  Urlica  nivea,  a species  of  nettle  grown  about  Suchau,  and  the 
Sida  tilicefolia  near  Tientsinfu.  The  coloring  matter  used  for 
dyeing  blue  is  derived  from  two  species  of  plants,  the  Polygonum 
tinctorium  at  the  south,  and  the  lien  tsing  or  I satis  indigotica,  cul- 
tivated at  Shanghai  and  Chusan.  The  mulberry  is  sometimes 
raised  merely  as  a shade  and  fruit  tree,  but  the  great  consump- 
tion of  the  leaves  renders  its  culture  an  important  branch  of 
labor  in  Chehkiang  and  all  the  eastern  provinces.  The  tree  is, 
by  some  growers,  allowed  to  attain  its  natural  height,  by  others 
it  is  cut  down  to  increase  the  branches  and  the  produce  of  leaves. 
In  Chehkiang,  it  is  cut  in  January,  and  deprived  of  its  useless 
branches,  leaving  only  the  outer  ones,  which  are  trimmed  into 
two  or  three  points,  in  order  to  force  the  plant  to  extend  itself. 
The  trees  are  set  out  in  rows  twelve  feet  or  more  apart,  each 
tree  being  half  that  distance  from  its  neighbor,  and  opposite  the 
intervals  in  the  parallel  rows ; the  interspaces  are  occupied  with 
legumes  or  greens.  The  trees  are  propagated  by  seed  and  by 
suckers,  but  soon  lose  their  vigor  from  being  constantly  stripped 
of  leaves,  and  are  then  rooted  up  and  replaced  by  new  nurslings. 


Fortune’s  Wanderings,  Chap,  xiv 


COTTON,  MULBERRY,  SUGAR,  AND  TALLOW  TREE.  107 

Sugar  is  grown  to  a great  extent  in  the  south  and  south-eastern 
provinces ; the  name  ck£,  by  which  it  is  known,  is  an  original 
character,  which  favors  the  opinion  that  the  plant  is  indigenous 
in  China,  and  the  same  argument  is  applicable  to  wheat,  hemp, 
mulberry,  tea,  and  some  of  the  common  fruits,  as  the  plum,  pear, 
and  orange.  The  stalks  are  pressed  in  machines,  and  the  juice 
boiled  to  sugar ; or  the  cane  is  hawked  about  the  streets  for  con- 
sumption by  the  people.  The  sugar  mill  consists  merely  of  two 
upright  cylinders,  between  which  the  cane  is  introduced  as  they 
turn,  and  the  juice  received  into  reservoirs ; it  is  then  boiled 
down,  and  sent  to  the  refiners  to  undergo  the  necessary  processes 
to  fit  it  for  market. 

Many  plants  are  cultivated  for  their  oil,  to  be  used  in  the  arts 
as- well  as  cooking  ; a strong  oil  is  derived  from  the  seeds  of  two 
or  three  plants  belonging  to  the  Euphorbiaceous  family,  for  mix- 
ing with  paint,  smearing  boats,  &c.  It  is  deleterious  when 
taken  into  the  system,  but  does  not  appear  to  injure  those  who 
use  or  express  it.  The  tallow  tree  ( Stillingia  sebifera)  occurs 
over  all  the  eastern  part  of  China,  and  when  fully  grown  is  a 
beautiful  tree,  resembling  the  aspen  in  its  shape  and  foliage ; it 
would  form  a valuable  addition  to  the  list  of  shade  trees  in  this 
country.  The  seeds  grow  in  clusters  like  ivy  berries,  and  are 
collected  in  November ; when  ripe,  the  capsule  divides,  and  fall- 
ing off  discovers  two  or  three  kernels  covered  with  the  pure 
white  tallow.  When  the  tallow  is  to  be  prepared,  these  are 
picked  from  the  stalks  and  put  into  an  open  wooden  cylinder  with 
a perforated  bottom,  in  which  they  are  well  steamed  over  boiling 
water.  In  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  the  tallow  covering  the  seeds 
becomes  soft,  and  they  are  then  thrown  into  a stone  mortar  and 
gently  beaten  with  mallets  to  detach  it.  The  whole  is  then  sifted 
on  a hot  sieve,  by  which  the  tallow  is  separated  from  the  kernels, 
though  containing  the  brown  skin  which  envelops  the  latter, 
and  presenting  a dirty  appearance.  The  tallow  in  this  state  is 
inclosed  in  a straw  cylinder,  or  laid  upon  layers  of  straw  held 
together  by  iron  hoops,  and  subjected  to  pressure  in  a rude  press 
from  which  it  runs  clear  in  a semifluid  state,  and  soon  hardens 
into  cakes.  The  candles  made  from  it  become  soft  in  hot 
weather,  and  are  sometimes  coated  by  dipping  them  in  colored 
wax.* 


Fortune’s  Wanderings,  p.  7fi 


108 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  departments  of  floriculture  and  arboriculture  have  received 
great  attention  from  the  Chinese  gardeners,  but  their  efforts  are 
directed  to  producing  something  curious  or  grotesque,  rather  than 
improving  the  quality  of  their  fruits,  or  enlarging  the  number  of 
their  flowers.  A common  mode  of  multiplying  specimens  is  to 
slit  up  the  stem,  and  insert  half  of  it  in  a piece  of  damp  earth 
tied  around  the  stalk  until  it  has  rooted,  and  then  cutting  off  the 
whole.  Dwarfing  trees  or  forcing  them  to  grow  in  grotesque 
shapes,  employs  much  of  their  time  and  patience.  The  juniper, 
cypress,  pine,  elm,  bamboo,  peach,  plum,  and  flowering-almond, 
are  selected  for  this  purpose,  the  former  being  trained  into  the 
shape  of  deer  and  other  animals,  pagodas,  &c.,  with  extraordi- 
nary fidelity,  the  eyes,  tongue,  or  other  parts  being  added  to  com- 
plete the  resemblance.  The  principle  of  the  operation  depends 
upon  retarding  the  circulation  of  the  sap  by  stinting  the  supply 
of  water,  confining  the  roots,  and  bending  the  branches  into  the 
desired  form  when  young  and  pliable,  afterwards  retaining  them 
in  their  forced  position  in  pots,  and  clipping  off  all  the  vigorous 
shoots,  until,  as  in  the  case  of  the  cramped  feet  of  women,  nature 
gives  up  the  contest,  and  yields  to  art.  These,  like  the  similar 
exhibitions  in  sculpture  and  painting,  indicate  the  uncultivated 
taste  of  people,  who  admire  the  fantastic  and  monstrous  more 
than  the  natural.  Some  of  the  clumps  placed  in  large  earthen 
vases,  consisting  of  bamboos,  (lowers,  and  dwarf  trees  growing 
closely  together  upon  a piece  of  rockwork,  and  overshadowing 
the  water  in  the  vase,  in  which  gold  fish  swim  through  the  cre- 
vices of  the  stone,  are  beautiful  specimens  of  Chinese  art. 

The  annual  ceremony  of  ploughing  is  of  very  ancient  origin. 
At  Peking,  it  consists  in  ploughing  a sacred  field  with  a highly 
ornamented  plough  kept  for  the  purpose,  the  emperor  holding  it 
while  turning  over  three  furrows,  the  princes  five,  and  the  high 
ministers  nine.  These  furrows  were,  however,  so  short  that  the 
monarchs  of  the  present  dynasty  altered  the  ancient  rule,  plough- 
ing four  furrows  and  returning  again  over  the  ground.  The 
ceremony  finished,  the  emperor  and  his  ministers  repair  to  the 
terrace,  and  remain  till  the  whole  field  has  been  ploughed. 
The  ground  belongs  to  the  temples  of  Heaven  and  Earth  on 
the  south  of  the  city,  and  the  crop  of  wheat  is  used  in  idolatrous 
services.  The  rank  of  the  actors  renders  the  ceremony  more 
imposing  at  Peking,  and  the  people  of  the  capital  make  more  of 


ANNUAL  CEREMONY  OF  PLOUGHING. 


109 


it  than  they  do  in  the  provinces.  A monstrous  clay  image  of  a 
cow  is  carried  to  the  spot,  containing  or  accompanied  by  hun- 
dreds of  little  similar  images  ; after  the  field  is  ploughed  it 
is  broken  up,  and  the  pieces  and  small  images  are  carried  off  by 
the  crowd  to  scatter  the  powder  on  their  own  fields,  in  the  hope 
of  thereby  insuring  a good  crop. 

The  heads  of  the  provincial  governments,  the  prefects  and 
district  magistrates,  go  through  a similar  ceremony  on  the  same 
day.  In  Ningpo,  an  eye-witness  describes  the  principal  features 
of  the  ceremony  as  consisting  in  a solemn  worship  by  all  the 
local  officers  of  a clay  image  of  a buffalo  and  an  idol  of  a cow- 
herd. The  prefect  then  ploughed  a small  piece  of  ground,  and 
he  and  his  associates  dispersed  till  the  morrow,  when  they  came 
together  in  another  temple  at  dawn.  Here  a series  of  prostra- 
tions and  recitals  of  prayers  were  performed  by  the  “ fathers  of 
the  people  ” in  their  presence,  some  of  whom  seemed  to  have  no 
respect  for  the  worship  they  were  engaged  in,  while  others 
evinced  deep  reverence.  As  soon  as  this  was  over,  the  clay  ox 
was  brought  out,  and  a procession  consisting  of  all  the  officers 
passed  around  it  repeatedly,  striking  the  body  at  a given  signal, 
and  concluding  the  ceremony  by  a heavy  blow  on  the  head. 
The  crowd  then  rushed  in  and  tore  the  effigy  to  pieces,  each  one 
carrying  off  a portion  to  strew  on  his  fields.* 

The  various  modes  of  catching  and  rearing  fish  exhibit  the 
contrivance  and  skill  of  the  Chinese  quite  as  much  as  their  agri- 
cultural operations.  According  to  the  Repository,  at  least  one 
tenth  of  the  population  derive  their  food  from  the  water,  and  ne- 
cessity leads  them  to  nvent  and  try  many  ingenious  ways  of 
securing  the  finny  tribes.  Nets  are  woven  of  hempen  thread, 
and  boiled  in  a solution  of  gambier  to  preserve  them  from  rotting. 
The  smacks  which  swarm  along  the  coast  go  out  in  pairs,  partly 
that  the  crews  may  afford  mutual  relief  and  protection,  but 
chiefly  to  join  in  dragging  the  net  fastened  to  their  boats.  In 
the  shallows  of  rivers,  rows  of  heavy  posts  are  driven  down,  and 
nets  secured  to  them,  which  arc  examined  and  changed  at  every 
tide.  Those  who  attend  these  nets,  moreover,  attach  scoops  or 
drag-nets  to  their  boats,  so  loaded  that  they  will  sink  and  gather 

* Penal  Code.  pp.  04-106,526.  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  II.,  p.  350; 
Vol.  III.,  pp.  121,231 ; Vol.  V.,  p.  485.  La  Chine  Onverte,  p.  346.  Fo- 
reign Missionary  Chronicle,  Vol.  XIII.,  p.  296. 


iio 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  sole,  ray,  and  other  fish  feeding  near  the  bottom.  Lifting- 
nets,  20  feet  square,  are  suspended  from  poles  elevated  and  de- 
pressed by  a hawser  worked  by  a windlass  on  shore  ; the  nets 
are  baited  with  the  whites  of  eggs  spread  on  the  meshes. 

The  fishermen  along  the  coast  form  an  industrious,  though 
rather  turbulent  community,  by  no  means  confining  their  enter- 
prises to  their  professed  business  when  piracy,  dacoity,  or  ma- 
rauding on  shore  hold  out  greater  prospects  of  gain.  When  their 
boats  become  unseaworthv,  they  are  still  considered  landworthy, 
and  are  occasionally  transformed  into  houses  by  setting  them 
bodily  upon  a stone  foundation  above  the  reach  of  the  tide,  or 
breaking  them  up  to  use  the  boards  and  spars  in  constructing 
rude  huts. 


Group  and  Residence  of  Fishermen. 

Cormorants  arc  trained  in  great  numbers  in  the  eastern  pro- 
vinces to  capture  fish,  and  are  sometimes  under  such  good  order 
that  they  will  disperse  at  a given  signal,  and  return  with  their 


MODES  OF  FISHING. 


Ill 


prey  without  the  precaution  of  a neck-ring.  A single  boatman 
can  easily  oversee  twelve  or  fifteen  of  these  birds,  and  although 
hundreds  may  be  out  upon  the  water,  each  one  knows  its  own 
master.  If  one  seize  a fish  too  heavy  for  him  alone,  another 
comes  to  his  assistance,  and  the  two  carry  it  aboard.  The. birds 
themselves  are  fed  on  bean-curd,  and  eels  or  fish.  They  lay 
eggs  when  three  years  old,  which  are  often  hatched  under  barn- 


The  Fishing  Cormorant. 


yard  hens,  and  the  chickens  fed  with  eel’s  blood  and  hash.  They 
do  not  fish  during  the  summer  months.  The  price  of  a pair  va- 
ries from  $5  to  $8.  Mussels  are  caught  in  small  cylindrical 
basket-traps,  attached  to  a single  rope,  and  floated  with  the  tide 
near  the  bottom.  Similar  traps  for  catching  land-crabs  are  laid 
along  the  edges  of  fields,  sometimes  baited  with  a little  dried  fish. 
When  the  receding  tide  leaves  the  river  banks  dry,  the  boat 
people  get  overboard  and  wade  in  the  mud,  or  push  themselves 
along  on  a board  with  one  foot,  in  search  of  such  things  as  har- 
bor in  the  slime. 

In  moonlight  nights,  low,  narrow  shallops,  provided  with  a wide 
white  board  fastened  to  the  wale  and  floating  upon  the  water,  are 
anchored  in  still  water  ; the  moon  shining  on  the  board,  the  de- 
ceived fish  leap  out  upon  it  or  into  the  boat  ; twenty  or  thirty  of 
these  decoys  can  be  seen  near  Macao  on  moonlight  evenings  en- 
gaged in  this  fishery.  Sometimes  a boat,  furnished  with  a tred- 
dle,  goes  up  and  down  near  the  shores  striking  boards  against 
its  bottom  and  sides  ; the  startled  fish  are  caught  in  the  net  drag- 
ging astern.  The  crews  of  many  small  boats  combine  to  drive 


112 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  fish  into  their  nets  by  splashing  and  striking  the  water,  or 
into  a pool  on  the  margin  of  the  river  at  high  tide,  in  which  they 
are  easily  retained  by  wattles,  and  scooped  out  when  the  water 
has  fallen.  Divers  clap  sticks  together  under  water  to  drive 
their  prey  into  the  nets  set  lor  them,  or  catch  them  with  their 
toes,  when,  terrified  at  the  noise,  they  hide  in  the  mud.  Neither 
fly-fishing  nor  angling  with  hook  and  line  is  much  practised  ; 
its  tedium  and  small  returns  would  be  poor  amends  to  a Chinese 
for  the  elegance  of  the  tackle,  or  the  science  displayed  in  adapt- 
ing the  fly  to  the  fish’s  taste. 

By  these  and  other  contrivances,  the  Chinese  capture  the  finny 
tribes,  and  it  is  no  surprise  to  hear  that  China  contains  as 
many  millions  of  people  as  there  are  days  in  the  year,  when  one 
sees  upon  what  a large  proportion  of  them  feed,  and  how  they 
live.  Christian  education,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  not  make  them 
dislike  or  despise  labor ; it  will  teach  them  to  make  a better  use 
of  their  strength  by  the  gradual  introduction  and  application  of 
machinery,  while  a corresponding  increase  of  comforts  and  privi- 
leges will  attend  their  progress  in  a knowledge  of  the  arts  of 
agriculture  and  mechanics.  Their  expenditure  of  human  labor 
appears  enormous  to  those  who  are  accustomed  to  the  manufac- 
tories and  engines  of  western  lands,  but  perhaps  nothing  would 
cause  so  much  distress  in  China  as  the  premature  and  inconside- 
rate introduction  of  labor-saving  machines.  Population  is  so 
close  upon  the  means  of  production,  sometimes  even  overpassing 
them,  that  those  who  would  be  thrown  out  of  employment,  would, 
owing  chiefly  to  their  ignorance,  suffer  and  cause  incalculable 
distress  before  relief  and  labor  could  be  furnished  them.  There 
are,  for  instance,  six  or  seven  yards  near  Canton  where  logs  are 
sawed  by  hand,  but  all  of  them  together  hardly  turn  out  as 
many  feet  of  boards  as  one  mill  of  three  or  four  saws  v'ould  do. 
Yet  the  two  hundred  men  employed  in  these  yards  would  per- 
haps be  half-starved  if  turned  off  in  their  present  condition  ; 
though  there  is  every  reason  for  believing  that  improvements 
will  be  introduced  as  soon  as  those  who  see  their  superiority  are 
assured  they  can  be  made  profitable. 

The  mechanical  arts  and  implements  of  the  Chinese  partake 
of  the  same  simplicity  which  has  been  remarked  in  their  agri- 
cultural,— as  if  the  faculty  of  invention  or  the  notion  of  altering 
a thing,  had  died  with  the  discoverer,  and  he  had  had  the  best 


STATE  OF  THE  MECHANICAL  ARTS. 


113 


guarantee  for  the  freehold  of  his  contrivance  in  the  deprivation  of 
all  desire  in  his  successors  to  alter  it.  This  servility  of  imita- 
tion greatly  retards  their  advancement,  and  marks  their  rank  of 
mind  beneath  the  more  inventive  European  ; in  the  absence  of 
superior  models,  it  produces  a degree  of  apathy  to  all  improve- 
ment, which  strangely  contrasts  with  their  general  industry  and 
literary  tastes.  Simplicity  of  design  pervades  all  operations,  and 
when  a machine  directs  in  the  best  known  manner  the  power  of 
the  hand  which  wields  it,  or  aids  in  executing  tiresome  opera- 
tions, its  purpose  is  considered  to  be  fully  answered,  for  it  was 
intended  to  assist  and  not  to  supplant  human  labor.  Yet  with  all 
their  simplicity,  some  of  them  are  both  effectual  and  ingenious, 
and  not  a few  are  made  to  answer  two  or  three  ends.  For  in- 
stance, the  bellows,  an  oblong  box  divided  into  two  compart- 
ments, and  worked  by  a piston  and  two  valves  in  the  upper,  which 
forces  the  wind  into  the  lower  part,  and  out  of  the  nozzle,  is  used 
by  the  travelling  tinker  as  a seat  when  at  work,  and  a chest  for 
his  tools  when  his  work  is  done  ; though  it  does  not,  indeed,  serve 
all  these  purposes  with  any  remarkable  efficiency. 

in  the  arts  of  metallurgy,  the  Chinese  have  attained  only  to 
mediocrity,  and  to  this  deficiency  may  perhaps  be  partly  ascribed 
their  little  progress  in  some  other  branches,  which  could  not  be 
executed  without  tools  of  peculiar  size  or  nicety.  Mines  of  iron, 
lead,  copper,  and  zinc  are  worked,  though  the  modes  employed 
in  digging  the  ore,  preparing  and  smelting  it,  or  purifying  the 
metals  from  alloy,  have  not  been  fully  examined  ; nor  is  it 
known  how  gold,  silver,  or  quicksilver  are  separated  from  their 
ores  ; all  of  them  are  brought  to  market  in  a pure  state.  Gold 
is  used  sparingly  for  ornaments,  but  is  beaten  into  leaves  about 
two  inches  square  for  gilding  ; the  thread  is  more  commonly  im- 
ported, and  the  ingots  serve  as  bullion  in  payments  to  a limited 
degree.  Mr.  Gordon,  in  his  trip  to  Fuhkien  in  1834,  found  the 
people  ignorant  of  its  value,  for  he  could  only  pass  doubloons  for 
a dollar  apiece,  the  natives  having  never  seen  them  before,  nor 
so  well  acquainted  with  the  metal  as  to  recognise  it.  Their  ex- 
quisite workmanship  in  chased  and  carved  work  in  both  gold  and 
silver,  such  as  baskets,  card-cases,  tea-pots,  combs,  &c.,  is  almost 
unequalled,  and  admirably  exhibits  the  nice  filigree  work  which 
agrees  so  well  with  Chinese  genius.  The  flower-baskets  of  fine 
wire,  with  chased  flowers  and  figures  of  various  sorts  enamelled 


114 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


on  the  outside,  in  which  precious  stones  are  set,  may  peihaps 
be  regarded  as  the  master-piece  of  native  art  in  the  working 
of  metals. 

Steel  is  formed  upon  the  blade  or  tool,  by  heating  and  cooling 
the  iron  edge,  though  the  prepared  metal  is  also  imported  and 
worked  up  to  some  extent,  and  sometimes  made  in  small  pieces  by 
the  Chinese  themselves.  Iron  is  cast  into  thin  plates  and  various 
utensils  of  considerable  size,  but  even  the  largest  of  their  pieces, 
viz.  bells  and  cannon,  the  .easiest  of  all  castings,  are  small  com- 
pared with  the  shafts  and  wheels  made  in  Europe.  Wrought 
iron  is  not  used  to  any  considerable  extent,  except  for  making 
nails,  screws,  hinges,  and  other  small  articles,  though  its  quality 
is  remarkably  good.  The  peh  lung,  or  white  copper  of  the  Chi- 
nese, is  an  alloy  of  copper  40.4,  zinc  25.4,  nickel  31.6,  and 
iron  2.6,  and  occasionally  a little  silver  ; these  proportions  are 
nearly  the  same  as  German  silver.  “ When  in  a state  of  ore,  it 
is  said  to  be  powdered,  mixed  with  charcoal  dust,  and  placed  in 
j-ars  over  a slow  fire,  the  metal  rising  in  the  form  of  vapor  in  a 
distilling  apparatus,  and  afterwards  condensed  in  water.”*  When 
new,  this  alloy  appears  almost  as  lustrous  as  silver,  and  is  manu- 
factured into  incense-jars  and  stands  for  temple  service,  boxes, 
and  a vast  variety  of  fancy  articles,  besides  a few  household  uten- 
sils, not  intended  to  be  used  near  the  fire.  Puzzling  specimens 
of  work  are  made  of  it,  as  small  tea-pots,  lined  on  the  outside  with 
earthen,  and  ornamented  with  a handle  and  a spout  of  stone, 
and  having  characters  on  the  sides.  The  white  copper  varies  a 
good  deal  in  its  appearance  and  malleability,  owing  probably  to 
mixtures  added  after  distillation. 

Copper  is  seldom  used  for  culinary  utensils,  and  comparatively 
little  in  the  arts,  though  latterly  the  consumption  has  increased 
at  Canton,  for  the  manufacture  of  bronze  lamps.  The  manufac- 
tures of  gongs,  cymbals,  and  trumpets,  brass-leaf  for  construct- 
ing the  kin  hwa  used  in  worship,  and  the  copper  coin  of  the 
country,  consume  probably  four  fifths  of  all  the  copper  used. 
The  gong  is  employed  on  all  occasions,  and  its  piercing  clamor 
can  be  heard  at  all  times  of  day  and  night,  especially  if  one  lives 
near  the  water ; it  is  an  alloy  of  tin  and  copper,  but  the  propor- 
tions or  the  mode  of  making  them  are  not  accurately  known. 


The  Chinese,  Vol.  II.,  page  229  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  Art.  Copper. 


ATTAINMENTS  IN  WORKING  METALS. 


115 


Bells  and  tripods  are  sometimes  cast  of  a large  size,  as  foi  in. 
stance  that  at  Peking  (mentioned  in  Chap.  II.,  p.  64)  ; but  those 
usually  seen  in  temples  are  under  four  feet  in  height,  and  are 
generally  covered  with  prayers  and  inscriptions  of  a religious 
■ character ; they  have  no  tongue,  and  are  struck  with  a mallet. 
The  tripods  for  receiving  the  ashes  of  papers  consumed  in  wor- 
ship, also  bear  legends,  and  the  priests  of  different  temples  take 
the  same  pride  in  showing  their  ancient  bells,  tripods,  and  other 
like  rarities,  which  Romish  priests  do  in  exhibiting  their  relics 
and  paintings.  The  Chinese  say  that  the  art  of  casting  the 
largest  specimens  of  these  two  articles  in  as  fine  a style  of  work- 
manship as  formerly  is  not  now  possessed.  The  metallic  mir- 
rors, once  the  only  reflectors  the  Chinese  manufactured,  are  still 
used  to  a considerable  extent ; the  alloy  is  like  that  of  gongs 
with  a little  silver  added.  These  mirrors  have  long  been  remark- 
able for  a singular  property  which  some  of  them  possess  of  reflect- 
ing the  raised  figures  on  the  back  when  held  in  the  sun  ; this  is 
caused  by  their  outline  being  traced  upon  the  polished  surface  in 
very  shallow  lines,  and  the  whole  plate  afterwards  rubbed  until 
the  lines  are  equally  bright  with  the  other  parts,  and  only  to 
be  rendered  visible  in  the  strongest  sunlight.  Besides  the  me- 
tallic articles  already  mentioned,  the  ornamental  and  antique 
bronze  and  copper  figures,  noticeable  for  their  curious  forms  and 
fine  polishing  and  tracery,  afford  the  best  specimens  of  Chinese 
art  in  imitating  the  human  figure.  They  are  mostly  statuettes, 
representing  men,  gods,  birds,  monsters,  &c.,  in  the  most  gro- 
tesque shapes  and  attitudes  ; some  of  them  are  beautifully  orna- 
mented with  delicate  scrolls  and  flowers  of  fine  silver  wire 
inserted  into  grooves  cut  in  the  metal. 

The  manufacture  of  glass  is  carried  on  chiefly  at  Canton,  and 
the  gradual  increase  in  its  use,  for  windows,  tumblers,  lamps, 
and  other  articles  of  household  furniture,  shows  that  the  Chinese 
are  quite  ready  to  adopt  such  things  from  foreign  countries  as 
they  see  the  advantages  of.  The  importation  of  broken  glass  for 
remelting  has  entirely  ceased,  and  flints  are  carried  from  Eng- 
land for  the  use  of  glass-blowers.  The  furnaces  are  small,  and 
the  window-glass  is  often  veined,  though  clear ; colored  glass 
ornaments  and  chandeliers  are  also  made.  The  most  finished 
articles  in  the  glass  manufacture  which  the  Chinese  have  yet 
produced  are  ground  shades  for  Argand  lamps.  Looking-glasses 


116 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


are  gradually  taking  the  place  of  metallic  mirrors,  but  as  the  art 
of  casting  plate-glass  is  still  unknown,  they  are  poor  reflectors 
and  give  a distorted  image.  The  liau-lx  is  a vitreous  composition 
between  glass  and  porcelain,  of  a clouded  green  color  in  imitation 
of  jade  or  serpentine,  made  into  anklets,  armlets,  & c. 

The  cutting  and  setting  of  hard  and  precious  stones  is  carried 
on  to  some  extent.  Spectacles  are  cut  and  ground  in  lathes 
from  crystal,  smoky  quartz,  and  a variety  of  rose  quartz  resem- 
bling the  cairngorm  stone,  which  the  Chinese  call  cha-tsing,  or 
tea-stone,  from  its  color.  Their  spectacles  are  not  always  true, 
and  the  wearer  is  obliged  to  have  them  ground  away  until  his 
eyes  are  suited.  The  pebble  is  cut  in  a lathe  by  a wire-saw 
working  in  its  own  dust,  into  a round  shape  with  plane  edges. 
When  worn,  the  rim  rests  upon  the  cheek  bones  ; the  frame 
has  a hinge  between  the  glasses,  and  the  machine  is  kept  on  the 
ears  by  loops  or  weights.  At  Canton,  foreign  shaped  spectacles 
are  supplanting  these  primitive  optics,  but  the  prejudice  is  still  in 
favor  of  crystal  over  glass.  The  cutting  of  diamonds  is  some- 
times attempted,  but  most  artists  content  themselves  with  polish- 
ing and  clumsily  setting- them.  The  corundum  is  employed  to 
bore  holes  for  mending  broken  glass  and  porcelain,  into  which 
copper  clamps  arc  pounded  ; tumblers,  jars,  &c.,  are  joined  so 
securely  in  this  way  without  cement  as  to  hold  fluids.  Both  these 
gems  are  used  to  cut  glass,  but  the  common  way  is  to  grease  the 
place  to  be  fractured,  and  slowly  follow  the  line  along  by  a 
lighted  joss-stick  until  it  breaks. 

Sir  John  Davis  has  condensed  all  the  important  information 
concerning  the  materials  and  manufacture  of  porcelain, — a name 
given  by  the  Portuguese  to  the  semi-transparent  cups  they  saw 
on  their  arrival,  from  their  resemblance  to  the  lustrous  nacre  of 
sea-shells,  or  porcellana,  for  they  supposed  it  to  be  a composition 
of  egg-shells,  fish-glue,  and  scales — a good  instance  of  the  off- 
hand descriptions  travellers  formerly  indulged  in,  just  as  Chinese 
writers  now  describe  things  new  to  them  ; as,  for  instance,  when 
they  call  caoutchouc  elephant’s  skin.  The  kaolin,  or  kau-ling, 
i.  e.  High  ridge,  the  name  of  a hill  near  Jauchau  fu,  is  obtained 
from  the  disintegrated  granite  in  that  region,  and  is  nearly  pure 
felspar,  or  such  as  contains  no  metallic  substance  ; by  slow  de- 
composition the  alkali  and  part  of  the  silex  is  removed,  and  water 
imbibed.  An  analysis  of  the  clay  used  in  Europe,  which  pro- 


WORKS  IN  GEMS,  GLASS,  AND  PORCELAIN.  117 

bably  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  employed  in  China, 
shows  the  constituents  to  be  silica  43,  alumine  36,  water  19,  and 
a trace  of  magnesia  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The  petuntse,  or 
peh-tun-tsz’ , is  nearly  pure  quartz,  and  the  best  is  brought  from 
Hwuichau  in  Nganhwui,  but  is  procurable  elsewhere ; it  is 
reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder  by  toilsome  processes,  and 
formed  into  cakes  to  sell  to  the  manufacturers.  Steatite  or  soap- 
stone, called  lvwah  shill,  is  also  employed,  and  some  forms  of  car- 
bonate and  sulphate  of  lime,  which  are  mixed  in  to  produce  an 
inferior  article,  though  still  among  the  best  now  manufactured  ; 
the  soapstone  ware  is  more  brittle  than  the  other,  but  fine,  white, 
and  very  light.  The  proportions  of  the  ingredients  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  desired  fineness  of  the  ware.  After  the  paste  or  bis- 
cuit is  thoroughly  mixed  and  formed  into  the  required  shape,  the 
dishes  are  painted  by  workmen,  eacli  of  whom  takes  a single 
color  and  a single  part  of  the  picture.  The  whole  surface  of 
the  dish  is  sometimes  covered  with  gay  figures,  but  the  most  com- 
mon decorations  consist  of  heroes,  statesmen,  &c.,  in  different 
attitudes  and  costumes,  and  sentences  beautifully  written  refer 
ring  to  them  and  their  times.  Most  of  the  inscriptions  and  figures 
seen  upon  mantel-piece  ornaments,  tea-cups,  and  jars,  are  of  this 
nature,  explaining  some  event  in  the  life,  or  a panegyric  upon 
the  personages  there  represented  ; this  affords  an  opportunity  for 
persons  to  show  their  scholarship  in  explaining  the  quotation. 

The  colors  used  on  the  fine  porcelain  have  long  been  admired, 
and  De  Guignes,  who  made  many  endeavors  to  procure  samples 
of  them  and  ascertain  the  mode  of  mixing  them,  has  given  the 
composition  of  some  of  the  principal  colors,  but  at  present  there 
is  probably  little  to  learn  from  them  in  this  branch.  After  the 
workmen  have  finished  the  painting,  the  pieces  are  covered  with 
a liquid  mixture  of  alkali  obtained  from  burning  ferns  with  the 
quartzose  petuntse,  after  which  they  are  baked.  The  best  arti- 
cles are  surrounded  with  a case  lined  with  sand  in  order  to  pro- 
tect them  from  the  flame,  and  as  the  furnaces  are  only  about  six 
or  eight  feet  square,  the  closest  attention  can  be  paid  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  ware,  and  the  exact  time  ascertained  for  reducing 
the  heat  and  opening  the  kiln.  Some  of  the  pieces  brought  from 
the  interior  are  perfectly  white,  and  the  patterns  are  afterwards 
painted  and  fixed  on  them  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  custom- 
er. The  finest  specimens  from  the  kilns  of  Kingteh  chin  in 


118 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Kiangsi,  where  the  best  ware  has  always  been  produced,  ere 
seldom  brought  to  Canton,  most  of  the  ware  exported  being  made 
in  Fuhkien  or  Kwangtung. 

Besides  table  furniture,  the  Chinese  manufacture  jars  of  vari- 
ous sizes,  of  beautiful  colors  and  proportions,  some  of  them  four 
feet  high,  entirely  covered  with  figures.  Porcelain  statuettes 
and  idols  are  common,  and  some  of  the  pieces  bear  extravagant 
prices  from  their  fineness,  coloring,  antiquity,  shape,  or  some 
other  quality,  which  connoisseurs  can  only  appreciate.  The 
god  of  porcelain  himself  is  usually  made  of  this  material.  D’En- 
trecolles,  in  his  account  of  the  manufacture  of  the  ware,  says  he 
owes  his  divinity  to  his  self-immolation  in  one  of  the  furnaces  in 
utter  despair  at  being  able  to  accomplish  the  emperor’s  orders  for 
the  production  of  some  vases  of  peculiar  fineness ; the  pieces 
which  came  out  of  the  furnace  after  the  wretch  was  burned, 
pleased  his  majesty  so  much  that  he  deified  him.  Cheap  stone- 
ware is  made  at  Shauking  fu,  and  many  other  places.  It  usu- 
ally presents  but  one  pattern  and  one  color,  and  both  pattern  and 
color  have  been  imitated  in  the  west  so  extensively  and  closely, 
that  blue  is  now  almost  regarded  as  the  only  legitimate  color  for 
dishes,  and  the  picture  of  an  arbor,  bridge,  two  boats  and  two 
swallows,  with  three  people,  the  most  appropriate  design  for  that 
color. 

The  exportation  of  porcelain  is  a very  ancient  branch  of  com- 
merce, and,  as  the  material  is  imperishable,  it  is  not  strange  that 
specimens  should  occasionally  be  met  with,  even  at  a great  dis- 
tance from  China.  The  discovery  of  Chinese  snuff  bottles  in 
Egyptian  tombs,  containing  quotations  from  a Chinese  poet  of  the 
12th  century,  shows  that  intercourse  existed  between  the  extremes 
of  Asia  in  the  tenth  or  eleventh  centuries,  before  China  was  made 
known  to  Europeans.  Nor  can  there  bo  any  reasonable  doubt 
of  the  existence  of  a constant  interchange  of  commodities  long 
prior  to  this  period,  though  all  explicit  record  of  the  course  and 
objects  of  the  traffic  has  been  lost.  Davis  notices  two  bottles 
which  had  been  purchased  in  Egypt  by  travellers,  and  in  his 
Sketches  of  China,  refers  to  the  subject  again,*  adding  an  extract 
from  a letter  written  by  Rosellini,  in  which  that  Egyptologist 
states  that  he  found  one  of  these  little  bottles  in  a “ petit  panier 

• The  Chinese,  Vol.  II,,  n.  212;  Sketches  of  China,  Vol.  II.,  page  72; 
Medhurst’s  China,  its  State  and  Prospects,  page  135. 


PORCELAIN  SNUFF  BOTTLES  IN  EGYPTIAN  TOMBS. 


119 


tissu  de  feuilles  de  palmier,”  with  other  objects  of  Egyptian 
manufacture,  in  a tomb,  whose  date  he  places  between  b.  c.  1800 
and  1100.  His  words  are,  “ Ayant  penetre  dans  un  de  ces  trois 
tombeaux  j’y  ai  trouve,”  &c.,  which  is  as  explicit  as  possible. 
He  also  adds,  that  many  fragments  of  similar  bottles  had  been 
offered  to  him  by  the  peasants,  which  he  had  looked  upon  as 
quite  modern  till  this  discovery  showed  that  they  were  real  an- 
tiques. 

When  the  writer  was  in  Cairo  in  1845,  he  saw  six  or  eight  of 
these  bottles  in  Dr.  Abbott’s  collection,  bearing  different  draw- 
ings and  inscriptions,  but  none  of  them  had  been  taken  from 
tombs  by  persons  capable  of  examining  their  position,  nor  had 
the  Doctor  ever  heard  of  an  instance  of  one  being  found  in  situ 
besides  this  of  Rosellini’s,  though  there  is  no  reason  for  doubting 
that  they  came  from  the  tombs.  The  descriptions  on  the  bottles 
given  by  Davis  are  all  lines  of  poetry,  and  one  of  them,  Hang 
hwa  hung  sliih  It,  “ The  almond  blushes  for  ten  miles  round,” — 
he  traces  to  a Chinese  song  prior  to  the  Christian  era.  Another 
line,  Ming  yueli  sung  chung  cliau,  “ The  bright  moon  shines 
amidst  the  firs,”  is  part  of  a well-known  couplet  of  Su  Tungpo, 
which  he  altered  from  a distich  already  fifty  years  old.  The 
authors  of  two  other  lines,  “ The  flower  opens,  and  lo  ! another 
year;”  and  “Only  in  the  midst  of  this  mountain;”  are  not 
known,  so  that  no  certain  deductions  can  be  drawn  from  them,  in 
illustration  of  this  interesting  discovery.  Another  argument 
against  their  high  antiquity,  is,  that  the  running-hand  in  which 
the  characters  are  written  was  not  invented  much  before  a.  d. 
1000  ; and,  according  to  the  Chinese  themselves,  fine  porcelain 
was  not  made  before  the  7th  century,  but  the  coarse  quality  of 
those  found  in  Egypt  favors  the  idea  of  their  early  date. 

These  facts  lead  to  the  inference  that  the  tomb  entered  by 
Rosellini  had  been  opened  before  his  discovery,  and  the  palm- 
leaf  basket  deposited  there,  perhaps  during  the  Roman  empe- 
rors, or  in  the  times  of  the  caliphs.  The  perfect  similarity  be- 
tween the  bottles  found  in  Egypt  and  those  now  made  by  the  Chi- 
nese, shows  how  unchangeable  is  their  taste,  though  there  is  no 
prospect  of  solving  the  question  of  their  date  or  introduction  into 
Egypt  until  some  hierologist  himself  finds  one  or  two  in  a tomb 
whose  date  and  other  particulars  can  be  settled.  The  more 
antiquarian  researches  extend  in  Asia,  however,  the  more  shall 


120 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


we  find  that  the  books  and  inscriptions  now  extant  do  not  con- 
tain the  earliest  dates  of  inventions  and  travels. 

The  cheap  pottery  of  the  Chinese  resembles  the  common 
Egyptian  ware  in  color  and  brittleness,  but  it  is  less  porous  when 
unglazed.  Tea-kettles,  pans,  cups,  tea-pots,  and  the  usual  arti- 
cles of  household  need  ; immense  jars,  comparable  to  hogsheads, 
for  holding  water ; fancy  images,  flower-pots,  and  a thousand  other 
articles,  are  everywhere  burned  from  clay,  and  sold  at  a very 
cheap  rate.  The  use  of  the  jars  is  universal  in  shops  for  con- 
taining liquids,  powders,  &c.  ; in  gardens  for  keeping  fish,  col- 
lecting rain,  and  receiving  manure  and  offal  ; and  in  boats  and 
houses  for  the  same  uses  barrels,  pails,  and  pans,  are  put  to 
elsewhere.  Water  will  boil  sooner,  and  a dish  of  vegetables  be 
cooked  more  expeditiously,  in  one  of  these  earthen  pots  than  in 
metal ; the  caloric  seems  to  permeate  the  clay  almost  as  soon  as 
it  is  over  the  fire.  Fine  tiles,  glazed  blue  and  green  for  roofs 
of  temples,  and  yellow  for  palaces,  are  made  of  stoneware,  but 
the  common  roofing  and  flooring  tiles  are  burned  from  brick  clay. 
Drum-shaped  stools  and  garden  seats,  vitruvian  ornaments  for 
balustrades,  fanciful  flower-pots  in  the  shape  of  buffaloes,  repre- 
senting the  animal  feeding  under  the  shade  of  a tree  growing  out 
of  its  body,  fishes,  dragons,  phoenixes,  and  other  objects  for  deco- 
rating the  ridges  and  eaves  of  roofs,  are  manufactured  of  this 
ware.  Flat  figures  of  the  human  form  are  set  into  frames  to 
represent  groups  of  persons,  and  elegantly  shaped  characters  are 
arranged  into  sentences,  to  be  suspended  from  the  walls  of  apart- 
ments, making  altogether  a great  variety  of  purposes  to  which 
this  material  is  applied. 

The  beautiful  laequered-warc  owes  its  lustrous  coloring  to  a 
composition  of  lampblack  and  the  clarified  juice  obtained  from  a 
species  of  sumach,  called  Rhus  vernix  or  Vemicia.  Wood  oils 
are  obtained  from  other  plants  of  the  same  family,  and  the  differ- 
ent qualities  of  lacquered- ware  are  owing  to  the  use  of  these 
inferior  ingredients.  The  real  varnish  tree  is  described  by  De 
Guignes  as  resembling  the  ash  in  its  foliage  and  bark  ; it  is 
about  fifteen  feet  in  height,  and  furnishes  the  sap  when  seven 
years  old,  which  is  carefully  collected  from  incisions  in  the  trunk 
opened  in  the  summer  nights.  The  body  of  the  ware  is  wood 
partially  smoothed,  or  pasteboard,  upon  which  two  or  three  coats  of 
a composition  of  lime,  paper,  and  gum  are  first  laid  and  thoroughly 


MANUFACTURE  OF  LACQUERED-WARE. 


121 


dried  and  rubbed.  The  surface  of  the  wood  is  arso  hardened  by 
rubbing  coarse  clay  upon  it,  and  afterwards  scraping  it  off  when 
dry.  Two  coatings  of  lampblack  and  wood  oil,  or  in  the  finer 
articles,  of  lampblack  and  varnish,  are  laid  upon  the  prepared 
wood,  and  after  drying,  the  clear  varnish  is  brushed  on,  one  coat- 
ing after  another,  with  the  utmost  care,  in  close  and  darkened 
rooms,  allowing  it  to  dry  well  between  the  several  coats.  The 
articles  are  then  laid  by  to  be  painted  and  gilded  according  to  the 
fancy  of  customers,  after  which  a last  coating  is  given  them. 
The  varnish  is  brought  to  market  in  brownish  cakes,  and  reduced 
to  its  proper  fluidity  by  boiling  ; it  is  applied  to  many  purposes 
of  both  a varnish  and  paint,  when  it  is  commonly  mixed  with  a 
red  or  brown  color.  A beautiful  fabric  of  lacquered- ware  is  made 
by  inlaying  the  nacre  of  fresh  and  saltwater  shells  in  a rough 
mosaic  of  flowers,  animals,  &c.,  into  the  composition,  and  then 
varnishing  it.  Another  kind,  highly  prized  by  the  Chinese,  is 
made  by  covering  the  wood  with  a coating  of  red  varnish  three 
or  four  lines  in  thickness,  and  then  carving  figures  upon  it  in 
relief.  The  great  labor  necessary  to  produce  this  ware  renders 
it  expensive. 

A common  substitute  for  the  true  varnish  is  the  oil  of  the 
Dryandra,  Jatropha,  Croton,  and  other  members  of  the  Euphor- 
biaceous  family,  expressed  from  their  seeds  by  a variety  of  simple 
machines,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  different  applications  of 
power  to  cylinders  and  pestles  by  which  the  seeds  are  pressed  or 
pounded.  The  oil,  after  pressing,  according  to  De  Guignes,  is 
boiled  with  Spanish  white  in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  to  half 
a pound  of  oil ; as  it  begins  to  thicken,  it  is  taken  off  and  poured 
into  close  vessels.  It  dissolves  in  turpentine,  and  is  used  as  a var- 
nish, either  clear  or  mixed  with  different  colors ; it  defends 
woodwork  from  injury  for  a long  time,  and  forms  a good  painter’s 
oil.  Boiled  with  iron  rust,  it  forms  a reddish  brown  varnish.  In 
order  to  prevent  its  penetrating  into  the  wood  when  used  clear, 
and  to  increase  the  lustre,  a priming  of  lime  and  hog’s  blood 
simmered  together  into  a paste  is  previously  laid  on. 

The  manufacture  of  silk  is  original  among  the  Chinese  as  well 
as  those  of  porcelain  and  lacquered-ware,  and  in  neither  of  them 
have  foreigners  yet  succeeded  in  fully  equalling  the  native  pro- 
ducts- The  notices  of  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  and  the 
rearing  of  silkworms  found  in  Chinese  works  have  been  industry 

VOL.  II.  7 


122 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


ously  collected  tnd  published  by  M.  Julien  by  order  of  the  French 
government.  From  his  work  it  appears  that  credible  notices  of 
the  culture  of  the  tree  and  manufacture  of  silk  are  found  as  far 
back  as  b.  c.  780  ; and  in  referring  its  invention  to  the  empress 
Siling,  or  Yuenfi,  wife  of  the  emperor  Hwangti,  b.  c.  2602,  the 
Chinese  have  shown  their  belief  of  its  still  higher  antiquity.  The 
Shi  King  contains  this  distich  : 

The  legitimate  wife  of  Hwangti,  named  Siling  shi,  began  to  rear  silk- 
worms : 

At  this  period  Hwangti  invented  the  art  of  making  clothing. 

The  Book  of  Rites  contains  a notice  of  the  festival  held  in  honor 
of  this  art,  which  corresponds  to  that  of  ploughing  by  the  empe- 
ror. “ In  the  last  month  of  spring,  the  young  empress  purified 
herself  and  offered  a sacrifice  to  the  goddess  of  silkworms.  She 
went  into  the  eastern  fields  and  collected  mulberry  leaves.  She 
forbade  noble  dames  and  the  ladies  of  statesmen  adorning  them- 
selves, and  excused  her  attendants  from  their  sewing  and  embroi- 
dery, in  order  that  they  might  give  all  their  care  to  the  rearing 
of  silkworms.”  The  Chinese,  as  De  Guignes  observes,  agree 
with  other  ancient  nations  in  attributing  the  invention  of  spinning 
to  females,  and  worshipping  them  as  goddesses  ; thus  the  Egyp- 
tian Isis,  Lydian  Arachne,  and  Grecian  Minerva,  like  the  Chi- 
nese Yuenfi,  handled  the  distaff.  The  attention  of  the  govern- 
ment to  this  important  branch  of  industry  lias  been  unremitted, 
and  at  this  day  it  supplies  perhaps  half  of  all  the  garments  worn 
by  the  people.  In  the  paraphrase  to  the  fourth  maxim  of  the 
Shing  Yu,  it  is  remarked,  “ In  ancient  times  emperors  ploughed 
the  lands,  and  empresses  cultivated  the  mulberry.  Though  the 
most  honorable,  they  did  not  disdain  to  toil  and  labor,  as  examples 
to  the  whole  empire,  in  order  to  induce  all  the  people  to  seek  these 
essential  supports.”  One  half  of  the  Illustrations  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Weaving  is  devoted  to  delineating  the  various  processes 
attending  the  manufacture  of  silk  ; and  Julien  quotes  more  than 
twenty  works  and  authors  on  this  subject.  The  best  silk  is  found 
in  the  provinces  of  Sz’chuen,  lfupeh,  Chehkiang,  and  Kiangnan, 
but  every  province  south  of  35°  N.  produces  it  of  different  de- 
grees of  fineness.  Probably  the  kind  called  tsatle,  brought  from 
Hupeh,  is  the  finest  silk  found  in  the  world. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  SILK. 


123 


While  the  worms  are  growing,  care  is  taken  to  keep  them  un- 
disturbed, and  they  are  often  changed  from  one  hurdle  to  another 
that  they  may  have  roomy  and  cleanly  places ; the  utmost  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  condition  and  feeding  of  the  worms  and  noting 
the  right  time  for  preparing  them  for  spinning  cocoons.  Three 
days  are  required  for  them  to  spin,  and  in  six  it  is  time  to  stifle 
the  larvae  and  reel  the  silk  from  the  cocoons  ; but  this  being 
usually  done  by  other  workmen,  those  who  rear  the  worms  in- 
close the  cocoons  in  a jar  buried  in  the  ground  and  lined  with 
mats  and  leaves,  interlaying  them  with  salt,  which  kills  the  pupae 
and  keeps  the  silk  supple,  strong,  and  lustrous;  preserved  in  this 
manner,  they  can  be  transported  to  any  distance,  or  the  reeling 
of  the  silk  can  be  delayed  till  convenient.  Another  mode  of 
destroying  the  cocoons,  is  to  spread  them  on  trays,  and  expose 
them  by  twos  to  the  steam  of  boiling  water,  putting  the  upper 
in  the  place  of  the  lower  one  according  to  the  degree  of  heat 
they  are  in,  taking  care  that  the  chrysalides  are  killed,  and  the 
silk  not  injured.  After  exposure  to  steam,  the  silk  can  be  reeled 
off  immediately,  but  if  placed  in  the  jars,  they  must  be  put  into 
warm  water  to  dissolve  the  glue,  before  it  can  be  unwound. 

The  raw  silk  is  an  article  of  sale ; the  sorts  usually  known  in 
the  Canton  market  are  tsatle,  taysaam,  and  Canton  raw  silk.  The 
loom  is  worked  by  two  hands,  one  of  whom  sits  on  the  top  of 
the  frame,  where  he  pulls  the  treddles,  and  assists  in  changing 
the  various  parts  of  the  machine.  The  workmen  imitate  almost 
any  pattern,  excelling  particularly  in  crapes,  and  flowered  satins 
and  damasks,  for  official  dresses.  The  common  people  wear 
pongee  and  senshaw,  which  they  frequently  dye  in  gambier  to  a 
dust  or  black  color  ; these  fabrics  constitute  most  durable  sum- 
mer garments,  and  the  pongee  becomes  softer  by  repeated  wash- 
ing. Many  of  the  delicate  silk  tissues  known  in  Europe  are  not 
manufactured  by  the  Chinese,  most  of  their  fabrics  being  heavy. 
The  to  or  law  is  a beautiful  article,  used  for  summer  robes,  mus- 
queto  curtains,  festoons,  and  other  purposes,  but  is  seldom  sent 
abroad.  The  English  words  satin,  senshaw,  and  silk,  are  probably 
derived  from  the  Chinese  terms  sz'tiin,  sinsha,  and  sz\  interme- 
diately through  other  languages. 

The  skill  of  the  Chinese  in  embroidery  is  well  known,  and  the 
demand  for  such  work  to  adorn  the  dresses  of  officers  and  ladies 
of  every  rank,  for  embellishing  purses,  shoes,  caps,  fans,  and  othet 


124 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


appendages  of  the  dress  of  both  sexes,  and  in  working  shawls,  table 
covers,  &c.,  for  exportation,  furnishes  employment  to  myriads  of 
men  and  women.  The  frame  is  placed  on  pivots,  and  the  pattern 
is  marked  out  upon  the  plain  surface.  All  the  work  is  done  by 
the  needle  without  any  aid  from  machinery ; there  are  many 
styles  of  work,  with  thread,  braid,  or  floss,  and  in  one  of  the  most 
elegant,  the  design  appears  the  same  on  both  sides,  the  ends  of  the 
threads  being  neatly  concealed.  This  mode  of  embroidery  seems 
also  to  have  been  known  among  the  Hebrews,  from  the  expression 
in  Deborah’s  song  (Judges  v.  30),  “ Of  divers  colors  of  needle- 
work  on  both  sides,”  which  Sisera’s  mother  vainly  looked  for  him 
to  bring  home  as  spoil.  Books  are  prepared  for  the  use  of  em- 
broiderers, containing  patterns  for  them  to  imitate.  The  silk 
used  in  this  art  is  of  the  finest  kind  and  colors  ; gold  and  silver 
thread  is  occasionally  added  to  impart  a lustre  to  the  figures  on 
caps,  purses,  and  ladies’  shoes.  A branch  of  the  embroiderer’s 
art  consists  in  the  formation  of  tassels  and  twisted  cords  for  sedans, 
lanterns,  &c.  ; and  in  the  knobs  or  corded  buttons  worn  on  the 
winter  caps,  made  of  cord  intertwisted  into  the  shape  of  a ball. 
Spangles  are  made  from  brass  leaves  by  cutting  out  a small 
ring,  by  means  of  a double  edged  stamp,  which  at  one  drive 
detaches  from  the  sheet  a wheel-shaped  circle  ; these  are  flattened 
by  a single  stroke  of  the  hammer  upon  an  anvil,  leaving  a minute 
hole  in  the  centre.  Another  way  of  making  them  is  to  bend  a 
copper  wire  into  a circle  and  flatten  it.  The  needles  are  very 
slender,  but  of  good  metal ; in  sewing,  the  tailor  holds  it  between 
the  forefinger  and  thumb,  pressing  against  the  thimble  on  the 
thumb,  to  push  it  into  the  cloth. 

The  durable  cotton  cloth  made  in  the  central  provinces,  called 
Nankeen  by  foreigners,  is  the  chief  produce  of  Chinese  looms  in 
this  material,  the  aerial  muslins  so  highly  admired  by  the  Hindus 
not  being  woven.  The  nankeen  is  generally  exported  without 
dyeing,  but  the  people  usually  color  it  blue  before  making  it  into 
garments.  The  import  of  raw  and  manufactured  cotton  consti- 
tutes a large  item  in  the  foreign  trade,  but  forms  a small  part  of 
the  native  consumption.  In  preparing  the  cotton  for  spinning,  it 
is  cleaned  and  freed  from  knots  by  placing  the  string  of  a bow 
under  the  heap,  and  striking  it  with  a beater;  the  recoil  separates 
it  into  flocks  without  injuring  the  staple.  The  looms  used  in 
weaving  cotton  vary  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  in  width  ; they 


MANUFACTURES  OF  COTTON,  LEATHER,  WOOLLENS,  ETC.  125 

are  much  simpler  in  their  construction  than  the  silk  looms,  as  no 
figures  are  woven  in  cotton  fabrics,  n<  r have  the  Chinese  learned 
to  print  them  as  chintz  or  calico.  Foreign  liDen  is  sparingly 
used,  for  the  Chinese  have  a good  substitute  in  their  beautiful 
grasscloth.  It  is  made  from  the  fibres  of  two  or  three  plants,  by 
a comparatively  toilsome  process,  the  thread  being  made  read] 
for  the  loom  by  hand  on  a board. 

Leather  is  sparingly  used  for  protecting  the  felt  soles  of  shoes 
and  making  saddles,  bridles,  quivers,  harness,  &c.,  but  the  entire 
consumption  is  small,  and  the  leather  porous  and  tender.  F urs  and 
skins  of  every  kind  are  dressed  very  soft  for  garments.  Buffalo 
and  horse-hides  are  tanned  for  sole  leather,  and  calf-skin  for  upper 
leather.  Foreigners  at  Canton  consume  and  export  a large 
amount  of  cheap  shoes.  Alum,  saltpetre,  gambier,  and  urine, 
are  the  tanning  materials  employed,  and  the  rapid  manner  in 
which  the  process  is  completed  renders  the  leather  too  porous  to 
protect  the  feet  in  wet  weather.  Morocco,  buckskin,  and  chamois 
leather,  are  unknown,  and  the  thousand  applications  of  leather 
among  ourselves,  have  yet  to  be  introduced  among  the  Chinese. 


The  Cobbler  and  his  Movable  Workshop. 


Cobblers  go  about  the  streets  plying  their  trade,  provided  with 
a few  bits  of  nankeen,  silk,  and  yellowish  sole  leather,  with  which 
they  patch  their  customers’  shoes.  It  is  no  small  convenience  to 
a man,  as  he  passes  along  the  stree.,  to  give  his  old  shoe  to  a 


1-26 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


cobbler,  and  his  ragged  jacket  to  a sempstress,  while  he  calls  the 
barber  to  shave  him  as  he  waits  for  them  ; and  such  a trio  at 
work  for  a man  is  not  an  uncommon  sight. 

The  only  woollen  fabrics  produced  by  the  Chinese  are  felt  for 
the  soles  of  shoes  and  winter  hats,  and  a sort  of  rug  or  carpet. 
It  is  not  woven  in  looms  from  the  yarn,  but  is  made  in  small 
pieces  by  a fulling  process  which  mats  the  fibres  together.  The 
consumption  of  it  by  shoemakers  is  very  great,  and  nearly  as 
large  for  winter  hats  among  the  common  people.  The  rugs  are 
woven  with  colored  threads  in  rude  imitation  of  figures,  and  are 
extensively  used  in  the  northern  provinces;  ihe  pieces  are  a few 
feet  square,  and  sown  together  for  carpets  or  bedding.  Hair  and 
wool  are  both  employed  in  their  construction.  The  art  of  knit- 
ting is  unknown,  and  of  course  all  the  fancy  designs  and  worsted 
work  which  are  made  by  ladies  at  the  west. 

Among  the  branches  of  Chinese  industry,  the  growth  and  pre- 
paration of  tea  has  been  most  celebrated  abroad,  and  the  gradual 
introduction  and  use  of  this  beverage  among  the  nations  of  the 
west,  and  the  important  consequences  of  bringing  the  two  into 
more  intimate  intercourse,  and  opening  to  the  Chinese  the  bless- 
ings of  Christian  civilization,  resulting  from  the  trade,  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  results  that  have  ever  flowed  from  com- 
merce. The  demand  for  it  gradually  encouraged  the  Chinese  to  a 
greater  production,  and  then  succeeded  the  consumption  of  one  and 
another  foreign  article  taken  in  exchange  for  it,  while  the  govern- 
ments of  the  west  derive  too  much  advantage  from  the  duties  on 
it  lightly  to  permit  the  Chinese  to  interfere  with  or  hamper  the 
trade,  much  less  stop  it.  Thus  one  influence  and  another,  some 
beneficial  and  others  adverse,  have  been  brought  into  action,  until 
the  encouraging  prospect  is  now  held  out  that  this  hitherto  secluded 
portion  of  mankind  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  family  of  nations, 
and  partake  of  their  privileges;  and  these  consequences  have 
gradually  come  about  from  the  predilection  for  a pleasant  beve- 
rage. Tea,  gunpowder,  printing,  and  the  compass,  are  four 
things  which  have  worked  marvellous  changes  in  the  social  con- 
dition, intercourse,  disputes,  and  mental  improvement  of  mankind  ; 
and  probably  all  of  them  are  traceable  to  China  and  Chinese 
ingenuity  : if  Christianity,  and  its  outflow  of  good  government, 
intelligence,  and  improvement  in  the  arts  of  life,  can  now  be 
exchanged  for  them,  both  parties  will  be  great  gainers.  No 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TEA  PLANT. 


127 


commerce  is  so  profitable  as  that  in  mental  and  moral  acquisi- 
tions, and  upon  none  has  there  been  so  prohibitive  a tariff. 

The  notices  of  the  growth,  production,  and  kinds  of  tea,  here 
given,  are  principally  taken  from  an  article  in  the  eighth  volume 
of  the  Repository,  the  writer  of  which  obtained  them  chiefly 
from  a manuscript  account  written  by  one  of  the  teamen,  who 
bring  it  to  Canton.  The  English  word  tea  is  derived  from  the 
sound  given  to  it  by  the  Fuhkien  people,  from  whom  at  Amoy  or 
Java  the  first  cargoes  were  obtained.  When  first  written  tea, 
it  no  doubt  was  intended  to  be  pronounced  1-ay,  as  the  French  th£ 
is,  and  therefore,  whether  intentionally  or  not,  the  common  Irish 
pronunciation  is  in  this  case  the  right  one.  All  other  nations  call 
it  cha,  or  that  word  slightly  modified,  from  the  name  usually  given 
it  by  the  Chinese.  The  plant  grows  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
provinces,  in  Corea,  Japan,  Annam,  and  the  adjacent  regions,  and 
its  infusion  forms  a common  beverage  for  nearly  two  thirds  of 
the  human  race.  Its  progress  has  been  gradual  in  all  those 
countries,  and  in  Europe  it  has  been  well  compared  to  that  of 
truth  : “ suspected  at  first,  though  very  palatable  to  those  who 
had  the  courage  to  taste  it ; resisted  as  it  encroached  ; abused  as 
its  popularity  seemed  to  spread  ; and  establishing  its  triumph  at 
last,  in  cheering  the  whole  land  from  the  palace  to  the  cottage, 
only  by  the  slow  and  resistless  effects  of  time  and  its  own  virtues.” 
Wherever,  indeed,  it  has  been  denounced,  the  opposition  may 
usually  be  traced  to  the  use  of  a simulated  preparation. 

The  knowledge  of  the  tea  plant  among  the  Chinese  cannot  be 
traced  back  further  than  a.  d.  350,  but  its  general  introduction 
does  not  date  prior  to  about  A.  D.  800,  at  which  time  it  was  called 
tu  ; the  character  soon  after  underwent  a slight  change,  and  re- 
ceived its  present  name  of  cha.  Its  botanical  affinities  ally  it  to 
the  Camellia,  and  both  have  the  same  name  among  the  Chinese; 
botanists  call  it  Thea,  and  it  is  still  a matter  of  dispute  whether 
the  different  sorts  are  distinct  species  or  mere  varieties.  They 
were  perhaps  originally  the  same,  and  long  cultivation  in  dif- 
ferent soils,  temperature,  and  situations,  has  wrought  changes 
similar  to  those  seen  in  the  apple  or  cherry ; Mr.  Fortune  found 
them  growing  together,  and  Loureiro,  a medical  missionary  in 
China,  regards  all  the  varieties  as  ascribable  to  these  causes ; 
though  De  Candolle  divides  them  into  three  species,  bohea,  viridis, 
and  cochinsinensis . The  plant  is  from  three  to  six  feet  high,  and 


128 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


usually  presents  a dense  mass  of  foliage  on  an  infinite  number  of 
small  twigs,  a result  of  the  practice  of  cutting  it  down.  In  Assam, 
where  it  has  been  found  wild,  it  reaches  the  height  of  thirty  feet. 
The  leaf  is  a dark  green  color,  of  an  oblong  oval  shape,  and  the 
flowers  are  white,  inodorous,  and  single  ; the  seeds  are  like  hazel- 
nuts in  size  and  color,  three  of  them  being  inclosed  in  a hard 
husk,  and  so  oily  as  to  corrupt  soon  after  ripening ; this  oil  is 
rather  acrid  and  bitter,  but  is  useful  for  various  purposes.  The 
soil  most  favorable  for  the  growth  of  tea  is  a rich  sandy  earth, 
with  a large  proportion  of  vegetable  mould  in  it,  and  situations  on 
the  sides  of  hills,  where  there  is  a good  exposure  and  supply  of 
water,  produce  the  best  flavored  leaves.  The  patches  above  the 
rice  grounds  are  favorite  situations,  but  the  plant  is  seldom  culti- 
vated on  the  plains  or  lowlands.  A loamy  subsoil,  with  a sandy 
loose  covering,  produces  a good  crop  of  leaves,  and  in  the  planta- 
tions visited  in  the  Ankoi  hills  in  Fuhkien,  much  of  it  is  colored 
with  iron.  The  greater  part  of  the  tea  exported  is  grown  in 
the  provinces  of  Fuhkien,  Chehkiang,  and  Kiangsu,  but  all  the 
eighteen  produce  it,  except  in  the  northern  regi  >ns  lying  along 
the  base  of  the  table-land  in  Chihli  and  Shansi,  though  the  eastern 
parts,  between  the  parallels  of  25°  and  135°  north,  afford  it  in  the 
greatest  perfection  and  abundance.  With  the  increased  demand 
its  cultivation  lias  extended,  and  perhaps  that  of  cotton  has 
diminished  in  a corresponding  degree;  the  southern  hills  of  Fuh- 
kien, the  western  parts  of  Kwangtung,  and  districts  in  Kwangsi, 
also  afford  it  for  foreign  markets.  Russia  is  supplied  from  Sz’chuen 
and  the  adjoining  region,  while  Birmah  gets  a part  from  Yunnan. 

Tea  is  usually  raised  by  individuals,  who  cultivate  a few 
dozen  or  scores  of  shrubs  upon  their  own  lands,  and  either  cure 
the  leaves  themselves,  or  sell  them  to  their  neighbors  after  assort- 
ing them  according  to  their  quality.  There  are  very  few  large 
plantations  under  the  care  of  rich  landlords,  but  each  little  farmer 
raises  tea  as  he  does  cotton,  silk,  or  rice  upon  his  own  premises. 
The  seeds  are  thickly  planted  in  nursery  beds,  because  many  of 
them  fail  from  their  oily  nature,  and  when  the  nurslings  are  a 
foot  or  more  high  they  are  transplanted  into  rows  about  four  feet 
apart  ; sometimes  they  are  put  in  the  spot  designed  for  them,  and 
if  more  than  one  seed  in  a hole  succeeds,  it  is  removed.  No 
preparation  of  the  ground  is  necessary,  nor  is  much  care  taken 
to  keep  the  shrubs  in  a healthy  state ; those  near  Canton  are 


CULTIVATION  AND  GATHERING  OF  THE  LEAVES. 


129 


usually  covered  with  lichens,  and  when  thus  neglected  worms 
attack  the  wood.  The  leaves  are  picked  from  the  plant  when 
three  years  old,  but  it  does  not  attain  full  size  before  six  or  seven, 
and  thrives  according  to  circumstances  and  care  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  years,  being  in  fact  gradually  killed  by  constantly  depriv- 
ing it  of  its  foliage.  Pruning  the  twigs  to  increase  the  quantity 
of  leaves  develops  the  branches  laterally,  so  that  large,  healthy 
shrubs  resemble  a collection  of  plants  rather  than  a single  bush. 
The  interspaces  are  frequently  sown  with  vegetables,  and  the 
practice  is  to  spread  them  as  much  as  possible  in  order  to  pre- 
vent their  being  shaded.  In  the  Bohea  hills,  where  the  best  tea 
is  produced,  there  is,  according  to  the  Chinese,  considerable  dif- 
ference in  the  quality  of  the  leaves  from  gardens  not  very  far 
apart,  and  connoisseurs  are  as  particular  to  inquire  the  name  of 
the  place  whence  their  tea  comes  as  western  wine  drinkers  are 
to  learn  the  names  of  the  vineyards  producing  the  best  brands. 
The  produce  of  old  and  celebrated  nurseries  hs  carefully  col- 
lected and  cured  by  itself,  and  one  native  authority  states  that 
the  prices  of  these  particular  lots  vary  from  $15  to  $100  per 
pound. 

The  annual  produce  of  a single  plant  of  large  size  is  said  to  be 
from  16  or  18  to  24  ounces;,  bu*  an  English  visitor  to  the  Ankoi 
hills  ascertained  that  the  common  average  yield  was  not  far  from 
six  ounces,  and  that  a thousand  square  yards  contained  between 
300  and  400  plants.  Three  crops  of  leaves  are  gathered  during 
the  season.  The  first  picking  is  about  the  middle  of  April,  or 
whenever  the  tender  leaf  buds  begin  to  open,  and  while  the  leaves 
arc  still  covered  with  a whitish  down  ; these,  though  not  very  nu- 
merous, produce  the  finest  tea,  and  the  notion  that  some  of  the 
delicate  sorts  of  tea  are  made  from  the  flowers  has  originated  from 
the  whitish  appearance  this  down  imparts  to  them ; for  no  tea 
can  be  made  from  the  thin,  scentless  petals  of  the  tea  blossom. 
The  second  gathering  is  about  the  first  of  May,  when  the  shrubs 
are  covered  with  full-sized  leaves.  Chinese  writers  say  that  the 
weather  has  great  influence  upon  the  condition  of  the  leaves,  and 
that  an  excess  or  want  of  rain  mildews  or  withers  them,  so  as 
materially  to  affect  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  crop.  When 
the  proper  time  has  arrived,  a large  number  of  hands  should  be 
employed  to  gather  the  leaves  rapidly,  and  at  this  period  the 
whole  population,  men,  women,  and  children,  find  employment. 

VOL.  II.  7* 


130 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  leaves  are  collected  by  handfuls,  stripping  them  off  the 
branches  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  throwing  them  into  open 
baskets  slung  around  the  neck,  in  which  they  are  taken  to  the 
curing  houses.  Each  person  can  on  an  average  pick  13Z6s.  of 
leaves  in  a day,  for  which  the  wages  are  about  six  cents.  The 
third  crop  is  collected  about  the  middle  of  July,  and  there  is  also 
a fourth  gleaning  in  August,  called  tsiu  lu,  i.  e.  autumn  dew, 
from  the  name  of  the  season  in  which  it  takes  place ; the  three 
previous  ones  are  called  first,  second,  and  third  springs.  The 
two  last  crops  afford  only  inferior  kinds,  seldom  exported. 

The  quality  of  the  different  kinds  of  tea  depends  almost  as 
much  upon  the  mode  of  curing  as  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  or 
the  age  of  the  leaf;  some  sorts  are  quite  changed  in  their  parti- 
cular flavor  by  the  curing  and  mixing  processes  they  undergo. 
The  operations  of  rolling  are  very  simple.  After  the  leaves  are 
gathered  and  housed,  they  are  carefully  assorted,  and  the  yellow 
and  old  ones  picked  out.  The  remainder  are  thinly  spread  upon 
bamboo  trays  and  placed  in  the  wind  upon  frames,  where  they 
remain  until  the  leaves  begin  to  soften  ; then,  while  lying  upon 
the  tray,  they  are  gently  rolled  and  rubbed  until  red  spots  begin 
to  appear,  when  they  are  tested  by  pouring  hot  water  upon  them 
to  see  if  the  edge  of  the  leaf  turns  yellowish.  They  must  be 
rolled  many  times,  and  from  the  labor  attending  this  process  the 
tea  is  called  kungfu  cha  or  worked  tea,  whence  the  name  congo. 
When  the  leaves  have  been  rolled,  they  are  ready  for  firing. 
The  iron  pan  having  been  previously  heated,  the  workman  takes 
a handful  of  leaves  and  sprinkles  them  upon  it,  and  waits  until 
each  leaf  pops,  when  he  brushes  them  off  before  they  are  charred. 
Such  is  the  Chinese  account  of  the  mode  practised  in  the  Bohea 
hills.  The  pans  are  the  iron  boilers  used  in  cooking,  set  in 
mason-work  in  an  inclined  position  and  at  a convenient  height ; 
three  or  four  are  put  into  the  same  form,  and  heated  by  means 
of  a flue  passing  lengthwise  under  the  whole.  The  testing  and 
rolling  prior  to  firing  is  omitted  in  the  common  sorts,  and  the 
fresh  leaves  are  thrown  upon  the  hot  pans,  and  there  turned  over 
and  kept  in  motion  by  a workman  before  each  pan,  while  another 
carefully  attends  to  the  fire.  The  heat  soon  forces  the  oil  out 
of  the  leaves,  and  they  crack  and  soften,  and  after  four  or  five 
minutes  are  taken  out  into  trays  for  rolling.  This  operation  is 
performed  upon  tables  made  of  split  bamboos  laid  alongside  each 


PROCESSES  OF  FIRING  AND  CURING  TEA. 


131 


other  with  their  round  sides  up.  The  workmen  take  a handful 
of  the  hot  leaves  in  their  hands,  and  roil  and  knead  them  upon 
the  table,  in  order  to  drive  out  the  oily  green  juice,  which  runs 
through  upon  the  floor. 

After  the  leaves  are  thus  rolled,  they  are  shaken  out  loosely 
upon  basket  trays,  and  exposed  to  the  air  to  complete  the  drying, 
the  object  being  to  dry  them  in  the  gentlest  manner  that  they 
may  not  lose  their  brittleness,  nor  become  crisp  in  the  sun. 
When  dried,  the  leaves  are  again  thrown  in  larger  quantities 
into  the  pans,  now  heated  to  a less  degree  than  before,  and  there 
stirred  and  thrown  about  and  upon  the  masonry  behind,  in  order 
that  all  may  be  equably  dried  and  none  be  scorched.  If  they 
were  previously  well  rolled,  this  operation  causes  them  to  shrivel 
and  twist  more  closely,  and  as  they  grow  hotter  they  are  stirred 
by  a brush,  and  thrown  up  until  they  are  completely  dried,  which 
usually  requires  an  hour.  Sometimes  the  leaves  are  placed  in 
trays  over  a charcoal  fire  covered  with  ashes,  after  exposure  to 
the  air,  and  there  dried  for  two  or  three  hours,  which  renders 
them  of  a darker  color  than  when  rapidly  fired  in  the  pans. 

The  process  here  described  is  occasionally  varied.  After 
the  leaves  have  been  put  into  the  firing  pan  to  be  subjected  to 
the  heat,  rolled  upon  the  table  or  tray,  and  exposed  to  the  sun, 
instead  of  being  returned  to  the  pans,  they  are  scattered  upon  a 
fine  sieve  placed  over  the  same  fire,  the  iron  pan  having  been 
taken  out.  This  fire  is  of  charcoal  and  covered  with  ashes  to 
prevent  smoking  the  leaves,  and  while  over  it  they  are  slowly 
turned  over  until  thoroughly  dried.  They  are  then  removed  to 
a coarser  sieve,  and  the  fine  and  coarse  leaves  in  this  way  par- 
tially separated  before  packing.  This  mode  of  drying  gives  the 
leaves  a greenish  hue,  varying  in  degree  according  to  the  length 
of  time  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun  and  fire.  The  common  sorts 
of  black  tea  are  left  in  the  sun  and  air  after  the  first  process  of 
firing  and  rolling  a much  longer  time,  even  for  two  days,  until  a 
partial  decomposition  of  the  leaves  has  begun  from  the  effects  of 
the  heating  and  squeezing  they  have  undergone  ; they  are,  more- 
over, again  thrown  into  the  pans,  and  rolled  and  stirred  about  for 
a longer  time  when  intended  for  exportation  than  when  put  up 
for  domestic  use,  almost  a partial  charring  being  requisite  in  the 
former  case  to  prevent  them  turning  mouldy  during  their  long 
voyage. 


132  THE  middle  kingdom. 

In  curing  the  finest  kinds,  not  more  than  a handful  of  leaves 
is  sprinkled  on  the  pans,  and  only  a pound  or  so  dried  in  the 
baskets  at  once.  The  firing  of  the  common  sorts  is  done  in  a 
more  expeditious  way,  and  the  leaves  much  moie  bioken  by  the 
operation.  During  the  first  firing,  an  acrid,  greenish  juice 
exudes,  and  is  partially  evaporated,  but  as  it  is  piessed  out  upon 
the  table  affects  and  irritates  the  hands  of  the  workmen  ; and 
when  they  are  again  put  over  the  fire,  the  hot  dust  rising  in  a 
cloud  from  the  boilers  or  baskets  fills  the  air ; to  avoid  this  the 
workmen  sometimes  cover  their  mouths. 


Mode  of  firing  tea. 

As  soon  as  the  curing  is  finished,  the  finer  sorts  are  inclosed 
in  canisters  or  small  paper  packages,  and  packed  in  boxes  lined 


DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  BLACK  AND  GREEN  TEA. 


133 


with  lead,  but  the  common  kinds  are  merely  packed  in  tubs  and 
boxes  and  marked  for  shipment.  There  are,  however,  particular 
operations  performed  on  different  sorts  of  tea,  though  these  are 
the  usual  modes  of  curing  black  tea ; the  leaves  of  Hungmuey 
are  placed  under  cover  till  they  almost  begin  to  ferment,  and 
then  are  exposed  to  the  sun  before  the  first  roasting.  The  deli- 
cate flavor  of  Pecco  and  other  fine  kinds  made  from  the  unex- 
panded leaves,  would  be  spoiled  on  the  hot  pans  where  Souchong 
and  Congo  are  cured  ; they  are  dried  in  baskets  after  a careful 
rolling.  The  round  pellets  of  gunpowder  tea  are  rolled  singly, 
when  damp,  into  a compact  ball.  When  over  the  fire  for  the 
ultimate  drying,  fresh  flowers  of  the  Chloranthus,  Olea,  Aglaia, 
and  other  plants,  are  placed  between  the  heated  tea  leaves,  by 
putting  one  basket  ®f  tea  over  the  flowers  as  they  lie  on  the  top 
of  an  under  basket,  and  then  stirring  them  a little,  without  mixing 
the  two.  Jt  is  not  unlikely,  however,  that  the  flowers  are  occa- 
sionally mixed  with  the  tea  to  increase  its  weight,  but  such  is 
not  the  intention  in  scenting  it  ; the  scented  tea  must  be  immedi- 
ately packed  to  preserve  the  flavor  thus  given  it.  Only  the  finer 
kinds  of  green  and  black  tea  are  thus  treated,  but  Chinese  ama- 
teurs are  somewhat  fastidious  as  to  the  kind  of  flowers  used,  and 
the  degree  of  scent  imparted  to  their  favorite  beverage. 

The  questions  have  been  often  discussed  whether  black  or  green 
teas  are  made  from  the  same  plant,  and  whether  they  can  be 
made  from  each  other.  Mr.  Fortune  found  that  the  Then  viridis 
or -green  tea  was  cultivated  in  Fuhkien  and  Kiangsu,  and  Thea 
boliea  at  Canton,  and  that  green  and  black  teas  were  made  indis- 
criminately from  either.  The  Chinese  account  referred  to  on  a 
previous  page,  ascribes  the  difference  in  the  color  of  black  and 
green  tea  wholly  to  the  mode  of  preparation  ; green  tea  is  cured 
more  rapidly  over  the  fire  than  the  black,  and  not  dried  in  bas- 
kets afterwards ; but  throwing  the  leaf  into  red  hot  pans,  and 
subsequently  exposing  it  to  the  sun  and  drying  it  over  a covered 
fire  makes  it  black.  Green  tea  can  therefore  be  changed  into 
black,  but  the  contrary  cannot  be  done,  because  the  leaf  is  already 
black.  Green  tea  is  made  by  simply  drying  the  leaves,  “young 
ones  over  a gentle  heat  and  old  ones  over  a hot  fire,  for  about 
half  an  hour,  or  while  two  incense-sticks  can  burn  out.”  Bv  this 
mode  more  of  the  essential  oil  remains  in  the  leaf,  and  is  one 
reason,  perhaps,  why  a greater  proportion  of  green  tea  spoils  or 


134 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


becomes  musty  during  the  long  land  journey  to  Canton.  It  is  not 
surprising,  indeed,  that  the  manipulations  in  curing  a leaf  raisea 
over  so  large  an  extent  of  country,  and  to  such  an  enormous 
amount,  should  slightly  differ,  but  there  is  no  mystery  about  the 
processes.  The  tea  cured  for  home  consumption  is  not  as  care- 
fully or  thoroughly  fired  as  that  intended  for  exportation,  and 
consequently  probably  retains  more  of  its  peculiar  properties. 

Both  kinds  are  repeatedly  tested  during  the  various  stages 
of  manufacture  by  pouring  boiling  water  on  a few  leaves,  to  ob- 
serve the  color,  aroma,  taste,  strength,  and  other  properties  of  the 
infusion.  As  many  as  fifteen  drawings  can  be  made  from  the 
best  leaves  before  the  infusion  runs  off  limpid.  In  the  usual 
manner  of  Chinese  writings,  ten  things  are  specifically  men- 
tioned by  the  native  author  to  be  observed  in  selecting  green  tea ; 
such  as,  that  the  leaf  must  be  green,  firmly  lolled,  and  fleshy ; 
there  must  be  no  petioles  adhering,  no  dirty  or  broken  leaves  or 
twigs;  and  the  infusion  should  be  greenish,  aromatous,  and  oily. 
In  selecting  all  kinds  of  tea,  the  color,  clearness,  taste,  and 
strength  of  the  infusion  are  the  principal  criteria  ; the  weight  of 
the  parcels,  taste  and  color  of  the  dry  leaf,  and  its  smell  when 
strongly  breathed  upon,  are  also  noticed.  Some  Ankoi  teas  are 
tried  by  a lodestone  to  detect  the  presence  of  minute  particles  of 
iron.  It  has  been  the  prevailing  opinion  that  the  effects  usually 
experienced  upon  the  nerves  after  drinking  green  tea,  and  it.i 
peculiar  taste,  are  owing  to  its  being  cured  upon  copper.  A 
moment’s  thought  would  show  the  impossibility  of  copper  con- 
tracting any  verdigris  when  constantly  heated  over  the  fire,  even 
if  it  were  employed,  which  is  never  done.  The  difference  in 
taste  is  perhaps  partly  owing  to  the  greater  proportion  of  oil  re 
maining  in  the  green  tea,  but  far  more  to  an  artificial  coloring 
given  to  it  in  order  to  make  the  lots  present  a uniform  and  mer- 
chantable color;  for  the  operations  of  firing  and  rolling  just 
described  give  a different  shade  to  the  leaves  as  they  come  more 
or  less  in  contact  with  the  iron,  or  are  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  the 
manufacturer  wishes  to  render  these  tints  uniform  before  selling 
his  goods.  The  finest  kinds  of  green  tea  do  not  probably  undergo 
this  operation,  nor  that  used  by  the  people  themselves  in 
those  districts,  but  the  color  of  the  cheaper  sorts  is  artificial. 
The  leaves  when  in  the  pans  the  second  time,  are  sprinkled  with 
turmeric  powder  to  give  them  a yellow  tint,  and  then  with  a mix- 


TESTS  AND  NAMES  OF  TEA. 


135 


ture  of  gypsum  and  prussian  blue,  or  gypsum  and  indigo  finely 
combined,  which  imparts  the  desired  bloom  to  the  yellowish  leaves 
as  they  are  rolled  over  in  the  heated  pans.  If  our  taste  inclined 
us  to  prefer  a yellow  or  blue  tea  instead  of  a light  green,  it  could 
therefore  be  easily  gratified.  It  is  likely  that  most  of  the  green 
tea  exported  undergoes  some  process  of  this  sort  to  color  it  uni- 
formly,  but  the  principal  safeguard,  as  Davis  remarks,  against 
injury  from  the  coloring  matter,  is  in  the  minute  proportion  in 
which  the  deleterious  substances  are  combined.  At  Canton,  on 
occasion  of  an  unexpected  demand  some  years  since  for  some  par- 
ticular descriptions  of  green  tea,  it  was  ascertained  that  even 
black  tea  was  thus  colored  to  simulate  the  required  article,  but 
such  stuff  forms  a very  small  part  of  the  exportation. 

During  the  transportation  to  Canton,  the  tea  sometimes  gathers 
dampness,  or  meets  with  accidents  which  require  it  to  be  refired 
before  shipping;  in  such  cases  it  is  unpacked,  and  subjected  to  a 
second  drying  in  the  pans.  It  is  also  repacked  into  chests  of 
such  sizes  and  descriptions  as  the  foreign  customer  wishes  ; but 
much  of  the  tea  is  sent  abroad  in  the  original  cases,  and  its  qua- 
lity examined  for  the  first  time  since  it  left  the  interior  of  China 
perhaps  in  Ohio  or  New  South  Wales.  The  manufacture  of  the 
chests,  lining  them  with  lead,  and  transporting  them  to  the  ship, 
gives  occupation  at  Canton  alone  to  many  thousands  of  carpen. 
ters,  painters,  plumbers,  printers,  boatmen,  and  porters,  besides 
the  countless  numbers  of  men,  women,  and  children,  who  else- 
where find  employment  in  picking,  rolling,  sorting,  and  curing 
the  leaves. 

The  native  names  given  to  the  various  sorts  of  tea  are 
derived  for  the  most  part  from  their  appearance  or  place  of 
growth  ; the  names  of  many  of  the  best  kinds  are  not  commonly 
known  abroad.  Bohea  is  the  name  of  the  Wu-i  hills  (or  Bu-i  as 
the  people  on  the  spot  call  them),  where  the  tea  is  grown,  and  not 
a term  for  a particular  sort  among  the  Chinese,  though  it  is  ap- 
plied to  a very  poor  kind  of  black  tea  at  Canton  ; Sunglo  is  like- 
wise a general  term  for  the  green  teas  produced  on  the  hills  in 
Kiangsu.  The  names  of  the  principal  varieties  of  black  tea  are 
as  follows : Pecco,  “ white  hairs,”  so  called  from  the  whitish  down 
on  the  young  leaves,  is  one  of  the  choicest  kinds  and  has  a pecu- 
liar  taste  ; Orange  Pecco,  called  shang  hiang  or  “ most  fragrant,” 
differs  from  it  slightly ; Hungmuey,  “ red  plum  blossoms,”  has  a 


136 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


slightly  reddish  tinge  ; the  terms  prince's  eyebrows,  carnation  hair, 
lotus  kernel,  sparrow's  tongue,  fir -leaf  pattern,  dragon's  pellet,  and 
dragon's  whiskers,  are  all  translations  of  the  native  names  of 
different  kinds  of  Souchong  or  Pecco.  Souchong,  or  siau  chung , 
means  little  plant  or  sort,  as  Pouchong,  or  folded  sort,  refers  to  the 
mode  of  packing  it ; Campoi  is  corrupted  from  kan  pei,  i.  e.  care- 
fully fired  ; Chulan  is  the  tea  scented  with  the  chulan  flower,  and 
applied  to  some  kinds  of  scented  green  tea.  The  names  of  green 
teas  are  less  numerous  : Gunpowder,  or  ma  chu,  i.  e.  hemp  pearl, 
derives  its  name  from  the  form  into  which  the  leaves  are  rolled ; 
ta  chu,  or  “ great  pearl,”  and  chu  lan,  or  “ pearl  flower,”  denote 
two  kinds  of  Imperial ; Hyson,  or  yu  tsien,  i.  e.  before  the  rains, 
originally  denoted  the  tenderest  leaves  of  the  plant,  and  is  now 
applied  to  Young  Hyson;  as  is  also  another  name,  meipien,  or 
“ plum  petals  ;”  while  hi  chun,  “ flourishing  spring,”  describes 
Hyson  ; Twankay  is  the  name  of  a stream  in  Chehkiang,  where 
this  sort  is  produced  ; and  Hyson  skin,  or  pi  cha,  i.  e.  skin  tea,  is 
the  poorest  kind,  the  siftings  of  the  other  varieties ; Oolung, 
“ black  dragon,”  is  a kind  of  black  tea  with  green  flavor.  Ankoi 
teas  are  produced  in  the  district  of  Nganki,  not  far  from  Tsiuen- 
chau  fu,  possessing  a peculiar  taste,  supposed  to  be  owing  to  the 
ferruginous  nature  of  the  soil.  De  Guignes  speaks  of  the  Pu-’rh 
tea,  from  the  place  in  Kiangsu  where  it  grows,  and  says  it  is 
cured  from  wild  plants  found  there  ; the  infusion  is  unpleasant,  and 
used  for  medical  purposes.  The  Mongols  and  others  in  the  west 
of  China  prepare  tea  by  pressing  it  when  fresh  into  cakes  like 
bricks,  and  thoroughly  drying  it  in  that  shape  to  carry  in  their 
wanderings. 

Considering  the  enormous  labor  of  preparing  tea,  it  is  sur- 
prising that  even  the  poorest  kind  can  be  afforded  to  the  foreign 
purchaser  at  Canton,  more  than  a thousand  miles  from  the  place 
of  its  growth,  for  eighteen  cents  and  less  a pound  ; and  in  their 
ability  to  furnish  it  at  this  rate,  the  Chinese  have  a security  of 
retaining  the  trade  in  their  hands,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  to 
grow  the  plant  elsewhere.  Comparatively  little  adulteration  is 
practised,  if  the  amount  used  at  home  and  abroad  be  considered, 
though  the  temptation  is  great,  as  the  infusion  of  other  plants 
is  drunk  instead  of  the  true  tea.  The  poorer  natives  substitute  the 
leaves  of  a species  of  Rhamnus  or  Fallopia,  which  they  dry ; 
Camellia  leaves  are  perhaps  mixed  with  it,  but  probably  to  no 


PREPARATION  OF  CASSIA  AND  CAMPHOR. 


137 


great  extent.  The  refuse  of  packing-houses  is  sold  to  the  poor 
at  a low  rate,  under  the  names  of  tea  endings  and  tea  bones ; 
and  if  a few  of  the  rarest  sorts  do  not  go  abroad,  neither  do  the 
poorest.  It  is  a necessary  of  life  to  all  classes  of  Chinese,  and 
that  its  use  is  not  injurious  is  abundantly  evident  from  its  general 
acceptance  and  extending  adoption  ; and  the  prejudice  against 
it  among  some  out  of  China  may  be  attributed  chiefly  to  the  use 
of  strong  green  tea,  which  is  no  doubt  prejudicial.  If  those  who 
have  given  it  up  on  this  account  will  adopt  a weaker  infusion  of 
black  tea,  general  experience  is  proof  that  it  will  do  them  no 
great  harm,  and  they  may  be  sure  that  they  will  not  be  so  likely 
to  be  deceived  by  a colored  article.  Neither  the  Chinese  nor 
Japanese  use  milk  or  sugar  in  their  tea,  and  the  peculiar  taste 
and  aroma  of  the  infusion  is  much  better  perceived  without  those 
additions,  nor  can  it  be  drunk  so  strong  without  tasting  an  un- 
pleasant bitterness,  which  the  milk  partly  hides.  The  Japan- 
ese sometimes  reduce  the  leaves  to  a powder,  and  pour  boiling 
water  through  them  in  a cullender,  in  the  same  way  that  coflee 
is  often  made. 

Among  other  vegetable  productions  of  the  country,  whose  pre- 
paration for  the  arts  affords  employment,  are  cassia  and  camphor. 
The  cassia  tree  ( Laurus  cassia ) grows  chiefly  in  Kwangsi  and 
Kweichau,  and  its  dried  bark  affords  the  principal  part  of  that 
spice  used  at  the  west.  The  bark  is  stripped  from  the  twigs  by 
running  a knife  along  the  branch  and  gradually  loosening  it; 
after  it  is  taken  off,  it  lies  awhile  until  decay  commences,  when 
the  epidermis  is  easily  scraped  off,  and  it  is  dried  into  the  quilled 
shape  in  which  it  comes  to  market.  The  fleshy  receptacles  of 
the  seeds  of  this  tree,  or  the  pulpy  substance  which  is  found  in 
the  pods,  are  also  collected,  and  brought  to  market  under  the  name 
of  cassia  buds,  being  applied  to  the  same  purposes  as  the  bark  ; 
they  require  little  or  no  other  preparation  than  simple  drying. 
The  leaves  and  bark  of  the  tree  are  also  distilled,  and  furnish 
cassia  oil,  a powerful  and  pleasant  oil  employed  bv  perfumers 
and  cooks.  The  manufacture  of  it  has  of  late  years  been  inter- 
fered with  by  the  officers  from  an  apprehension,  as  has  been 
alleged,  that  a want  of  fuel  would  ensue  if  the  distillation  was 
not  restricted. 

The  camphor  tree  is  another  species  of  Laurus,  found  in 
Kwangsi,  Fuhkien,  and  Formosa,  and  affords  both  timber  and  gum 


138 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


for  exportation  and  domestic  use.  The  tree  itself  is  large,  and 
furnishes  excellent  planks,  beams,  and  boards,  for  building  ves- 
sels and  making  trunks  and  other  articles.  The  gum  is  pro- 
cured from  the  branches,  leaves,  and  chips,  by  first  soaking 
them  in  water  until  the  liquid  becomes  saturated  with  it ; when 
it  is  turned  out  into  an  earthen  basin  to  coagulate.  It  is  then 
placed  in  an  iron  vessel  in  alternate  layers  with  fine  earth,  and 
over  which,  when  filled,  another  basin  is  luted,  after  placing  some 
mint  upon  the  top  to  hinder  the  clayey  particles  from  ascending ; 
on  applying  a slow  heat,  the  camphor  sublimes  into  the  upper 
vessel.  It  comes  to  market  in  a crude  state,  and  is  usually  re- 
fined again  after  reaching  Europe.  The  preparation  of  the  gum 
and  sawing  of  the  timber,  and  the  construction  of  trunks,  arti- 
cles of  furniture,  and  vessels  in  whole  or  in  part,  occupies  great 
numbers  of  carpenters,  shipwrights,  and  boat-builders. 

Many  of  the  common  manipulations  of  Chinese  workmen 
afford  good  examples  of  their  ingenious  modes  of  attaining  the 
same  end  which  is  elsewhere  reached  by  other  machinery.  For 
instance,  the  baker  places  his  fire  on  a large  iron  plate  worked 
by  a crane,  and  swings  it  over  a shallow  pan  embedded  in 
masonry,  in  which  the  cakes  and  pastry  ait;  laid,  and  soon 
baked.  The  price  of  fuel  compels  its  economical  use  wherever 
it  is  employed,  of  which  the  mode  of  burning  shells  to  lime  af- 
fords a good  example.  A low  wall  is  built  around  a space  ten 
or  twelve  feet  across,  in  the  middle  of  which 'is  a hole  commu- 
nicating underneath  the  wall  by  a passage  with  an  opening, 
where  the  fire  is  urged  by  means  of  a fan  turned  by  the  feet. 
The  wood  is  loosely  laid  over  the  bottom  of  the  area,  and  the 
fire  kindled  at  the  orifice  in  the  centre,  and  fanned  into  a blaze 
as  the  shells  are  rapidly  thrown  in  until  the  wall  is  filled  up  ; In 
twelve  hours  the  shells  are  calcined.  Towards  evening,  the 
villagers  collect  around  the  burning  pile,  bringing  their  kettles 
of  rice  or  vegetables  to  cook  in  the  burning  pile,  thereby  sav- 
ing themselves  the  expense  of  fuel.  The  good  humor  manifested 
by  these  groups  of  old  and  young  is  a pleasing  instance  of  the 
sociability  and  equality  witnessed  among  the  lower  classes  of 
Chinese.  The  lime  is  taken  out  next  morning,  and  after  sifting 
is  ready  for  the  mason. 

Handicraftsmen  of  every  name  are  content  with  coarse-look- 
ing  tools,  compared  with  those  turned  out  at  Sheffield,  but  the 


ECONOMY  OF  CHINESE  CRAFTSMEN. 


139 


work  some  of  them  produce  is  far  from  contemptible.  The  bench 
of  a carpenter  is  a low,  narrow,  inclined  form,  like  a drawing- 
knife  frame,  upon  which  he  sits  to  plane,  groove,  and  work  his 
boards,  using  his  feet  and  toes  to  steady  them.  His  augurs,  bits, 
and  gimlets,  are  worked  with  a bow,  but  most  of  the  edge-tools 
employed  by  him  and  the  blacksmith,  though  similar  in  shape, 
are  less  convenient  than  our  own.  They  are  sharpened  with 
hones  or  grindstones,  and  also  with  a cold  steel  tool  resembling  a 
spoke-shave,  with  which  the  edge  is  scraped  thin.  The  economy 
of  Chinese  workmen  has  often  been  noticed  by  voyagers,  and 
among  them  all  the  travelling  blacksmith  tpikes  the  palm  for  his 


Travelling  Blacksmith  and  his  Shop. 

compendious  establishment.  “ I saw  a blacksmith,”  writes  one 
observer,  “ a few  days  sinoe  mending  a pan,  the  arrangement  of 
whose  tools  was  singularly  compact.  His  fire  w as  held  in  an 
iron  basin,  not  unlike  a coal-scuttle  in  shape,  in  the  back  corner 
of  which  the  mouthpiece  of  the  bellows  entered.  The  anvil 
was  a small  square  mass  of  iron  not  very  unlike  our  own, 
placed  on  a block,  and  a partition  basket  close  by  held  the  char- 
coal and  tools,  with  the  old  iron  and  other  rubbish  he  carried. 
The  wrater  to  temper  his  iron  was  in  an  earthen  pot,  which  just 
at  this  time  was  most  usefully  employed  in  boiling  his  dinner  over 
the  forge  fire.  After  he  had  done  the  job,  he  took  off  his  dinner, 
threw  the  water  on  the  fire,  picked  out  the  coals  and  put  them 


140 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


back  into  the  basket,  threw  away  the  ashes,  set  the  anvil  astride 
of  the  bellows,  and  laying  the  fire-pan  on  the  basket,  slung  the 
bellows  on  one  end  of  his  pole,  and  the  basket  on  the  other,  and 
walked  off.”*  The  mode  of  mending  holes  in  cast-iron  pans 
here  noticed  is  a peculiar  operation.  The  smith  first  files  the 
lips  of  the  hole  clean,  and  after  heating  the  dish  firmly  places  it 
on  a tile  covered  with  wet  felt.  He  then  pours  the  liquid  iron, 
fused  in  a crucible  by  the  assistance  of  a flux,  upon  the  hole,  and 
immediately  patters  it  down  with  a dossil  of  felt,  until  it  covers 
the  edges  of  the  pan  above  and  below,  and  is  then,  while  cool- 
ing, hammered  until  firmly  fixed  in  its  place.  The  great  num- 
ber of  craftsmen  who  ply  their  vocation  in  the  streets  has  already 
been  mentioned,  each  of  whom  has  a peculiar  call.  The  barber 
twangs  a sort  of  long  tuning-fork,  the  peddler  twirls  a hand-drum 
with  clappers  strung  on  each  side,  the  refuse-buyer  strikes  a 
little  gong,  the  fruiterer  claps  two  bamboo  sticks,  and  the  fortune- 
teller tinkles  a gong-bell ; these,  with  the  vociferous  cries  of  beg- 
gars, hucksters,  &c.,  fill  the  streets  with  a concert  of  strange 
and  discordant  sounds. 

The  delicate  carving  of  Chinese  workmen  is  well  known,  and 
has  often  been  described  ; many  specimens  of  it  are  annually 
sent  abroad.  Few  products  of  their  skill  ai'e  more  remarkable 
than  the  balls,  containing  ten  or  twelve  spheres  cut  out  one  within 
another.  The  manner  of  cutting  them  is  simple.  A piece  of 
ivory  or  wood  is  first  made  perfectly  globular,  and  then  several 
conical  holes  are  bored  into  it  in  such  a manner  that  their  apices 
all  meet  at  the  centre,  which  is  usually  hollowed  out  an  inch  or 
less  after  the  holes  are  bored.  A long  crooked  tool  is  then  in- 
serted in  one  of  the  conical  holes,  so  bent  at  the  end  and  stop- 
pered on  the  shaft  that  it  cuts  into  the  ivory  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  surface  when  its  edge  is  applied  to  the  insides  of  the 
cone.  By  successively  cutting  a little  on  the  insides  of  each 
conical  hole,  their  incisures  meet,  and  a sphericle  is  at  last  de- 
tached, which  is  now  turned  over  and  its  faces  one  after  another 
brought  opposite  the  largest  hole,  and  firmly  secured  by  wedges 
in  the  other  holes,  while  its  surfaces  are  smoothed  and  carved. 
When  the  central  sphere  is  done,  a similar  knife  somewhat  larger 
is  again  introduced  into  the  holes,  and  another  sphere  detached 


Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  X.,  page  473. 


CARVING  OF  SPHERICAL  BALLS  AND  FANCY  ARTICLES.  141 


and  smoothed  in  the  same  way,  and  then  another,  until  the  whole 
are  completed,  each  being  polished  and  carved  before  the  next 
outer  one  is  commenced.  It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that 
these  curious  toys  were  made  of  semispheres  nicely  luted  toge- 
ther, and  they  have  been  boiled  in  oil  for  hours  in  order  to  sepa- 
rate them  and  solve  the  mystery  of  their  construction. 

Fans  and  card-cases  are  carved  of  wood,  ivory,  and  mother- 
of-pearl  in  alto-relievo,  with  an  elaborateness  which  shows  the 
great  skill  and  patience  of  the  workman,  and  at  the  same  time 
his  bad  taste  in  drawing,  the  figures,  houses,  trees,  and  other  ob- 
jects being  grouped  in  violation  of  all  propriety  and  perspective. 

Beautiful  ornaments  are  made  by 
carving  roots  of  plants,  branches, 
gnarled  knots,  &c.,  into  fantastic 
groups  of  birds  or  animals,  the  art- 
ist taking  advantage  of  the  natural 
form  of  his  material  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  his  figures.  Models  of 
pagodas,  boats,  and  houses  are  also 
entirely  constructed  of  ivory,  even 
to  representing  the  ornamental  roofs, 
the  men  working  at  the  oar,  and 
women  looking  from  the  balconies. 
Baskets  of  elegant  shape  are  woven 
from  ivory  splinths  ; and  the  shop- 
men at  Canton  exhibit  a variety 
of  seals,  paper-knives,  chessmen, 
counters,  combs,  &c.,  exceeding  in 
finish  and  delicacy  the  same  kind 
of  work  found  anywhere  else  in  the 
world.  The  most  elaborate  coat  of 
arms,  or  complicated  cypher,  will 
also  be  imitated  by  these  skilful 
carvers.  The  national  taste  pre- 
fers this  style  of  carving  on  plane 
surfaces;  it  is  seen  on  the  walls  of 
houses  and  granite  slabs  of  fences,  the  woodwork  of  boats  and 
shops,  and  on  articles  of  furniture.  Some  of  it  is  pretty,  but  the 
disproportion  and  cramped  position  of  the  figures  detracts  from 
its  beauty. 


142 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  manufacture  of  mats  for  sails  of  junks  and  boats,  floors, 
bedding,  &c.,  employs  thousands.  A sail  containing  nearly  400 
square  feet  can  be  obtained  for  ten  dollars.  The  rolls  are  largely 
exported,  and  still  more  extensively  used  in  the  country  for 
covering  packages  for  shipment.  A stouter  kind  made  of  bam- 
boo splinths  serves  as  a material  for  huts,  and  many  other  pur- 
poses that  are  elsewhere  attained  by  boards  or  canvas.  Rattans 
are  also  worked  into  mats,  chairs,  baskets,  and  other  articles  of 
domestic  service.  Several  branches  of  manufacture  have  en- 
tirely grown  up,  or  been  much  encouraged  by  the  trade  at  Can- 
ton, among  which  the  preparation  of  vermilion,  beating  gold 
leaf,  cutting  pearl  buttons,  weaving  and  painting  fancy  window 
blinds,  and  the  preparation  of  sweetmeats,  are  the  principal. 

It  has  often  been  said  that  the  Chinese  are  so  averse  to  change 
and  improvement,  that  they  obstinately  adhere  to  their  own 
modes  at  all  events,  but  such  is  not  the  case,  though  they  are 
slow  to  change.  Three  new  manufactures  have  been  introduced 
during  the  present  century,  viz.  that  of  glass,  bronze-work,  and 
Prussian  blue.  A Chinese  sailor  introduced  the  manufacture  of 
the  latter,  which  lie  had  learned  thoroughly  in  London,  from 
which  the  people  now  supply  themselves.  Bronze-work  has 
lately  been  introduced,  and  watches  and  clocks  are  both  exten- 
sively manufactured,  with  the  exception  of  the  springs.  Fire- 
engines  are  made  at  Canton,  and  sent  into  the  interior.  Ships 
have  been  built  on  the  European  model  in  a few  instances,  but 
there  is  little  encouragement  for  naval  architecture,  since  native 
merchants  can  buy  or  freight  foreign  ships  at  a much  cheaper 
rate  than  they  can  build  them.  Brass  cannon  were  made  during 
the  war  with  England  in  imitation  of  pieces  taken  from  a wreck, 
and  the  frames  of  one  or  two  vessels  to  be  worked  with  wheels 
by  men  at  a crank,  in  imitation  of  steamers,  were  found  on  the 
stocks  at  Ningpo  when  the  English  took  the  place.  The  Chi- 
nese are  not  unwilling  to  adopt  foreign  improvements  when  they 
can  see  their  way  clear  for  a remuneration,  but  they  have  not 
the  means,  the  science,  or  the  inclination  to  risk  many  doubtful 
speculations  or  experiments.  Moreover,  it  should  be  observed, 
that  few  have  taken  the  trouble  to  explain  or  show  them  the  im- 
provements they  are  supposed  to  be  so  disinclined  to  adopt. 
Ploughs  have  been  given  the  farmers  near  Shanghai,  but  they 
would  not  use  them,  which,  however,  may  have  been  as  much 


REASONS  FOR  THE  INERTNESS  OF  CHINESE  MIND. 


143 


owing  to  the  want  of  a proper  harness,  or  a little  instruction  re- 
garding  its  use,  as  to  a dislike  to  take  a new  article. 

The  general  look  of  Chinese  society,  in  an  industrial  point 
of  view,  is  one  of  its  most  pleasing  aspects.  The  great  body  of 
the  people  are  obliged  to  engage  in  manual  labor  in  order  to  sub- 
sist, yet  only  a trifling  proportion  of  them  can  be  called  beggars, 
while  still  fewer  possess  such  a degree  of  wealth  that  they  can 
live  on  its  income.  Property  is  safe  enough  to  afford  assurance 
to  honest  toil  that  it  shall  generally  reap  the  reward  of  its  labors, 
but  if  that  toil  prosper  beyond  the  usual  limits,  the  avarice  of 
officials  and  the  envy  of  neighbors  easily  find  a multitude  of 
contrivances  to  harass  and  impoverish  the  fortunate  man,  and 
the  laws  are  not  executed  with  such  strictness  as  to  deter  them. 
Most  of  the  people  derive  their  subsistence  directly  from  the  soil, 
and  such  a community  is  less  likely  to  present  strong  contrasts 
in  a few  very  rich,  and  the  mass  abjectly  poor,  than  an  aristo- 
cratic or  feudal  state.  The  mechanical  arts  supply  their  wants, 
but  having  no  better  models  before  them,  nor  any  scientific  ac- 
quaintance with  elementary  principles  and  powers  applicable  to 
a great  number  of  purposes,  these  arts  have  remained  stationary. 
The  abundance  of  labor  must  be  employed,  and  its  cheapness 
obviates  the  necessity  of  finding  substitutes  in  machinery.  Un- 
der the  fosteiing  care  of  a wise  government,  many  contrivances 
for  abbreviating  it  might  be  profitably  introduced,  such  as  saw- 
mills, flouring-mills,  steamers,  &c.,  but  a wise  government  needs 
an  intelligent  people  to  work  upon  and  with,  in  order  to  a har- 
monious onward  progress  ; and  the  adoption  of  even  a few  things 
from  us  might  involve  so  many  changes,  that  even  those  intelli- 
gent natives  who  saw  their  advantages,  would  hesitate  in  view 
of  the  momentous  contingencies  of  a failure. 

Imitation  is  a remarkable  and  well-known  trait  in  Chinese 
mind,  though  invention  is  not  altogether  wanting  ; and  the  former 
leads  them  to  rest  content  with  what  they  can  get  along  with, 
even  at  some  expense  of  time  and  waste  of  labor,  where,  too,  an 
exhibition  of  ingenuity  and  science  would  perhaps  be  accompa- 
nied with  suspicion,  expense,  or  hindrances  from  both  neighbors 
and  rulers.  The  existence  of  the  germ  of  so  many  arts  and  dis- 
coveries, whose  development  would  have  brought  with  them  so 
many  advantages,  and  led  to  still  further  discoveries,  leads  one 
to  inquire  the  reason  why  they  were  not  carried  out.  Setting 


144 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


aside  the  view,  which  may  properly  be  taken,  that  the  wonderful 
discoveries  now  made  in  the  arts  by  Europeans  form  part  of 
God’s  great  plan  for  the  redemption  of  the  race,  the  want  of  mu- 
tual confidence,  insecurity  of  property,  and  debasing  effects  of 
heathenism  upon  the  intellect,  will  explain  much  of  the  apathy 
shown  towards  improvement.  Invention  among  them  has  rather 
lacked  encouragement  than  ceased  to  exist : — more  than  that,  it 
has  been  checked  by  a suspicious,  despotic  sway,  while  no 
stimulus  of  necessity  has  existed  to  counterbalance  and  urge  it 
forward,  and  has  been  stunted  by  the  mode  and  materials  of  edu- 
cation. It  was  not  till  religious  liberty  and  discussion  arose. in 
Europe,  that  the  inhabitants  began  to  improve  in  science  and 
arts  as  well  as  morals  and  good  government ; and  when  the  en- 
nobling and  expanding  principles  of  the  Bible  find  their  way  into 
Chinese  society  and  mind,  it  may  reasonably  be  expected  they 
will  purify  and  enlarge  it,  and  rapid  advances  be  made  in  the 
comforts  of  this  life,  as  well  as  in  adopting  the  principles  and 
exhibiting  the  conduct  which  prove  a fitness  for  the  enioymem* 
of  the  next. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


Science  of  the  Chinese 

That  enlargement  of  the  mind  which  results  from  the  collection 
and  investigation  of  facts,  or  from  extensive  reading  of  books  on 
whose  statements  reliance  can  be  placed,  and  which  leads  to  the 
cultivation  of  knowledge  for  its  own  sake,  has  no  existence  in 
China.  Sir  John  Davis  justly  observes,  the  Chinese  “set  no 
value  on  abstract  science,  apart  from  some  obvious  and  imme- 
diate end  of  utility  and  he  properly  compares  the  actual  state 
of  the  sciences  among  them  with  their  condition  in  Europe  pre- 
vious to  the  adoption  of  the  inductive  mode  of  investigation. 
Even  their  few  theories  in  explanation  of  the  mysteries  of  nature 
are  devoid  of  all  fancy  to  make  amends  for  the  want  of  facts  and 
experiments,  so  that  in  reading  them  we  are  neither  amused  by 
their  imagination  nor  instructed  by  their  research.  Perhaps  the 
rapid  advances  made  by  Europeans, during  the  last  two  centuries, 
in  the  investigation  of  nature  in  all  her  departments  and  powers, 
has  made  us  somewhat  impatient  of  such  a parade  of  nonsense 
as  Chinese  books  exhibit ; while,  too,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
this  progress  is  doubtless  owing,  in  no  little  degree,  to  the  dis- 
cipline and  strength  of  mind  which  the  reception  and  application 
of  the  truths  of  the  Bible  impart,  and  which  admirably  fit  it  for 
rigid  analysis.  The  Psalmist  says,  “ The  entrance  of  thy  word 
giveth  light,  it  giveth  understanding  unto  the  simple and 
when  the  mind  feels  that  it  has  an  indisputable  basis  of  truth  as 
a point  d’appui,  its  energies  must  be  more  satisfactorily  directed 
than  where  everything  can  be  called  in  question.  In  addition 
to  the  general  inferiority  of  Chinese  mind  to  European  in  genius 
and  imagination,  it  has  moreover  been  hampered  by  a language 
the  most  tedious  and  meagre  of  all  tongues,  and  wearied  with  a 
literature  abounding  in  tiresome  repetitions  and  unsatisfactory 
theories.  Under  these  conditions,  science,  either  mathematical, 
physical,  or  natural,  has  made  few  advances,  and  is  now  making 
none. 

VOL.  it. 


8 


46 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Murray’s  China  (Vol.  hi.,  Chap,  iv.)  contains  a fair  accoun: 
of  the  attainments  of  the  Chinese  in  mathematics  and  astronomy. 
The  notation  of  the  Chinese  is  based  on  the  decimal  principle, 
but  their  figures  are  not  changed  in  value  by  position,  and  it  is 
difficult  therefore  to  write  out  clearly  the  solution  of  a question. 
Arithmetical  calculations  are  performed  with  the  assistance  of  an 
abacus,  swanpan  or  counting-board,  which  is  simply  a shallow 
case  divided  longitudinally  by  a bar,  and  crossed  by  several 
wires  ; on  one  side  of  this  bar  the  wires  bear  five  balls  and  two 
on  the  other  side.  The  five  balls  on  any  wire  stand  for  units, 
and  the  two  balls  are  each  worth  five  units.  When  the  balls  on 
any  wire  are  taken  for  units,  those  next  to  the  right  stand  for 
tens,  the  third  for  hundreds,  and  so  on  ; while  the  balls  on  the 
left  denote  tenths,  hundredths,  &c.  Simple  calculations  are 
done  on  this  board  with  great  accuracy  and  rapidity,  but  the 
machine  is  more  a convenient  index  for  the  progress  and  result 
of  a calculation  performed  in  the  head,  than  a regular  notation 
of  it  in  detail ; consequently,  if  an  error  be  made,  the  whole 
must  be  performed  again,  since  the  result  only  appears  when  the 
sum  is  finished.  There  are  three  sorts  of  figures,  partly  an- 
swering to  the  English,  Roman,  and  Arabic  forms,  as  Seven, 
VII,  and  7,  the  most  common  of  which  are  given  on  page  495 
of  vol.  I. ; the  complicated  form  is  used  in  drafts  and  bills  to 
prevent  their  alteration,  and  the  abbreviated  in  common  opera- 
tions, accounts,  &c.,  and  in  setting  down  large  amounts  in  a 
more  compact  form  than  can  be  done  by  the  other  characters. 
This  mode  of  notation  is  employed  by  the  Japanese  and  Cochin- 
chinese,  and  possesses  some  advantages  over  the  method  of  using 
letters  practised  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  over  the 
counters  once  employed  in  England,  but  falls  far  behind  the 
Arabic  system  now  in  general  use  in  the  west. 

There  are  several  treatises  on  arithmetic,  in  which  the  simple 
rules  are  clearly  explained  and  illustrated  by  examples  and 
questions.  One  of  the  best  is  the  Swan-fah  Tung  Tsung,  or 
General  Comprehensive  Arithmetic,  in  5 vols.  8vo.  ; the  author, 
Ching  Yu-sz’,  lived  in  the  Ming  dynasty.  The  Tsuimi-shan 
Fang  Sho  Hioh,  or  Mathematics  of  the  Lagerstrsemia  Hill  Inst i - 
tution,  in  36  vols.  8vo.,  contains  a complete  course  of  mathe- 
matical instruction  in  geometry,  trigonometry,  iqensqratiop,  &c., 
together  with  a table  of  natural  sines  and  tangents,  and  on»  of 


MATHEMATICAL  KNOWLEDGE  Or  THE  CHINESE. 


147 


logarithmic  sines,  tangents,  secants,  &c.,  for  every  degree  and 
minute.  Both  these  compilations  derive  most  of  their  value 
from  the  mathematical  writings  of  the  Rcmish  missionaries ; it 
is  stated  in  the  latter  work  that  “ the  western  scholar,  John 
Napier,  made  logarithms.”  The  knowledge  of  mathematics 
even  among  learned  men  is  very  small,  and  the  common  people 
study  it  only  as  far  as  their  business  requires ; the  cumber, 
some  notation,  and  the  little  aid  such  studies  give  in  the  exami- 
nations, doubtless  discourage  men  from  pursuing  what  they  seem 
to  have  no  taste  for  as  a people.  A curious  fact  regarding  the 
existence  of  six  errors  in  these  tables  discovered  by  Babbage  to 
have  been  perpetuated  in  most  of  the  European  logarithmic 
tables  since  the  publication  of  the  Trigonometria  Artificialis  of 
Ylacq  in  1633,  proves  the  source  whence  the  Chinese  derived 
them,  and  their  imitative  fidelity  in  copying  them.  Mathema- 
tical treatises  on  plane  and  spherical  trigonometry  and  geome- 
try exist  in  the  language,  based  upon  the  works  of  foreigners, 
but  mixed  up  with  some  crude  notions  of  the  compilers.  Chinese 
authors  readily  acknowledge  the  superiority  of  western  mathe- 
maticians, and  generally  ascribe  their  advances  in  the  exact 
sciences  to  them. 

The  attainments  made  by  the  ancient  Chinese  in  astronomy 
are  not  easily  understood  from  their  records,  for  the  mere  notice 
of  an  eclipse  is  a very  different  thing  from  its  calculation  or 
description.  The  Book  of  Records  contains  some  remarkable 
notices  of  the  orders  given  by  Yau  to  bis  astronomers  Hi  and 
Ho  to  ascertain  the  solstices  and  equinoxes,  and  employ  inter- 
calary months,  and  fix  the  four  seasons,  in  order  that  the  hus- 
bandman might  know  when  to  commit  his  seed  to  the  ground. 
If  the  time  of  the  deluge  be  reckoned  according  to  Hales  at 
B.c.  3155,  there  will  be  an  interval  of  about  eight  centuries  to 
the  days  of  Yau,  b.c.  2357,  which  would  be  ample  time  for  the 
observation  that  the  primitive  sacred  year  of  360  days  in  Noah’s 
time  was  wrong,  and  that  the  lunar  year  of  about  354  days  was 
also  wrong,  and  required  additional  correction,  which  this  an- 
cient monarch  is  said  to  have  rectified  by  an  intercalation  of 
seven  lunar  months  in  nineteen  years,  like  the  metonic  cycle 
of  the  Greeks.  It  is  also  remarkable  that  the  time  given  as  the 
date  of  the  commencement  of  the  astronomical  observations  sent 
to  Aristotle  from  Babvlon  bv  command  of  Alexander  should  be 


148 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


B.  c.  2233,  or  only  a few  years  after  the  death  of  Yau ; at  that 
time,  the  five  additional  days  to  complete  the  solar  year  were 
intercalated  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  celebrated  with  great  mirth 
as  days  of  festivity.  Dr.  Hales,  who  mentions  this,  says  that 
many  ancient  nations  had  the  same  custom,  among  whom  he 
enumerates  the  Mexicans,  but  there  are  no  traces  of  any  parti- 
cular observance  of  them  by  the  Chinese,  who,  indeed,  would 
hardly  notice  them  in  a lunar  year. 

The  intercalation  made  by  Yau  has  continued  with  little  va- 
riation to  this  day,  the  Romish  missionaries  having  rectified  the 
calendar  as  much  as  it  needed  on  their  arrival  in  the  country, 
and  continued  its  preparation  since  that  time.  The  adoption  of 
the  Julian  solar  year  of  365J  days  at  this  remote  period  is  not 
certain,  though  it  is  mentioned  by  the  commentator  upon  the 
Book  of  Records,  who  flourished  a.d.  1200.  The  attention  the 
Chinese  paid  to  the  lunar  year,  and  the  very  small  difference 
their  seven  intercalations  left  between  the  true  harmonizing  of 
the  lunar  and  solar  years  (only  1ft.  27 m.  32s.),  would  not  de- 
range the  calculations  to  a degree  to  attract  their  notice.  The 
chronological  cycle  of  sixty  years,  called  luh-shih  hwa  kiah-tsz\ 
contrived  nearly  three  centuries  before  the  time  of  Yau,  b.c. 
2637,  seems  to  have  been  perfectly  arbitrary,  or  at  least  no  au- 
thentic account  exists  of  the  reasons  which  induced  its  inventor, 
Hwangti,  or  his  minister  Nau  the  Great,  to  select  this  number. 
The  years  of  the  cycle  have  each  of  them  a separate  name, 
formed  by  taking  ten  characters  called  shih  kan  or  ten  stems,  and 
joining  to  them  twelve  other  characters,  called  the  sfti'ft-’rft  chi  or 
twelve  branches,  five  times  repeated.  These  horary  characters 
are  also  applied  to  minutes  and  seconds,  hours,  days  and  months, 
signs  of  the  zodiac,  points  of  the  compass,  &c.  By  giving  the 
twelve  branches  the  names  of  as  many  animals,  and  apportioning 
the  ten  stems  in  couplets  among  the  five  elements,  they  are  also 
made  to  play  an  important  part  in  divination  and  astrology.  The 
present  year  (1847)  is  the  44th  year  of  the  75th  cycle,  or  the 
4484th  since  its  institution,  being  the  longest  chronological  era 
known.  The  year  is  lunar,  but  its  commencement  is  regulated 
by  the  sun,  and  newyear  falls  on  the  first  new  moon  after  the 
sun  enters  Aquarius;  which  makes  it  come  not  before  the  21st 
of  January  nor  after  the  19th  of  February.  Besides  the  division 
into  lui  ar  months,  the  year  is  apportioned  into  twenty-four  tsieh, 


DIVISIONS  OF  TIME  AND  OF  THE  ZODIAC. 


149 


periods  or  terms,  of  about  fifteen  days  each,  depending  upon  the 
position  of  the  sun : these  are  continued  on  from  year  to  year, 
irrespective  of  the  intercalations,  the  first  one  commencing  about 
the  6th  of  February,  when  the  sun  is  15°  in  Aquarius.  Their 
names  have  reference  to  the  season  of  the  year  and  obvious 
changes  in  nature  at  the  time  they  come  round,  as  rain-water, 
vernal-equinox,  spiked-grain,  little-heat,  &c. 

The  Chinese  divide  the  zodiac,  hwang  tau  or  yellow  road, 
into  twenty-eight  kung,  constellations  or  lunar  mansions,  but 
instead  of  an  equable  allotment,  the  signs  occupy  from  1°  up  to 
31°;  quite  unlike  the  Hindus,  who  have  the  same  number,  but 
arrange  them  nearly  in  spaces  of  13°  each.  The  first  two 
mansions  correspond  to  Virgo,  and  the  succeeding  ones  follow 
in  a very  irregular  manner  through  the  signs  and  constella- 
tions, entirely  omitting  Leo,  and  ending  with  the  Raven.  The 
zodiac  is  further  divided  into  twelve  signs  or  palaces,  varying 
from  25°  to  38°  in  length,  named  after  the  twelve  branches  or  the 
animals  representing  them,  commencing  with  Aquarius  or  the  rat, 
followed  by  the  cow,  tiger,  rabbit,  dragon,  snake,  horse,  sheep, 
monkey,  cock,  dog,  and  bear.  The  name  of  one  of  the  twenty- 
eight  mansions  is  given  to  every  day  in  the  year  in  perpetual 
rotation,  and  of  course  the  same  day  of  our  week  in  every  fourth 
week  has  the  same  character  applied  to  it.  The  days  are  num- 
bered numerically  from  the  first  to  the  last  day  of  the  month, 
and  the  months  from  one  to  twelve  through  the  year,  except  the 
intercalary  month  called  jun  yueh ; and  there  is  also  a trine 
division  of  the  month  into  decades.* 

Astronomy  has  been  studied  by  the  Chinese  chiefly  for  astro- 
logical purposes,  and  their  recorded  observations  of  eclipses, 
comets,  &c.,  are  of  small  value  to  European  astronomers.  Mail- 
la  has  collected  the  notices  of  460  solar  eclipses  (no  lunar  ones 
are  recorded),  extending  from  b.  c.  2159  to  A.  D.  1699,  but  this 
proves  nothing  of  the  science  of  the  observers  ; his  summary  of 
their  observations  and  calculations  shows,  that  although  they 
came  very  near  the  truth  in  their  calculations  respecting  the 
length  of  the  lunar  and  solar  year,  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic, 
and  the  general  motions  of  the  plants,  yet  “ on  the  whole,  their 
astronomy  contains  only  the  most  vague  notions,  and  has  no  pre- 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  573-5S4.  De  Guignes’  Voyage*, 
Vol  II.,  p.  414.  Chinese  Chrestomathy. 


150 


THE  CUDDLE  KINGDOM. 


cepts  which  could  be  of  any  use,  or  throw  the  least  light  on  the 
science.  Indeed,  it  may  be  confidently  said,  that  its  true  princi 
pies  were  never  established  in  China,  notwithstanding  the  very 
long  period  during  which  it  was  cultivated  by  a succession  ot 
learned  men,  supported  by  the  state.  The  Chinese  appear  never 
to  have  had  any  fixed  rules  for  determining  eclipses,  and  all  their 
tables  are  entirely  empirical.  The  precession  of  the  equinoxes 
was  estimated  very  differently  at  different  times,  varying  between 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  years  to  a degree.”*  Even 
with  all  the  aid  they  have  derived  from  Europeans,  the  Chinese 
seem  to  be  unable  to  advance  in  this  science  when  left  to  them- 
selves, and  to  cling  to  their  superstitions  against  every  evidence. 
Some  clouds  having  on  one  occasion  covered  the  sky,  so  that  an 
eclipse  could  not  be  seen,  the  courtiers  joyfully  repaired  to  the 
emperor  to  felicitate  him,  that  heaven,  touched  by  his  virtues, 
had  spared  him  the  pain  of  witnessing  the  “ eating  of  the  sun.” 
A native  writer  on  astronomy,  called  Tsinglai,  who  published 
several  works  under  the  patronage  of  Yuen  Yuen,  the  liberal 
minded  governor  of  Kwangtung  in  1820,  even  at  that  late  day? 
“ makes  the  heavens  to  consist  of  ten  concentric  hollow  spheres 
or  envelops  : the  first  contains  the  moon’s  orbit ; the  second  that 
of  Mercury;  those  of  Venus,  the  Sun,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
and  the  twenty-eight  constellations,  follow  ; the  ninth  envelops 
and  binds  together  the  eight  interior  ones,  and  revolves  daily ; 
while  the  tenth  is  the  abode  of  the  celestial  Sovereign,  the  great 
Ruler,  with  all  the  gods  and  sages,  where  they  enjoy  eternal 
tranquillity.”  He  further  says,  “ there  are  two  north  and  two 
south  poles,  those  of  the  equator  and  those  of  the  ecliptic.  The 
poles  of  the  ecliptic  regulate  the  varied  machinery  of  the  hea- 
venly revolutions,  and  turn  round  unceasingly.  The  poles  of 
the  equator  are  the  pivots  of  the  primitive  celestial  body,  and 
remain  permanently  unmoved.  What  are  called  the  two  poles, 
therefore,  are  really  not  stars,  but  two  immovable  points  in  the 
north  and  in  the  south. ”f  The  author  of  this  astute  cosmogony 
studied  under  Europeans,  and  published  these  remarks  as  the 
fruit  of  his  researches. 

The  names  given  to  the  five  principal  planets,  Mercury, 
Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn,  are  water,  metal,  fire,  wood, 

* Murray’s  China,  Vol.  III.,  pages  225 — 265. 

t Chinese  Chrestomathv,  page  397. 


CHINESE  NOTIONS  RESPECTING  ASTRONOMY. 


151 


and  earth,  which  rule  over  the  year  and  its  four  seasons,  and 
correspond  with  the  kidneys,  lungs,  heart,  liver,  and  stomach  ; 
they  are  denoted  by  black,  white,  red,  green,  and  yellow,  and 
influenced  by  salt,  pungent,  bitter,  sour,  or  sweet  tastes  ; the 
whole  forming  a chain  of  causes,  acting  and  reacting  through 
and  with  each  other,  whose  explanation  is  peculiarly  well  fitted 
in  the  hands  of  conjurors  for  imposing  on  the  people  by  a show 
of  learning,  and  hindering  their  progress  in  real  knowledge.  The 
sun,  moon,  and  planets  influence  all  sublunary  events,  and  espe- 
cially the  life  and  death  of  human  beings,  and  changes  in  their 
color  menace  approaching  calamities.  Alterations  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  sun  announce  misfortunes  to  the  state  or  its  head,  as 
revolts,  famines,  or  the  death  of  the  emperor ; when  the  moon 
waxes  red,  or  turns  pale,  men  should  be  in  awe  at  the  unlucky 
times  thus  foreomened.  The  Chinese  represent  the  sun  by  the 
figure  of  a raven  in  a circle,  and  the  moon  by  a rabbit  on  his 
hind  legs  pounding  rice  in  a mortar,  or  by  a toad.  The  last 
refers  to  the  legend  of  an  ancient  beauty,  Chang-ngo,  who  drank 
the  liquor  of  immortality  and  straightway  ascended  to  the  moon, 
where  she  was  transformed  into  a toad,  still  to  be  traced  in  its 
face.  All  the  stars  are  ranged  into  constellations,  and  an  em- 
peror is  installed  over  them,  who  resides  at  the  north  pole  ; five 
monarchs,  also,  live  in  the  five  stars  in  Leo,  where  is  a palace, 
called  Wu  Ti  tso,  or  throne  of  the  Five  Emperors.  In  this 
celestial  government,  there  is  also  an  heir  apparent,  empresses, 
sons  and  daughters,  tribunals,  and  the  constellations  receive  the 
names  of  men,  animals,  and  other  terrestrial  objects.  The  Dip- 
per, called  Peli  Tau  or  Northern  Peck,  is  worshipped  as  the 
residence  of  the  fates,  where  the  duration  of  life,  and  other 
events  relating  to  mankind,  are  measured  and  meted  out.  There 
are  many  other  popular  notions  on  these  matters  showing  the  pro- 
found ignorance  of  the  people,  and  how  much  they  need  a Novum 
Organon  to  set  them  on  the  right  track.  The  sun  and  moon  are 
regarded  as  the  foci  of  the  dual  powers,  the  male  and  female 
principles,  and  the  former,  as  the  lord  of  life,  like  a great  prince, 
nourishes  and  bestows  his  favors,  while  the  moon,  his  queen,  is 
matched  to  him.  The  rainbow  is  the  product  of  the  impure 
vapors  ascending  from  the  earth  meeting  those  descending  from 
the  sun. 

The  entire  day  among  the  Chinese  is  divided  into  twelve 


152 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


hours  called  shin,  commencing  at  11  o’clock,  p.  m.  ; each  hour 
is  named  after  one  of  the  horary  characters,  and  further  subdi- 
vided into  ninety-six  kih,  or  eighths,  each  of  which  is  fifteen  of 
our  mir.utes,  and  receives  the  same  characters.  There  are  va- 
rious  means  employed  to  measure  time,  but  at  Canton  most  of  the 
people  reckon  its  progress  by  watches  and  clocks,  and  follow  our 
divisions  in  preference  to  their  own.  A common  substitute  for 
watches  are  time-slicks,  long  round  pieces  of  a composition  of 
clay  and  sawdust,  well  mixed  and  wound  in  a spiral  manner  ; 
the  lapse  of  time  is  indicated  by  its  equable  slow  combustion  from 
one  hour  mark  to  another  until  the  whole  is  consumed,  which  in 
the  longest  is  not  less  than  a week.  Dials  are  in  common  use, 
and  frequently  attached  to  the  mariner’s  compass,  by  making  the 
string  which  retains  the  cover  in  its  place  cast  a shadow  on  the 
face  of  it ; this  lesson  in  dialing,  Davis  supposes  they  learned 
from  the  Jesuits.  Clepsydras  of  various  forms  were  anciently 
employed,  some  of  which,  from  their  description,  were  so  dispro- 
portionately elegant  and  costly  for  such  a clumsy  mode  of  noting 
time,  that  their  beauty  more  than  their  use  was  perhaps  the  prin- 
cipal object  in  preparing  them. 

The  almanac  holds  a very  important  place  in  China,  its  prepa- 
ration having  been  taken  under  the  special  care  of  the  govern- 
ment, which  looks  upon  a present  ofithis  important  publication  as 
one  of  the  highest  favors  which  it  can  confer  on  tributary  vassals 
or  friendly  nations.  It  is  annually  published  and  distributed  at 
Peking,  under  the  direction  of  a special  bureau  attached  to  the 
Board  of  Rites,  and,  by  making  it  a penal  offence  to  issue  a coun- 
terfeit or  pirated  edition,  the  governmental  astrologers  have  mo- 
nopolized the  management  of  the  superstitions  of  the  people  in 
regard  to  the  fortunate  or  unlucky  conjunctions  of  each  day  anc. 
hour.  Besides  the  cabalistic  part  of  it,  the  ephemeris  also  con- 
tains tables  of  the  rising  of  the  sun  according  to  the  latitudes  of 
the  principal  places,  times  of  the  new  and  full  moon,  the  begin- 
ning and  length  of  the  twenty-four  terms,  eclipses,  application  of 
the  horary  characters,  conjunction  of  the  planets,  &c.  Two  or 
three  editions  are  published  for  the  convenience  of  the  people, 
the  prices  of  which  vary  from  three  to  ten  cents  a copy.  No 
one  ventures  to  be  without  an  almanac,  lest  he  be  liable  to  the 
greatest  misfortunes,  and  run  the  imminent  hazard  of  under- 
taking important  events  on  black-balled  days.  The  Europeans, 


POPULAR  OPINIONS  RESPECTING  GEOGRAPHY. 


15a 


who  were  employed  for  many  years  in  compiling  the  calendar, 
were  not  allowed  to  interfere  in  the  astrological  part,  and  it  is  to 
the  discredit  of  the  Chinese,  to  aid  thus  in  perpetuating  folly  and 
ignorance  among  the  people,  when  they  know  that  the  whole 
system  is  false  and  absurd.  Such  governments  as  that  of  China, 
however,  deem  it  necessary  to  uphold  ancient  superstitions,  if 
they  can  thereby  influence  their  security,  or  strengthen  the  reve- 
rence due  them. 

If  their  astronomical  notions  are  vague,  their  geographical 
knowledge  is  ridiculous.  The  maps  of  their  own  territories  are 
tolerably  good,  being  originally  drawn  from  actual  surveys  by 
nine  of  the  Jesuits,  between  the  years  1708 — 1718,  and  since 
that  time  have  been  filled  up  and  changed  to  conform  to  the  alter, 
ations  and  divisions.  Their  full  surveys  were  engraved  on 
copper  at  Paris,  by  order  of  Louis  XIV.,  on  sheets,  measuring 
in  all  over  a hundred  square  feet,  and  have  formed  the  basis  of 
all  subsequent  maps.  The  Chinese  are  in  almost  complete  igno- 
rance of  the  form  and  divisions  of  the  globe,  and  the  size  and 
position  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth.  Their  common  maps  de- 
lineate them  very  erroneously,  not  even  excepting  their  own  pos- 
sessions in  Mongolia  and  l\i, — scattering  islands,  kingdoms,  and 
continents,  as  they  have  heard  of  their  existence,  at  haphazard 
in  various  corners  beyond  the  frontiers.  The  two  Americas  and 
Africa  are  entirely  omitted  on  most  of  them,  and  England,  Hol- 
land, Portugal,  Goa,  Luconia,  Bokhara,  Germany,  France,  and 
India,  are  arranged  along  the  western  side,  from  north  to  south, 
in  a series  of  islands  and  headlands.  The  southern  and  eastern 
sides  are  similarly  garnished  by  islands,  as  Japan,  Lewchew, 
Formosa,  Siam,  Birmah,  Java,  the  Sulu  Islands,  and  others,  while 
Russia  occupies  the  whole  of  the  northern  frontier  of  their  Middle 
Kingdom.  The  writings  of  two  or  three  authors  on  geography 
are  noticed  in  Chap.  II.,  the  best  of  which  is  Lin’s  translation 
of  Murray,  and  if  this  becomes  a text-book  it  will  correct  some 
errors.  An  English  gentleman  at  Shanghai  gave  a thousand 
dollars  for  the  purpose  of  publishing  a revised  edition  of  this 
performance,  under  the  impression  that  it  was  entirely  a native 
production. 

The  geographical  works  of  Tsinglai  are  not  quite  so  erro- 
neous as  his  astronomical,  but  the  uneducated  people,  notwith- 
standing his  efforts  to  teach  them  better,  still  generally  suppose 


154 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  earth  to  be  an  immense  extended  stationary  plain,  or  a square 
solid,  around  which  the  heavenly  bodies  daily  revolve.  Their 
notions  of  its  inhabitants  are  equally  whimsical,  and  would  grace 
the  pages  of  Sir  John  Mandeville.  In  some  parts  of  its  surface 
they  imagine  the  inhabitants  to  be  all  dwarfs,  who  tie  themselves 
together  in  bunches  for  fear  of  being  carried  away  by  the  eagles  ; 
in  others  they  are  all  women,  who  conceive  by  looking  at  their 
shadows ; and  in  a third  kingdom,  all  the  people  have  holes  in 
their  breasts,  through  which  they  thrust  a pole,  when  carrying 
one  another  from  place  to  place.  Charts  for  the  guidance  of  the 
navigator,  or  instruments  to  aid  him  in  determining  his  position 
at  sea,  the  Chinese  are  nearly  or  quite  destitute  of ; they  have 
retrograded  rather  than  advanced  in  navigation,  judging  from  the 
accounts  of  Fa-hian,  Ibn  Batuta,  and  other  travellers,  when  their 
vessels  frequented  the  ports  in  the  Persian  Gulf  and  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  and  carried  on  a large  trade  with  the  Archipelago. 
Itineraries  are  published,  containing  the  distances  between  places 
on  the  principal  thoroughfares  throughout  the  provinces,  and  also 
lists  of  the  ports,  harbors,  and  islands  on  the  coast,  but  nothing 
like  sailing  directions  accompany  the  latter,  nor  maps  of  the 
routes  illustrate  the  former. 

In  the  various  branches  of  mensuration  and  formulae  used  to 
describe  the  dimensions  and  weight  of  bodies,  they  have  reached 
only  a practical  mediocrity.  With  a partial  knowledge  of  trigo- 
nometry, and  no  instruments  for  ascertaining  the  heights  of 
objects  or  their  distances  from  the  observer,  still  their  lands  are 
well  measured,  and  the  area  of  lots  in  towns  and  cities  accurately 
ascertained.  The  chili  or  foot  is  the  integer  of  length,  but  its 
standard  value  cannot  be  easily  ascertained.  It  is  fixed  by  the 
Board  of  Works  at  13J  in.  English,  but  tradesmen  at  Canton 
employ  foot  measures  varying  from  14.625  to  14.81  in.;  accord- 
ing to  the  tariff,  it  is  reckoned  at  14.1  in.  English,  and  the  cliang 
of  ten  chih  at  3-}-£  yds.  The  chili  is  subdivided  into  ten  Isun  or 
pi’.ntos,  and  each  isun  into  ten  fan.  The  decimal  division  runs 
through  nearly  all  Chinese  weights  and  measures,  and  greatly  sim- 
plifies calculations  in  them.  The  U is  used  for  distances,  but  the 
same  discrepancy  exists  regarding  its  precise  length,  owing  to  the 
various  measures  of  the  chih.  It  is  usually  reckoned  at  1825.55 
ft.  English,  which  gives  2.89  H to  an  English  mile  ; this  is  based 
on  the  estimate  of  200  K to  a degree,  but  there  were  only  180  li 


MEASURES  OF  LENGTH,  WEIGHT,  AND  SOLIDITY.  Ul.*> 

to  a degree  before  Europeans  came,  which  increases  its  length  to 
2028.39  ft.  or  2.6  li  to  a mile,  which  is  nearer  the  common  esti- 
mate. The  French  missionaries  divided  the  degree  into  250  li, 
each  being  then  exactly  1460.44  ft.  English,  or  one  tenth  of  a 
French  astronomical  league,  and  also  into  60  minutes  and  60 
seconds,  to  make  it  correspond  to  western  notation  ; but  this  mea- 
sure has  not  been  adopted  in  common  use.  The  present  rulers 
have  established  post-houses  over  the  provinces  at  intervals  of 
ten  li,  or  about  a league.  The  land  measures  are  the  mau  and 
king,  the  former  containing  733.32  sq.  yards,  or  6.61  of  them 
making  an  English  acre,  and  a hundred  of  them  a king,  which 
contains  15.13  square  acres.  Taxes  are  collected,  land  is  leased, 
and  crops  are  estimated  by  the  mau  and  its  decimal  parts.  The 
linear  measures  of  the  Chinese  are  peculiar,  and  from  the  nu- 
merous variations  found  among  them  at  present,  it  may  be  infer- 
red that  there  has  never  been  much  uniformity  in  the  standard,  or 
that  no  legal  measures  are  taken  to  oblige  people  to  adhere  to  it. 

The  weights  and  measures  of  the  Chinese  are  24  in  all,  but 
only  six  are  in  common  use,  the  rest  being  either  nominal  cr 
ancient.  The  liang,  kin,  and  tan,  called  tael,  catty,  and  pecul 
{pron.  tale,  catti,  and  pikkl)  by  foreigners,  are  the  only  weights 
commonly  employed  in  bulky  articles,  and  decimals  of  the  tael 
in  precious  substances.  The  catty  is  just  1^  lbs.  av.,  and  the  tael 
is  -jV  of  it,  or  l^oz.  av.,  and  the  pecul  133£  lbs.  The  Chinese 
reckon  many  articles  by  weight  which  among  western  nations  are 
sold  according  to  their  quality,  such  as  wood,  silk,  oil,  whiskey, 
cloth,  grain,  poultry,  &c.,  so  that  it  has  been  humorously  ob- 
served, that  the  Chinese  sell  everything  by  weight,  except  eggs 
and  children.  Their  common  measures  correspond  nearly  to 
our  gill,  half-pint,  pint,  and  peck,  and  are  used  to  retail  rice,  beans, 
&c.  The  smaller  ones  are  not  very  accurately  constructed  from 
bamboo  joints,  but  the  peck  measure  or  tau,  shaped  like  the  frus- 
tum of  a pyramid,  must  be  officially  examined  and  sealed  before 
it  can  be  used  ; at  Canton  it  contains  6£  catties  weight,  or  10 
shing  or  pints,  and  measures  309.57  cubic  inches,  or  about  1.13 
gallon.  The  decimals  of  a tael  called  lsien,fan,  and  li,  or  mace, 
candareen,  and  cash,  are  employed  in  reckoning  bullion,  pearls, 
gems,  drugs,  &c. ; ten  cash  making  one  candareen,  ten  canda- 
reens  one  mace,  &c.  The  proportions  between  the  Chinese  and 
American  moneys  and  weights  is  such  that  so  many  taels  per 


156 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


pecul,  or  candareens  per  catty,  is  the  same  as  so  many  dollars 
per  cwt.,  or  cents  per  pound.* 

The  monetary  system  is  arranged  on  the  principle  of  weight, 
and  the  names  tael,  mace,  candareen,  and  cash,  are  applied  to  the 
divisions,  though  the  only  native  coin  now  current  is  a small  cop- 
per piece  called  tsien,  or  cash  by  foreigners,  the  other  three  being 
nominal.  The  piece  is  thin  and  circular,  about  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  a square  hole  in  the  middle  for  the 
convenience  of  stringing  them.  The  obverse  bears  the  names 
of  the  dynasty  and  of  the  reigning  monarch  in  Manchu,  on  each 
side  of  the  square  hole  ; the  reverse  has  the  four  words  Tau- 
kwang  lung  pau,  i.  e.  Taukwang’s  current  money,  arranged  on 
the  sides  of  the  hole.  Mints  for  casting  cash  are  established  in 
each  provincial  capital  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  of  Reve- 
nue, which  sends  the  moulds.  The  coin  should  consist  of  pure 
copper,  but  it  is  so  mixed  with  sand,  iron  filings,  and  tutenague, 
that  -it  is  one  of  the  basest  coins  to  be  found  in  any  country. 
Each  piece  should  weigh  one  mace,  or  58  grs.  troy,  but  the  value 
has  depreciated  from  1000  to  about  1680  or  1700  cash  to  a tael, 
or  from  720  to  1050  or  1200  to  a dollar.  The  workmen  in  the 
mint  are  required  to  remain  within  the  building  except  when 
leave  of  absence  is  obtained,  but  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of 
government,  private  coinage  is  issued  to  a great  amount,  and 
sometimes  with  the  connivance  of  the  mint-master.  At  present 
the  cash  is  so  debased  as  not  to  repay  counterfeiters  for  the  risk 
of  imitating  it,  which  is  perhaps  the  best  security  the  government 
can  have  of  keeping  it  in  their  own  hands ; and  this  trifling  with 
the  purity  of  the  metal  is  the  reason  why  the  Chinese  are  unable 
to  maintain  a silver  currency,  though  silver  coins  have  been  in 
use  at  several  periods,  and  unsuccessfully  attempted,  even  lately, 
in  Fuhkien.  In  that  province,  a coin  was  issued  by  the  provin- 
cial treasurer,  weighing  517  grs.  tr.,  bearing  a figure  of  the  god 
of  Longevity  on  the  obverse,  and  a legend  stating  it  to  have  been 
cast  in  the  reign  of  Taukwang,  a “cake  of  pure  silver  weighing 
7 mace  2 candareens.”  The  reverse  presented  a tripod  to  denote 
that  it  was  a government  coin,  and  the  word  Formosa  in  Manchu. 

Spanish  and  South  American  dollars  are  employed  as  a com- 
mercial medium  along  the  coast,  and  their  value  is  understood 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  X.,  p.  050;  Chinese  Chrestomathy,  Chinese 
Commercial  Guide. 


MONETARY  SYSTEM,  BULLION,  AND  COINS.  157 

in  most  parts  of  the  empire.  The  common  practice  of  stamping 
them  with  the  owner’s  mark  as  a pledge  of  their  purity  soon 
takes  away  their  chief  advantage  of  coined  money,  that  of  hav- 
ing  a fixed  and  uniform  weight.  The  stamps  are  driven  into  the 
coin,  and  soon  flatten  it  and  obliterate  the  impression,  and  further 
blows  break  it  into  fragments  as  it  passes  from  hand  to  hand, 
after  which  it  is  taken  by  weight  and  melted  into  bullion.  The 
native  bullion  is  called  sycee,  from  the  words  si-sz'  or  fine  floss, 
sometimes  given  to  denote  its  purity ; the  common  name  is  wan 
yin  or  veined  silver,  and  the  ingots,  called  shoes  from  their  shape, 
weigh  from  five  to  fifty  taels.  Gold  bullion  is  cast  into  similar 
lumps.  The  ingot  is  stamped  with  the  names  of  the  banker  and 
workmen,  the  year  and  district  in  which  it  is  cast,  and  sometimes 
the  kind  of  tax  to  be  paid  with  it. 

Taxes  of  all  kinds  are  paid  in  sycee  of  98  per  cent,  fineness, 
and  licensed  bankers  are  connected  with  the  revenue  department 
to  whom  the  proceeds  are  paid,  and  who  are  allowed  a small  per- 
centage for  refining  and  becoming  responsible  for  its  purity,  and 
paying  them  over  to  government  on  demand.  The  inconve- 
niences of  this  mode  of  operation  are  apparent  to  themselves,  yet 
cannot  be  avoided  as  long  as  the  rulers  have  not  the  honesty  to 
maintain  the  currency.  Dollars  and  ingots  are  counterfeited  so 
much,  that  all  classes  have  them  inspected  before  taking  them  by 
shroffs,  who  by  practice  are  able  to  decide  upon  the  degree  of 
alloy  in  a piece  of  silver  with  great  accuracy,  by  the  sight 
merely,  though  usually  they  employ  touchstone  needles  to  assist 
them,  different  degrees  of  fineness  imparting  a different  color  to 
the  needle.  The  practice  of  counterfeiting  dollars  is  so  exten- 
sive that  there  is  a book  in  print,  like  Sylvester’s  Bank-note 
Table,  giving  an  account  of  the  process  of  manufacturing  each 
variety  of  false  money,  describing  its  appearance,  and  rules  for 
detecting  the  forgery. 

Chartered  banking  companies  are  unknown,  but  private  bank- 
ers are  found  in  all  large  towns,  some  of  whom  pay  interest  on 
money  deposited  on  security.  Paper  money  was  formerly  issued 
in  immense  quantities  under  the  Mongol  dynasty,  and  its  conve- 
nience is  highly  praised  by  Marco  Polo ; but  it  is  now  unknown 
as  a general  circulating  medium,  though  still  used  in  particular 
cities.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  repudiation  of  the  notes  by 
the  Mongol  emperors  who  succeeded  Kublai,  and  their  utter  loss 


158 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


when  his  dynasty  was  expelled,  effectually  destroyed  all  the 
credit  of  Chinese  imperial  honesty  with  the  people. 

Promissory  notes  and  pawnbrokers’  tickets  circulate  a little ; 
bills  of  exchange  are  common,  drawn  by  one  banker  upon  an- 
other in  favor  of  the  bearer  or  depositor  in  any  part  of  the  empire, 
affording  a convenient  remittance  to  merchants,  and  accommoda- 
tion to  travellers.  The  little  trust  reposed  in  a bare  word  or  signa- 
ture leads  to  the  practice  of  depositing  pledges  when  large  sums 
are  borrowed,  and  a resort  to  pawnbrokers’  shops  to  raise  small 
amounts.  There  are  three  classes  of  licensed  pawnbrokers,  the 
first  and  largest  of  whom  are  usually  connected  with  banking 
establishments,  and  placed  under  numerous  restrictions  ; they  are 
allowed  three  years  to  redeem,  and  must  give  three  years’  notice 
of  retiring.  Inferior  establishments  are  licensed  to  allow  only 
two  years  to  redeem,  and  a third  class  can  dispose  of  the  pledges 
in  a twelvemonth.  The  length  of  time  which  must  elapse  before 
the  broker  can  dispose  of  his  articles  is  injurious  to  him,  and 
unnecessarily  so,  for  not  one  pledge  in  ten  is  ever  redeemed. 
Officers  of  government  frequently  raise  money  at  these  shops  by 
sending  some  cast-off  garments,  for  which  they  receive  two  or 
three  times  their  value,  the  excess  being  a well  understood  sop 
to  wink  at  irregularities.  In  case  of  fire  on  the  premises,  the 
pawnee  claims  the  full  amount;  but  if  it  communicate  from  a 
neighbor’s  only  one  half  is  paid.  These  establishments  are 
generally  very  extensive,  and  the  vast  amount  of  goods  stored 
in  them,  especially  garments  and  jewelry,  shows  their  universal 
patronage.  One  pawnbroker’s  warehouse  at  Tinghai  was  used 
by  the  English  forces  as  a hospital,  and  accommodated  between 
two  and  three  hundred  patients.  The  legal  interest  allowed 
on  small  loans  is  three  per  cent,  per  month,  but  this  rate  is  sel- 
dom paid,  and  in  transactions  among  business  men  in  large  amounts 
it  is  12  or  15  per  cent,  per  annum  ; special  agreements  are  made 
between  these  two  rates. 

The  theory  of  war  has  received  more  attention  among  the 
Chinese  than  its  practice,  and  their  reputation  as  an  unwarlike 
people  is  as  ancient  and  general  among  their  neighbors  as  that 
of  their  seclusion  and  ingenuity.  The  Mongols  and  Manchus, 
Huns  and  Tartars,  all  despised  the  effeminate  braggadocio  of  the 
Chinese  troops,  and  easily  overcame  them  in  war,  but  were  them- 
selves  conquered  in  their  turn  in  peace.  Minute  directions  are 


MILITARY  SCIENCE  AND  IMPLEMENTS  OF  WAR. 


156 


given  in  books  with  regard  to  the  drilling  of  troops,  which  are 
seldom  reduced  to  practice,  either  in  the  garrison  or  the  camp. 
The  puerile  nature  of  the  examinations  which  candidates  for 
promotion  in  the  army  pass  through,  proves  the  remains  of  the 
ancient  hand  to  hand  encounter,  and  evinces  the  low  standard 
still  entertained  of  what  an  officer  should  be.  Personal  courage 
is  highly  esteemed,  and  the  prowess  of  ancient  heroes  in  the  bat- 
tle field  is  lauded  in  songs,  and  embellished  in  novels. 

The  total  force  of  the  Chinese  army  can  hardly  be  ascertained, 
and  the  various  estimates  given  by  authors  indicate  that  it  is  not 
the  same  at  different  periods.  It  may  perhaps  amount  to  a million 
of  men;  but  probably  not  half  that  number  could  be  mustered. 
De  Guignes  concludes  that  there  are  not  more  than  a hundred 
thousand  Manchu  troops,  and  about  half  a million  Chinese,  of 
whom  only  fifteen  thousand  arc  on  the  northern  frontier ; in  his 
estimate  of  the  expenditure  of  government,  quoted  in  Chap.  V., 
he  places  the  infantry  at  600,000  men,  and  the  cavalry  at  262,000. 
There  is  no  body  of  engineers,  artillerymen  are  taken  from  the 
garrisons,  mariners  are  drawn  from  the  line,  and  admirals  and 
captains  from  the  infantry,  sappers  and  miners  are  unknown,  and 
the  most  efficient  branch  of  the  cavalry  is  probably  the  couriers 
and  postmen.  The  pay  of  a foot-soldier  is  about  $4  per  month, 
and  a horseman  about  $5.25,  but  even  this  is  not  regularly  given 
them.  When  called  away  from  their  farms  and  shops  into  service, 
the  soldiers  soon  become  troublesome  for  their  pay,  and  clamor  to 
be  allowed  to  return  to  their  homesteads.  No  daily  drill  or 
duties,  no  guards  patrolling  the  limits,  or  inspection  and  exercise 
of  arms,  are  seen  in  Chinese  encampments  ; but  after  the  tents 
are  pitched  or  the  huts  built,  the  men  drone  away  the  time  in 
idleness,  gambling,  smoking,  and  sleeping,  or  harass  the  villagers 
with  their  lawless  demands  and  insults.  Once  a month  there  is 
a sort  of  drill  on  t he  parade-grounds  near  cities,  consisting  of  a 
sham  review,  which  imparts  no  efficiency  to  the  force. 

The  arms  of  the  Chinese  principally  consist  of  bows  and 
arrows,  spears,  matchlocks,  swords,  and  cannon  of  various  sizes 
and  lengths.  The  bow  is  still  a favorite  weapon,  used  more  for 
show  in  the  military  examinations,  than  for  real  service  in  battle, 
at  which  time  the  matchlock  and  ginjal  are  the  main  dependence. 
Rattan  shields,  painted  with  tigers’  heads,  are  used  on  board  the 
revenue  cutters  to  turn  the  thrust  of  spears,  and  on  ceremonial 


160 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


occasions,  many  of  the  companies  are  paraded  in  their  uniforms 
with  swords  and  shields.  The  uniform  of  the  different  regiments 
consists  of  a jacket  of  brown,  yellow,  or  blue,  bordered  with  a 
wide  edging  of  another  color ; the  trowsers  are  usually  blue. 
The  cuirass  is  made  of  quilted  and  doubled  cotton  cloth,  and 
covered  with  iron  plates  or  brass  knobs  connected  by  copper 
bands  ; the  helmet  is  iron  or  polished  steel,  sometimes  inlaid, 
weighing  2J  lbs.,  and  has  neck  and  ear  lappets  to  protect  those 
parts.  The  back  of  the  jacket  sometimes  bears  the  word  yung, 
“courage,”  and  on  the  breast  is  painted  the  service  the  corps 
is  attached  to,  whether  to  the  governor,  commandant,  or  em- 
peror’s. The  exhibition  of  courage  among  Chinese  troops  is 
not,  however,  always  deferred  to  the  time  when  they  run  away, 
though  it  is  doubtless  much  easier  to  wear  their  bravery  on  their 
backs,  as  some  in  other  countries  do  the  cross  about  the  neck  as 
a symbol  of  their  religion,  than  in  either  case  to  infuse  it  into 
the  heart. 

The  matchlock  is  of  wrought  iron  worked  like  a fowling-piece; 
it  has  a longer  barrel  than  a musket,  so  long  that  a rest  is  some- 
times attached  for  greater  ease  in  firing  ; the  match  is  a cord  of 
hemp  or  coir,  and  the  pan  must  be  uncovered  with  the  hand  before 
it  can  be  fired,  which  necessarily  interferes  with,  and  almost  pre- 
vents its  use  in  wet  or  windy  weather.  The  cannon  are  cast, 
and  although  not  of  very  uniform  calibre  from  the  mode  of  manu- 
facture, are  still  sufficiently  serviceable  for  salutes,  at  which  time 
only  three  guns  are  required. 

The  invention  of  gunpowder  is  probably  due  the  Chinese,  but 
fire-arms  of  effective  make  were  not  known  until  the  time  of  the 
Mongols  or  shortly  before  ; and  notwithstanding  the  efforts  made 
to  improve  their  manufacture  by  officers  instructed  by  the  Jesuits, 
at  the  command  of  Kanghi,  their  quality  is  still  poor,  and  the 
gunpowder  coarse  and  badly  triturated,  though  the  ingredients 
are  mixed  in  the  same  proportion  as  our  own.  The  ginjal  is  a 
kind  of  swivel  from  six  to  fourteen  feet  long,  resting  on  a tripod, 
less  liable  to  burst  than  their  cannon,  and  the  most  effective  gun 
the  Chinese  possess ; brass  cannon  have  been  recently  cast  in 
imitation  of  English.  Few  of  the  large  pieces  rest  on  carriages, 
or  have  any  contrivance  for  changing  their  direction,  so  that  even 
if  the  enemy  is  so  accommodating  as  to  remain  in  range,  the  artil- 
lerymen are,  in  forts,  greatly  exposed  when  reloading. 


APPEARANCE  AND  QUALITY  OF  CHINESE  TROOPS. 


161 


The  uniform  and  regimentals  of  the  Chinese  troops  are  not 
calculated  to  give  them  even  a fine  appearance  when  drawn 
up  for  parade,  and  no  one,  looking  at  them,  can  believe  that 
men  dressed  in  loose  jackets  and  trousers,  with  heavy  shoes  and 
bamboo  caps,  could  be  trained  to  cope  with  western  soldiers. 
Fans  or  umbrellas  are  often  held  in  the  hand  on  parade  to 
assuage  the  heat  or  protect  from  the  rain,  while  the  chief  object 
of  these  parades  is  to  salute  and  knock  head  before  some  high 
officer.  In  attempting  to  repress  insurrection,  the  government 
has  been  frequently  compelled  to  buy  off  the  turbulent  leaders 
with  office  and  rewards,  and  thus  disorganize  and  scatter  the 
enemy  it  could  not  vanquish.  But  however  ridiculous  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  Chinese  now  are  in  our  view,  the  people 
would  soon  become  good  soldiers  under  proper  officers  and  in- 
struction, attended  with  a little  actual  fighting  to  practise  their 
drilling. 

The  progress  of  the  Chinese  is  not  to  be  fairly  measured  by 
their  attainments  in  war,  although  it  has  been  said  that  the  two 
best  general  criteria  of  civilization  among  any  people  are 
superior  skill  in  destroying  our  fellow-men,  and  the  degree  of 
respect  paid  to  women.  China  falls  far  behind  her  place  among 
the  nations  if  judged  by  these  tests  alone,  and  in  reality  owes  her 
present  advance  in  numbers,  industry,  and  wealth,  mainly  to  her 
peaceful  character  and  policy.  She  would  have  probably  pre- 
sented a spectacle  similar  to  the  hordes  of  Central  Asia,  had  her 
people  been  actuated  by  a warlike  spirit,  for  when  divided  into 
fifty  or  more  feudal  states,  as  was  the  case  in  the  days  of  Con- 
fucius, she  made  slow  progress  in  the  arts  of  life.  The  IVtanchu 
emperors  have  often  endeavored  to  conquer  their  neighbors, 
the  Birmans  and  Coreans,  but  were  satisfied  with  the  outward 
homage  of  a kolciu,  and  a few  articles  of  tribute,  when  they  met 
with  resistance  to  oppressive  interference  from  their  lieges.  The 
Siamese,  Cochinchinese,  Coreans,  Tibetans,  Lewchewans,  and 
some  of  the  tribes  of  Turkestan,  are  nominally  vassals  of  the  son 
of  heaven,  but  they  find  his  an  easy  sovereignty,  and  their  paltry 
tribute  returned  them  many  fold.  The  precepts  of  Confucius 
taught  the  rulers  of  China  to  conquer  their  neighbors  by  showing 
the  excellence  of  a good  government,  when  their  enemies  would 
come  and  voluntarily  range  themselves  under  their  sway  ; and 
although  the  kindness  of  the  rulers  of  China  to  those  fully  ir 


1G2 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


their  power,  is  as  In  pocritical  as  their  rule  is  unjust,  those  nations 
who  pay  them  homage  do  it  voluntarily,  and  still  manage  their 
own  internal  affairs.  The  maxims  of  Confucian  politics,  aided 
by  the  temper  of  the  people,  have  had  some  effect,  in  the  lapse 
of  years,  it  cannot  be  doubted  ; and  to  the  literature  and  lan- 
guage of  which  his  writings  form  the  main  feature,  much  of 
the  advances  made  by  these  tributaries  in  good  government, 
industry,  and  arts,  is  to  be  ascribed.  The  Chinese  empire  is  a 
stupendous  example  of  the  good  results  of  a peaceful  policy  ; and 
the  sincere  desire  of  every  wellwisher  of  his  race  doubtless  is, 
that  this  mighty  mass  of  human  beings  may  be  Christianized  and 
elevated  from  their  present  ignorance  and  vice,  by  a like  peace- 
ful infusion  of  the  true  principles  of  good  order  and  liberty. 

The  Chinese  are  no  better  skilled  in  building  proper  fortifications 
than  they  are  in  bravely  defending  them.  The  forts  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Canton  are  probably  among  the  best  in  the  empire, 
and  they  are  all  constructed  without  fosses,  bastions,  glacis,  or 
counter-defences  of  any  kind ; some  are  square,  and  approachable 
without  danger;  others  are  circular  on  the  outer  face,  and  built 
on  a hill-side  like  a pound,  so  that  the  garrison,  if  dislodged  from 
the  battlements,  are  forced  to  fly  up  the  hill  in  full  range  of  their 
enemy’s  fire.  The  gate  is  placed  in  the  side,  unprotected  by  ditch, 
drawbridge,  or  portcullis,  and  poorly  defended  by  guns  upon  the 
walls  or  in  the  area  behind  it.  The  points  generally  chosen  for 
the  forts  display  little  knowledge  of  the  true  principles  of  defence, 
though  some  of  them  are  located  in  commanding  positions.  The 
soldiers  in  the  forts  are  for  the  most  part  among  the  laziest,  dirtiest, 
most  cowardly,  and  dissolute  specimens  of  humanity  to  be  found 
in  the  country,  quite  on  a par  with  the  artillery  they  use,  and  the 
dirty  places  they  occupy.  On  extraordinary  occasions  of  parade, 
a little  bustle  and  cleaning  up  is  made ; and  when,  as  was  the 
case  a few  years  ago,  the  brunt  of  war  really  came,  new  troops 
and  armaments  were  put  in  them,  and  the  best  defence  possible 
made. 

The  Chinese  have  many  treatises  upon  the  art  and  practice  of 
war,  one  of  which,  called  the  Soldier’s  Manual,*  in  eighteen 
chapters,  contains  some  good  directions.  The  first  chapter  treats 
of  the  mode  of  marching,  necessity  of  having  plans  of  the  country 
through  which  the  army  is  to  pass,  and  cautions  the  troops  against 
* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XL,  p.  4S7. 


FORTIFICATIONS  AND  GARRISONS. 


163 


harassing  the  people  unnecessarily — not  a useless  admonition,  for 
a body  of  Chinese  soldiers  is  like  a swarm  of  locusts,  when  they 
encamp  near  a town  or  village.  The  second  chapter  teaches  the 
mode  of  building  bridges,  the  need  there  is  of  cautious  explorations 
in  marching,  and  of  sending  out  scouts ; this  subject  is  also  con- 
tinued  in  the  next  section,  and  directions  given  about  castra- 
metation,  defending  and  locating  the  camp,  placing  sentries,  and 
keeping  the  troops  on  the  alert,  as  well  as  under  strict  discipline 
in  camp.  The  rest  of  the  book  is  chiefly  devoted  to  directions 
for  the  management  of  an  actual  battle,  sending  out  spies  before- 
hand, choosing  good  positions,  and  bringing  the  various  parts  of 
the  army  into  action  at  the  best  time.  The  hope  of  reward  is 
held  out  to  induce  the  soldier  to  be  brave,  and  the  threats  of 
punishment  and  death  if  he  desert  or  turn  his  back  in  time  of 
battle. 

The  Manchu  troops,  stationed  in  large  cities,  are  quartered  in 
an  inclosed  encampment,  occasionally  placed,  as  at  Fuhchau, 
where  it  will  overlook  or  command  the  city,  and  spacious  enough 
for  the  comfortable  residence  of  the  troops  and  their  families. 
That  at  Chapu  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  city  by  a thin 
wall,  and  the  buildings  are  located  in  a small  inclosure,  of  suf- 
ficient size  to  allow  a courtyard  in  front  of  each.  In  the  internal 
arrangement  of  the  houses,  or  their  furniture  and  ornaments, 
there  is  nothing  different  from  ordinary  Chinese  residences,  and 
in  these  respects  the  Manchus  had  everything  to  learn  from  the 
Chinese.  Their  stipend  is  so  small  that  they  resort  to  some  oc- 
cupation to  maintain  themselves,  and  although  intermarriages 
with  the  natives  are  prohibited,  the  two  races  in  numerous  cases 
live  and  work  together.  Both  officers  and  men  are  subject  to 
corporeal  punishment  in  case  of  misdemeanor,  the  bamboo  on  the 
back  of  a Chinese  being  exchanged  for  a whip  upon  the  Manchu, 
and  the  cangue  put  upon  both.  Soldiers  of  honor  and  bravery 
cannot  well  be  made  out  of  men  subjected  to  such  humiliations, 
whose  skill  in  knocking  their  heads  on  the  ground  is  oftener  called 
into  practice  than  that  of  knocking  their  enemies  on  the  head  ; 
nor  can  efficiency  be  given  to  an  army  whose  rations  hardly  pay 
for  the  men’s  uniforms. 

The  utility  of  music  in  encouraging  troops  and  exciting  them 
to  the  charge  is  fully  appreciated,  but  to  our  notions  of  harmony 
it  no  more  deserves  the  name  of  music  than  the  collection  of  half 


164 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


drilled  louts  in  petticoats  does  to  that  of  an  army,  when  compared 
with  a European  force.  However,  its  antiquity  renders  it  a 
subject  of  some  interest  to  the  musical  student,  while  its  power 
of  association  over  the  people  seems  to  be  none  the  less  because 
it  is  unscientific.  The  musical  instruments  used  in  the  army  are 
chiefly  the  gong  and  trumpet,  but  the  entire  list  of  stringed,  wind, 
and  percussion,  comprises  almost  every  one  we  have.  However 
small  their  attainments  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  music,  no 
nation  gives  it  a higher  place.  It  was  regarded  by  Confucius  as 
an  essential  part  in  the  government  of  a state,  harmonizing  and 
softening  the  relations  between  the  different  ranks  of  society,  and 
causing  them  all  to  move  on  in  consentaneous  accord.  It  is  re. 
marked  of  the  sage  himself  that  having  heard  a tune  in  one  of  his 
ramblings,  he  did  not  know  the  taste  of  food  for  three  weeks  after 
— but,  with  all  deference  to  the  judgment  of  so  distinguished  a 
man,  we  cannot  help  thinking  his  food  would  have  been  more 
palatable  without  music,  if  it  was  no  better  then  than  it  is  at  the 
present  day.  The  Chinese  never  had  anything  like  the  musical 
contests  among  the  Greeks,  for  popular  assemblies  have  never 
been  agreeable  to  oriental  despotism  and  education. 

The  names  and  characters  used  for  notes  in  vocal  music  are 
here  given,  though  their  succession  is  not  accurately  represented 
by  our  staff.  The  second  octave  is  denoted  by  affixing  the  sign 
jin,  a man,  to  the  simple  notes,  or  as  shown  in  the  second  chi, 
by  a peculiar  hooked  bottom. 


'v  W Tj  _H  R tL  JL  ^ ft  fa 


ho  sz'  % chang  chi  kung  fan  liu  mi  i chang  chi  kung  fan 


If  the  ficst  note  in  this  scale  be  taken  as  the  tonic,  then  they 
form  a diatonic  octave,  with  a supernumerary  note,  which  is  an 
octave  above  the  second  one  sz\  the  first  one  ho  being  an  octave 
below  liu,  the  eighth.  But  the  semitones  i and  fan  are  very  little 
used,  and  it  loses  in  some  degree  its  diatonic  character.  No 
chromatic  scale  exists  among  them,  at  least  none  of  their  instru- 
ments can  enounce  flat  and  sharped  notes.  In  writing  instru- 
mental music,  marks,  meaning  to  push,  fillip,  hook,  &c.,  are 
added  to  denote  the  mode  of  playing  the  string ; the  two  are 


CHARACTER  AND  NOTATION  OF  MUSIC. 


105 


united  into  very  complicated  combinations.  For  instance,  in 
writing  a tune  for  the  lute  or pipa,  “each  note  is  a cluster  of 
characters;  one  denotes  the  string,  another  the  stud,  a third  in. 
forms  you  in  what  manner  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  are  to 
be  used,  a fourth  does  the  same  in  reference  to  the  left,  a fifth 
tells  the  performer  in  what  way  he  must  slide  the  hand  before  or 
after  the  appropriate  sound  has  been  given,  and  a sixth  says, 
perhaps,  that  two  notes  are  to  be  struck  at  the  same  time.”  These 
complex  notes  are  difficult  to  learn  and  remember,  and  therefore 
the  Chinese  usually  play  hy  the  ear.  This  mode  of  notation,  in 
addition  to  its  complexity,  must  be  varied  for  nearly  every  kind 
of  instrument,  inasmuch  as  the  combinations  fitted  for  one  instru- 
ment are  inapplicable  to  another ; but  music  is  written  for  only 
a few  instruments,  such  as  the  lute  and  the  guitar. 

These  notes,  when  simply  written  without  directions  combined 
with  them  as  described  above,  indicate  only  their  pitch  in  a 
certain  scale,  and  do  not  denote  either  the  length  or  the  absolute 
pitch  ; they  are  written  perpendicularly,  and  various  marks  of 
direction  are  given  on  the  side  of  the  column  regarding  the  pro- 
portionate length  of  time  in  which  certain  notes  are  to  be  played, 
others  to  be  trilled  or  repeated  once,  twice,  or  more  times,  and 
when  the  performer  is  to  pause.  No  beats  occur  at  regular 
intervals,  nor  is  any  time  marked,  much  less  are  the  different 
parts  of  counterpoint  exhibited  on  parallel  staves,  of  which  the 
Chinese  know  nothing ; the  swell,  diminish,  fiat,  sharp,  appoggia- 
tura,  tie,  and  other  marks  in  European  notation,  which  assist  in 
giving  expression  to  the  piece,  are  for  the  most  part  unknown 
among  the  Chinese,  nor  are  any  of  their  tunes  set  to  any  key. 
The  neatness  and  adaptation  of  the  European  notation  is  better 
appreciated  after  studying  the  clumsy,  imperfect  mode  which  is 
here  briefly  described. 

No  description  can  convey  a true  idea  of  Chinese  vocal  music, 
and  few  persons  are  able  to  imitate  it  when  they  have  heard  it. 
De  Guignes  says,  “ It  is  possible  to  sing  a Chinese  song,  but  I 
think  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  give  it  the  proper  tone  without 
having  heard  it  by  a native,  and  I rather  believe  that  no  one  can 
perfectly  imitate  their  notes.”  They  seem,  in  some  cases,  to  issue 
from  the  larynx  and  nose,  the  tongue,  teeth,  and  lips  having  little 
to  do  with  them,  the  modulation  being  made  mostly  with  the 
muscles  of  the  bronchia;  at  other  times,  the  enunciation  of  the 


166 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


words  requires  a little  more  use  of  the  lips  and  teeth.  Chinese 
vocal  music  is  generally  on  a high  falsetto  key.  This  feature 
prevails  throughout  ; whether  in  the  theatre  or  in  the  street,  about 
the  house  or  at  the  guitar  or  lute,  both  men  and  women  sing  in  this 
artificial  tone  of  voice,  somewhere  between  a squeal  and  a scream, 
and  which  no  western  musical  instrument  is  able  to  imitate.  Its 
character  is  plaintive  and  soft,  not  full  or  exhibiting  much  com- 
pass,  though  when  two  or  three  females  sing  together  in  recitative, 
not  destitute  of  sweetness.  Bass  and  tenor  are  not  sung  by  men, 
nor  a second  treble  by  females,  and  of  course  none  of  the  instru- 
ments are  fitted  for  those  parts.  Vocal  music  is  heard  chiefly  as 
an  accompaniment  to  the  lute  or  guitar,  nor  is  it  often  employed 
in  religious  worship  or  in  temples.  Three  of  the  tunes  inserted 
in  Barrow’s  Travels  are  here  quoted  as  specimens  of  Chinese 
airs,  of  which  the  first  is  the  most  popular,  though  the  words  and 
notes,  as  written  there,  do  not  correspond  with  the  music  or 
with  each  other. 


rv  ll 

MOH-Ll  hwa 

; or 

, THE  JASMINE  FLOWER. 

\j 

, 

6 * ' 

0 

0 r 

p l_  ! r , ,.g  «. 

r r r # r 

[A  Ik • 

i i 



1 4 ' • . 

vp 

✓ 

_i i 1 1 J 

Hau  ye  to  sien  hwa,  Yu  chau  yu  jih 

How  sweet  this  branch  of  fresh  flowers,  On  the  morn  of  the  day 


I 


^3-® — ^ 


-s^r— r^rn — w 

Wo  pun  tai  puh  chu  m un, 

I’ll  wear  it  myself,  yet  not  out  of  doors, 


loh  tsai  wo  kia, 

’twas  dropped  in  my  house  : 


y?  — f * P- 



■ l • 

- 1 r 



Tui  choh  sien  hwa , ’rh  loh. 

But  will  match  it  with  others,  and  make  myself  glad 


Hau  ye  to  Moh-li  hwa, 

Mucin,  yuen  hwa  kai  sho  puh  kwei  la, 

Wo  pun  tai  tsz’  ye  ta, 

Tai  yu  kung  kan  hwa  jin  ma. 

How  sweet  this  sprig  of  the  jasmine  flower  ! 
Through  the  who's  plat  there’s  none  to  equal  it; 
I myself  will  wear  this  new  plucked  sprig, 
Though  I fear  all  who  see  it  win  envy  me. 


CHINESE  TUNES. 


167 


Among  a large  number  of  instruments  briefly  described  in  the 
Chinese  Chrestomathy,  there  are  seventeen  kinds  of  drums,  from 
the  large  ones  suspended  in  temples  to  assist  in  worship,  to  others 
of  lesser  size  and  diverse  shape  used  in  war,  in  theatres,  and 
in  bands.  Gongs,  cymbals,  tambourines,  and  musical  vases,  are 
also  described  in  considerable  variety  : the  last  consisting  of  a 


168 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


curious  arrangement  of  twelve  cups,  more  or  less  filled  with 
water,  and  struck  with  rods.  The  Chinese  are  fond  of  the  tinklins 
of  small  pieces  of  sonorous  glass,  caused  by  the  wind  striking 
them  against  each  other  as  they  are  suspended  from  a frame  or 
lamp.  The  simple  succession  of  sounds,  arising  from  striking 
upon  a harmonicon,  tinkling  these  glasses  together,  or  touching 
different  sized  cymbals  suspended  in  a frame,  is  a favorite  species 
of  music. 

The  stringed  instruments  to  be  played  by  thrumming  are  not 
as  numerous  as  those  of  percussion,  but  they  display  more  science. 
The  kin,  or  scholar’s  lute,  is  considered  as  the  most  finished  ; it 
is  very  ancient,  and  derives  its  name  from  the  word  kin,  to  prohibit, 
“ because  it  restrains  and  checks  evil  passions,  and  corrects  the 
human  heart.”  It  is  a board  about  four  feet  in  length  and  eighteen 
inches  wide,  convex  above  and  flat  beneath,  where  are  two  holes 
opening  into  hollows.  There  are  seven  strings  of  silk,  which 
pass  over  a bridge  near  the  wide  end  through  the  board,  and  are 
tightened  by  nuts  beneath  ; they  are  secured  on  two  pegs  at  the 
smaller  end.  The  sounding  board  is  divided  by  thirteen  studs, 
“ so  placed  that  the  length  of  the  strings  is  divided  first  into  two 
equal  parts,  then  into  three,  &c.,  up  to  eight,  with  the  omission 
of  the  seventh.  The  seven  strings  inclose  the  compass  of  a ninth 
or  two-fifths,  the  middle  one  being  treated  like  A upon  the  violin, 
viz.  as  a middle  string,  and  each  of  the  outer  ones  is  tuned  a 
fifth  from  it.  This  interval  is  treated  like  our  octave  in  the  violin, 
for  the  compass  of  the  kin  is  made  up  of  fifths.  Each  of  the 
outer  strings  is  tuned  a fourth  from  the  alternate  string  within  the 
system,  so  that  there  is  a major  tone,  an  interval  tone  less  than  a 
minor  third,  and  a major  tone  in  the  fifth.  The  Chinese  leave 
the  interval  entire,  and  skip  the  half-tone,  while  we  divide  it  into 
two  unequal  parts.  It  will  therefore  readily  appear  that  the  mood 
or  character  of  the  music  of  the  kin  must  be  very  different  from 
that  of  western  instruments,  so  that  none  of  them  can  exactly  do 
justice  to  the  Chinese  airs.  One  of  the  peculiarities  in  perform- 
ing on  the  lute  is  sliding  the  left  hand  fingers  along  the  string, 
and  the  trilling  and  other  evolutions  they  are  made  to  execute.” 

There  are  other  instruments  similar  to  the  kin,  one  with  thirty, 
and  another  with  thirteen  strings,  played  with  plectrums.  The 
number  of  instruments  resembling  the  guitar,  lute,  spinet,  &c., 
is  considerable,  some  with  silken  and  others  wire  strings,  but 


STRINGED  INSTRUMENTS  OF  MUSIC. 


160 


none  of  catgut.  The  balloon-shaped  guitar,  or  pipa  has  four 
strings  arranged  and  secured  like  those  of  a violin  ; it  is  about 
three  feet  long,  and  the  unvarnished  upper  table  has  twelve  frets 
to  guide  the  performer.  The  strings  are  tuned  at  the  intervals 
of  a fourth,  a major  tone,  and  a fourth,  so  that  the  outer  strings 
are  octaves  to  each  other  ; but  the  player  generally  avoids  the 
*emitones.  The  pipa  frequently  accompanies  the  songs  ot 
strolling  musicians  and  ballad  singers.  The  san  hien,  or  three 
stringed  guitar,  resembles  a rebeck  in  its  contour,  but  the  neck 
and  head  is  three  feet  long,  and  the  body  is  cylindrical  and 
hollow,  usually  covered  with  a snake’s  skin,  upon  which  the 
bridge  is  set.  The  strings  are  tuned  as  fourths  to  each  other, 
and  in  this  respect  it  seems  to  be  the  counterpart  of  the  Grecian 
mercurian  ; their  sound  is  low  and  dull,  and  it  is  sometimes  played 
in  company  with  the  pipa.  Another  kind  of  guitar,  called 
yueh  kin  or  full  moon  guitar,  has  a large  round  belly  and  short 
neck,  resembling  the  theorbo  or  arch  lute  of  Europe,  but  with 
only  four  strings,  while  that  had  ten  or  more.  These  four  strings 
stand  in  pairs  that  are  unisons  with  each  other,  having  an  inter- 
val of  a fifth  interposed  between  the  pairs.  The  sound  is  smarter 
than  that  from  the  pipa  or  kin,  and  it  is  used  in  lively  tunes,  the 
strings  being  struck  briskly  with  the  nail  or  a plectrum.  Similar 
in  its  contour  to  the  san  hien  is  the  rebeck  or  two  stringed  fiddle, 
the  rude  appearance  of  which  corresponds  to  the  scrannel  grating 
sounds  which  issue  from  it.  This  instrument  is  merely  a bamboo 
stick  thrust  into  a cylinder  of  the  same  material,  and  having  two 
strings  fastened  at  one  end  of  the  stick  on  pegs,  and  passing  over 
a bridge  on  the  cylinder  to  the  other  end  ; they  are  tuned  at 
intervals  of  a fifth.  The  bow  passes  between  the  two  strings, 
and  as  they  are  near  each  other,  much  of  the  skill  required  to 
play  it  is  exhibited  in  wielding  the  bow  so  as  not  to  make  discord 
by  scraping  it  against  the  wrong  string,  while  trying  to  produce 
the  right  sound.  Europeans  wonder  how  the  Chinese  can  be 
delighted  with  the  harsh  gratings  of  this  wretched  machine,  but 
none  of  their  musical  instruments  are  more  popular,  and  the  skill 
they  exhibit  in  playing  it  deserves  a better  reward  in  the  me- 
lody of  the  notes.  A modification  of  it,  cal.ed  ti  km  or  crowing 
lute,  is  made  by  employing  a cocoanut  for  the  belly  ; its  sounds 
are,  if  anything,  more  dissonant. 

The  yang  kin  is  a kind  of  dulcimer,  consisting  of  a greater  or 

VOL.  II.  9 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


rc 

less  number  of  brass  wires  of  different  lengths,  tuned  at  proper 
intervals,  and  fastened  upon  a sounding  board  ; it  is  played  with 
light  hammers,  and  forms  a rudimentary  piano-forte,  but  the 
sounds  are  very  attenuated.  The  sang  is  in  like  manner  the 
embryo  of  the  organ  ; it  is  a hollow  conical  shaped  box,  which 
corresponds  to  a wind  chest,  having  a mouthpiece  on  one  side, 
and  communicating  with  thirteen  reeds  of  different  lengths  in- 
serted in  the  top  ; some  of  the  tubes  are  provided  with  valves, 
part  of  them  opening  upwards  and  part  downwards,  so  that  some 
of  them  sound  when  the  breath  fills  the  wind  box,  and  others 
are  only  heard  when  it  is  sucked  out  and  the  air  rushes  down 
the  tubes  to  refill  it.  The  tubes  stand  in  groups  of  4,  4,  3,  2, 
around  the  top,  and  those  having  ventiges  are  placed  so  that  the 
performer  can  open  or  close  them  at  pleasure  as  he  holds  it. 
By  covering  the  first  set  of  holes  and  gently  breathing  in  the 
mouthpiece,  a sweet  concert  of  sounds  is  produced,  augmented 
to  the  octave  and  twelfth  as  the  force  of  the  breath  is  increased. 
By  stopping  other  groups,  other  notes,  shriller  and  louder,  are 
emitted  ; and  any  single  tube  can  be  sounded  by  inhaling  the 
wind  from  the  wind-box  and  stopping  the  other  holes.  It  is  a 
simple  thing,  and  no  doubt  among  the  most  ancient  of  musical 
instruments,  but  it  possesses  no  scope,  nor  means  of  varying  the 
tone  of  the  tubes.  Mr.  Lay  thinks  it  to  be  identical  in  principle 
and  form  with  the  organ  invented  by  Jubal ; the  Chinese  regard 
it  more  as  a curious  instrument  than  one  possessing  claims  to 
admiration  or  attention. 

Their  wind  instruments  are  numerous,  but  most  of  them  are 
remarkable  rather  for  their  clamor  than  sweetness  or  compass. 
The  hwang  tih,  or  flute,  is  about  twice  the  length  of  our  fife,  and 
made  of  a bamboo  tube  neatly  prepared,  and  pierced  with  ten 
holes,  two  of  which  are  placed  near  the  end  and  unused,  and 
one  midway  between  the  embouchure  and  the  six  equidistant  ones 
for  the  fingers.  This  additional  hole  is  covered  with  a thin  film  ; 
the  mouth-hole  is  bored  about  one  third  of  the  way  from  the  top. 
There  are  no  keys,  and  the  performers  generally  blow  upon  the 
embouchure  so  violently  that  the  sounds  are  shrill  and  harsh,  but 
when  several  of  them  play  together,  the  concert  is  more  agreeable. 
The  congener  of  the  flute  is  the  shn  tih,  or  clarinet,  which  take* 
the  lead  in  all  musical  performances,  as  it  does  in  western  bands 
It  has  seven  effective  ho’ <ss,  one  of  which  is  stopped  by  the  thumb 


WIND  INSTRUMENTS,  GONG,  ETC. 


171 


but  no  keys ; the  bell  is  of  copper  and  sits  loose  upon  the  end, 
and  the  copper  mouthpiece  is  ornamented  with  rings,  and  blown 
through  a reed.  The  tones  produced  by  it  are  shrill  and  deafen- 
ing,  and  none  of  their  instruments  better  characterize  Chinese 
musical  taste.  A smaller  one,  of  a sweeter  tone,  like  a flageolet, 
is  sometimes  fitted  with  a singular  shaped  reed,  so  that  it  can  be 
played  upon  by  the  nose.  Street  musicians  sometimes  endeavor 
to  transform  themselves  into  a-  travelling  orchestra.  One  of 
these  peripatetic  Orpheuses  will  fit  a flageolet  to  his  nose,  sling  a 
small  drum  under  one  shoulder,  and  suspend  a framework  of 
four  small  cymbals  upon  the  breast ; the  man,  thus  accoutred, 
aided  by  a couple  of  monkeys  running  after  him,  or  sitting  on 
his  head  and  shoulders,  goes  from  street  to  street  singing  a plain- 
tive ditty,  and  accompanying  his  voice  with  his  instruments,  and 
drawing  a crowd  with  his  monkeys. 

The  horn  resembles  a trombone  in  principle,  for  the  shaft  is 
retractible  within  the  cylindrical  copper  bell,  and  can  be  length- 
ened at  pleasure.  The  sound  is  very  grave,  and  in  processions 
its  hollow  booming  forms  a great  contrast  to  the  shrill  clarinets 
and  cymbals.  Another  kind  of  horn,  less  grave,  is  made  of  a 
crooked  stem  expanding  into  a small  bell  at  the  end ; the  shaft 
is  of  two  parts,  one  drawing  into  the  other,  so  that  the  depth  of 
tone  can  be  modified.  A long  straight  horn,  resembling  the 
funeral  pipe  of  the  Jews,  is  sometimes  heard  on  funeral  occasions, 
but  this  and  the  clarion,  trumpet,  and  other  kinds  of  pipes  of 
ancient  and  modern  make,  are  not  common. 

The  Jo,  or  gong,  is  the  type  of  Chinese  music : a crashing 
harangue  of  rapid  blows  upon  this  sonorous  plate,  with  a rattling 
accompaniment  on  small  drums,  and  a crackling  symphony  of 
shrill  notes  from  the  clarinet  and  cymbal,  constitute  the  chief 
features  of  their  musical  performances.  The  emperor  Kanghi 
endeavored  to  introduce  foreign  tunes  and  instruments  among  his 
courtiers,  and  the  natives  at  Macao  have  heard  good  music  from 
the  Portuguese  bands  and  choirs  in  that  city  from  childhood,  but 
not  an  instrument  or  a tune  has  been  adopted  by  them.  It  seems 
to  be  a rule  in  Chinese  music  that  the  gong  should  only  vary  in 
rapidity  of  strokes,  while  the  alternations  of  time  into  agreeable 
intervals  are  left  to  the  drums.  “ This  want  of  perception  as  to 
what  is  pleasing  in  rhythmical  succession  of  sounds,”  Lay  well 
observes,  “ is  connected  with  another  fact, — the  total  absence  of 


172 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


metrical  effect  in  national  poetry.  The  verses  contain  a parti- 
cular number  of  words  and  set  pauses  in  each  line,  but  there  is 
nothing  like  an  interchange  of  long  and  short  sounds.  Among 
the  Greeks,  the  fall  of  the  smith’s  hammer,  the  stroke  of  the  oar, 
and  the  tread  of  the  soldier  in  armor,  suggested  some  poetic 
measure,  and  their  music  exhibits  a world  of  curious  metres. 
But  nothing  of  the  sort  can  be  heard  in  China,  amid  all  the  sounds 
and  noises  that  salute  the  ear  in  a noisy  country.”  It  is  probable 
that  the  impracticable,  monosyllabic  nature  of  the  language  has 
contributed  to  this  result;  though  the  genius  and  temperament  of 
the  people  are  the  chief  reasons. 

A Chinese  orchestra  or  band,  when  in  full  note,  strikes  upon  the 
ear  of  a European  as  a collection  of  the  most  discordant  sounds, 
and  he  immediately  thinks  of  Hogarth’s  picture  of  the  Enraged 
Musician,  as  the  best  likeness  of  its  dissonance.  It  seems,  when 
hearing  them,  as  if  each  performer  had  his  own  tune,  and  was 
trying  to  distinguish  himself  above  his  competitors  by  his  zeal 
and  force  ; but,  on  listening  carefully,  he  will  observe,  amid  the 
clangor,  that  they  keep  good  time,  one  taking  the  octave,  and  the 
different  instruments  striking  in  with  some  regard  to  parts,  only 
however  to  confound  the  confusion  still  more,  because  they  are 
not  tuned  on  the  same  key.  Bands  and  orchestras  are  employed 
on  occasions  of  marriages  and  funerals,  theatrical  exhibitions, 
religious  or  civic  processions,  and  reception  of  officers,  but  not  to 
a very  great  extent  in  temples  or  ancestral  worship  ; no  nation 
makes  more  use  of  such  music  as  they  have  than  the  Chinese. 
The  people  have  an  ear  for  music,  and  delight  in  western  tunes, 
when  they  early  learn  them,  as  has  been  fully  shown  in  the 
pupils  in  the  mission  schools,  who,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  by  and 
by  introduce  among  their  countrymen  the  study  and  practice  of 
the  art  as  they  have  learned  it.* 

From  this  account  of  Chinese  music,  it  may  be  readily  inferred 
that  It  s not  of  such  a character  as  to  start  the  hearers  off  in  a 
lively  dance.  A sort  of  posture-making  is  practised  by  persons 
attached  to  theatrical  companies  ; and,  from  some  notices,  the  pan- 
tomimic art  seems  to  have  b n understood  in  ancient  times,  but 
the  exhibitions  of  it  were  probably  as  dull  and  jejune  as  the  ca- 

* Chinese  as  They  Are,  Chap.  VIII.  Chinese  Repository,  VoL  VIII., 
pp.  30-54.  Chinese  Chrestomathy. 


ATTAINMENTS  IN  DRAWING  AND  PAINTING. 


173 


perings  of  puppets.  In  tumbling  and  balancing  the  Chinese  are 
almost  unequalled,  but  one  would  almost  as  soon  think  of  asso- 
ciating music  and  medicine,  as  that  Chinese  music  should  be 
accompanied  by  quadrilles  and  cotillions,  or  that  men  with  shoes 
like  pattens  could  lead  off  women  with  feet  like  hoofs  through  the 
turns  and  mazes  of  a waltz  or  fandango. 

The  deficiencies  of  the  Chinese  in  music  will  not  lead  us  to 
expect  much  from  them  in  painting  or  sculpture,  for  all  seem  to 
flow  so  much  from  the  same  general  perception  of  the  beautiful 
in  sound  and  form,  that  where  one  is  deficient,  all  are  likely  to 
be  unappreciated.  This  want  in  Chinese  mind,  for  we  are  hardly 
at  liberty  to  call  it  a defect,  is,  to  a greater  or  less  degree,  ob- 
servable in  all  the  races  of  Eastern  Asia,  none  of  whom  exhibit 
a high  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  or  sublime  in  nature  or  art, 
or  have  produced  much  which  proves  that  their  true  principles 
were  ever  understood.  Painting  is  rather  behind  sculpture,  but 
neither  can  be  said  to  have  advanced  beyond  rude  imitations  of 
nature. 

Even  the  best  painters  have  no  proper  idea  of  perspective, 
or  of  blending  light  and  shade,  but  the  objects  are  exhibited  as 
much  as  possible  on  a flat  surface,  as  if  the  painter  drew  his 
picture  from  a balloon,  and  looked  at  the  country  with  a vertical 
sun  shining  above  him.  As  might  be  inferred  from  their  defi- 
ciencies in  linear  drawing  and  landscapes,  they  eminently  fail  in 
delineating  the  human  figure  in  its  right  proportions,  position,  and 
expressions,  and  of  grouping  the  persons  introduced  into  a piece 
in  natural  attitudes.  The  study  of  the  human  figure  in  all  its 
proportions  has  not  been  attended  to  by  painters,  much  more  than 
its  anatomy  has  by  surgeons.  Shadows  upon  portraits  are  con- 
sidered a great  defect,  and  in  order  to  avoid  them  a front  view  is 
usually  taken.  Landscapes  are  also  painted  without  shading,  the 
remote  objects  being  as  minutely  depicted  as  those  in  the  fore- 
ground, and  the  point  of  view  in  pieces  of  any  size  is  changed 
for  the  nearer  and  remote  parts.  The  vanishing  point  of  a pic- 
ture is  not  a single  one,  which  would  of  course  be  inferred 
from  their  ignorance  of  perspective  and  the  first  elements  of 
drawing. 

Designing  in  outline  is  a favorite  style  of  the  art,  and  the 
wealthy  are  fond  of  adorning  their  houses  with  rough  sketches 
in  ink  of  figures  and  landscapes ; but  the  humblest  of  such  com 


174 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


positions  as  are  common  in  the  galleries  and  studios  of  western 
countries  have  never  been  produced  by  Chinese  artists.  Some 
of  their  representations  of  abstract  ideas  are  at  least  singular  to 
us,  and  like  many  other  things  brought  from  their  country,  attract 
our  notice  from  their  oddity  ; one  is  here  inserted. 


Representation  of  a Man  Dreaming. 


The  coloring  of  the  Chinese  is  executed  with  great  skill  and 
accuracy — too  much,  indeed,  in  many  cases,  so  that  the  painting 
loses  something  of  the  effect  it  would  otherwise  have  from  the 
scrupulous  minuteness  of  the  detail,  though  it  looks  well  in  paint- 
ings of  flowers,  animals,  costumes,  ornaments,  and  other  single 
objects,  where  this  filling  up  is  necessary  to  a true  idea  of  the 
original.  The  tints  of  the  human  countenance  are  no  better  done, 
however,  than  its  lineaments,  and  the  lifeless  opacity  suggests 
the  idea  that  the  artist  was  not  called  in  until  his  patron  was 
about  to  be  entombed  from  the  sight  of  his  sorrowing  family. 
The  paintings  obtained  at  Canton  may,  some  of  them,  seem  to 
disprove  these  opinions  of  the  mediocrity  attained  by  the  artists 
in  that  country,  but  the  productions  of  the  copyists  in  that  city 
are  not  the  proper  criteria  of  native  uneducated  art.  Some  of 


PAINTINGS  ON  PITH  PAPER  AND  LEAVES. 


175 


them  have  had  so  much  practice  in  copying  foreign  productions, 
that  it  has  begun  to  correct  their  own  notions  of  designing.  These 
constitute,  however,  a very  small  proportion  of  the  whole,  and 
have  had  no  effect  on  national  taste.  The  designs  to  be  seen  tin 
plates  and  bowls  are,  although  not  the  best,  fairer  specimens  of 
art  than  the  pieces  sometimes  procured  at  Canton.  The  beautiful 
fidelity  with  which  engravings  are  copied  at  Canton  is  best  seen 
in  the  paintings  on  ivory,  especially  miniatures  and  figures,  some 
of  which  fully  equal  similar  productions  made  elsewhere. 

The  paintings  on  pith  paper,  or  rice  paper,  as  it  is  commonly 
but  incorrectly  called,  are  also  much  sought  after  for  their  splen- 
did colorings.  This  substance,  whose  velvety  surface  contrasts 
so  admirably  with  brilliant  colors,  is  a delicate  vegetable  film, 
consisting  of  long  hexagonal  cells,  whose  length  is  parallel  to  the 
surface  of  the  film,  and  which  are  filled  with  air  when  the  film 
is  in  its  usual  state ; the  peculiar  softness  which  so  well  adapts 
it  for  receiving  colors  is  owing  to  this  structure.  It  is  obtained 
from  a plant  allied  to  the  Artocarpus  or  bread-fruit,  growing  in 
the  western  provinces,  but  no  very  accurate  information  is  pos- 
sessed of  its  habits  or  appearance  ; some  say  it  is  a water  plant. 
The  pith  is  carefully  taken  out  and  cut  in  sheets  by  running  a 
knife  around  it,  and  smoothing  them  with  an  iron.  When  the 
tissue  breaks,  the  fracture  is  connected  by  a lamina  of  mica.  An 
india-ink  outline  is  first  transferred  by  dampening  and  pressing  it 
upon  the  paper,  when  the  ink  strikes  off  sufficiently  to  enable  the 
workman  to  fill  up  the  sketch  ; one  outline  will  serve  for  limning 
several  copies,  and  in  large  establishments  the  separate  colors  are 
laid  on  by  different  workmen.  The  manufacture  of  these  paintings 
at  Canton  employs  between  two  and  three  thousand  hands. 

Another  tissue  sometimes  used  by  the  Chinese  for  painting, 
more  remarkable  for  its  singularity  than  elegance,  is  the  reticu- 
lated nerve-work  of  grape  leaves,  the  fleshy  green  part  of  the 
leaf  having  been  removed  by  maceration,  and  the  membrane 
filled  with  isinglass.  The  appearance  of  a painting  on  this  trans- 
parent substance  is  pretty,  but  the  colors  do  not  retain  their  bril- 
liancy. The  Chinese  admire  paintings  on  glass,  and  some  of 
the  moonlight  scenes  or  thunder-storms  are  good  specimens  of 
their  art.  The  clouds  and  dark  parts  are  done  with  india-ink, 
and  a dark  shade  well  befitting  the  subject  is  imparted  to  the 
whole  scene  by  underlaying  it  with  a piece  of  blackish  paper. 


176 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Portraits  and  other  subjects  are  also  done  on  glass,  but  the  indif- 
ferent execution  is  rendered  still  more  conspicuous  by  the  trans- 
parency of  the  ground  ; the  Hindus  purchase  large  quantities  of 
glass  pictures  of  their  common  gods  and  goddesses.  Looking, 
glasses  are  also  painted  on  the  back  with  singular  effect  by 
removing  the  quicksilver  with  a steel  point  according  to  a design 
previously  sketched,  and  then  painting  the  denuded  portion. 

Sculpture  is  confined  chiefly  to  making  idols,  or  carving  ani- 
mals to  adorn  balustrades  and  temples.  Idols  are  usually  made 
of  wood  or  clay,  and  sometimes  of  stone ; they  are  generally 
fully  dressed  and  seated,  the  face  and  hands  being  the  only  parts 
of  the  body  seen,  so  that  little  or  no  opportunity  is  afforded  for 
imitating  the  muscles  and  contour  of  the  figure.  The  hideous 
monsters  which  guard  the  threshold  of  temples  often  exhibit  more 
artistic  conception  than  the  unmeaning  images  enshrined  within, 
and  some  of  them  even  display  considerable  character  and  pro- 
portion. Among  their  best  performances  of  this  sort  are  the  clay 
models  sold  in  Canton,  representing  different  costumes  and  crafts- 
men ; and  the  Chinese  museums  brought  to  the  United  States 
contain  good  specimens  of  their  efforts  in  this  kind  of  modelling. 
Animals  are  sculptured  in  granite,  showing  great  skill  and  pa- 
tience in  the  detail  work,  and  bungling  deformity  in  the  model, 
resulting  in  the  production  of  such  animals,  indeed,  as  were  pro- 
bably never  beheld  in  any  world.  Images  of  lions,  tigers,  tor- 
toises, elephants,  rams,  and  other  animals,  ornament  bridges, 
temples,  or  tombs.  Capt.  Loch  says  the  elephants  were  the  only 
tolerable  representations  in  the  long  avenue  of  warriors,  horses, 
lions,  &c.,  leading  up  to  the  tombs  of  the  emperors  at  Nanking. 
The  united  effect  of  the  elaborate  carving  and  grotesque  orna- 
ments seen  upon  the  roofs,  woodwork,  and  pillars  of  buildings, 
is  not  devoid  of  beauty,  though  in  their  details  there  is  a great 
violation  of  the  true  principles  of  art,  just  as  the  expression  of  a 
face  may  please  which  still  has  not  a handsome  feature  in  it. 
Short  columns  of  stone  or  wood,  surmounted  by  a lion,  and  a 
lizard  or  dragon  twisting  himself  about  the  shaft,  the  whole  cut 
out  of  one  block ; or  a lion  rampant  with  half  a dozen  cubs 
crawling  over  his  body,  are  among  the  ornaments  of  temples  and 
graves,  which  the  taste  of  the  people  highly  admires. 

The  Chinese  have  a sense  of  the  ridiculous,  and  exhibit  it  both 
in  their  sculpture  and  drawing  in  many  ways.  Lampoons,  pas- 


SCULPTURE  OF  IDOLS,  STATUETTES,  ETC. 


177 


quinades,  and  caricatures  are  common,  nor  is  any  person  spared 
by  their  pens  or  pencils,  below  the  dragon’s  throne,  though  the} 
prefer  subjects  not  likely  to  involve  the  authors,  as  in  the  om 
here  selected  from  the  many  elicited  during  the  war. 


Caricature  of  an  English  Foraging  Party. 


By  far  the  best  specimens  of  sculpture  are  their  imitations  of 
fruits,  flowers,  animals,  &c.,  cut  out  of  soft  stone,  gnarled  roots 
of  bamboo,  wood,  and  other  materials ; but  in  these  we  admire 
rather  the  unwearied  patience  and  cunning  of  the  workmen  in 
making  grotesque  combinations  and  figures  out  of  apparently 
intractable  materials,  than  seek  for  any  indications  of  a pure 
taste  or  embodyment  of  an  exalted  conception.  Carving  inscrip- 
tions upon  the  faces  of  rocks,  as  was  the  case  in  India  and  Arabia 
(Job  xxx.  24),  is  not  unknown,  and  the  picturesque  characters  of 
the  language  make  a pretty  appearance  in  such  situations.  These 
inscriptions  are  usually  of  a religious  character,  more  or  less  con- 
nected with  fung-shicui  or  geomancy. 

The  small  advances  made  in  architecture  may  be  ascribed  to 
this  same  feature  in  Chinese  mind,  for  if  they  had  not  enough 
conception  of  the  beautiful  when  exhibited  in  the  comparatively 
cheap  form  of  a painting  or  a statue,  they  were  not  likely  to 
VOL.  II.  9* 


178 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


attempt  it  in  the  grander  and  more  expensive  form  of  a palace 
or  a temple.  The  same  trait  was  exhibited  in  the  Huns  and 
other  nations  of  the  Mongolian  stock,  long  after  they  had  settled 
in  Europe  and  western  Asia,  and  it  was  not  till  their  amalgama- 
tion with  the  imaginative  nations  of  southern  Europe  had  changed 
their  original  character  that  high  performances  in  art  appeared. 
If  the  Chinese  had  a model  of  the  Parthenon  or  the  Pantheon  in 
their  own  country,  belike  they  would  measurably  imitate  it  in 
every  part,  but  they  would  erect  a dozen  in  the  same  way. 
Perhaps  an  infusion  of  elegance  and  taste  would  have  been  im- 
parted to  them  if  the  people  had  had  frequent  intercourse  with 
more  imaginative  nations,  but  when  there  were  no  models  of  this 
superior  kind  to  follow,  there  was  no  likelihood  of  their  originat- 
ing them.  In  many  of  the  lighter  edifices,  as  pavilions,  rest-houses, 
summer-houses,  and  arbors,  there  is,  however,  a degree  of  taste 
and  adaptation  that  is  unusual  in  most  of  their  buildings,  and 
quite  in  keeping  with  their  fondness  for  tinsel  and  gilding  rather 
than  solidity  and  grandeur.  On  this  point,  Lay’s  remark  on  the 
characteristics  of  the  Attic,  Egyptian,  Gothic,  and  Chinese  styles, 
is  apposite.  “ If  we  would  see  beauty,  size,  and  proportion  in 
all  their  excellence,  we  should  look  for  it  among  the  models  of 
Greece ; if  we  desire  something  that  was  wild  and  stupendous, 
we  should  find  it  in  Egypt ; if  grandeur,  with  a never-sated 
minuteness  of  decoration,  please  us,  we  need  look  no  further 
than  to  a cathedral ; and  lastly,  if  the  romantic  and  the  old 
fashioned  attract  our  fancy,  the  Chinese  can  point  us  to  an 
exhaustless  store  in  the  recesses  of  their  vast  empire.  A lack 
of  science  and  of  conception  is  seen  in  all  their  buildings,  but 
fancy  seems  to  have  had  free  license  to  gambol  at  pleasure ; and 
what  the  architect  wanted  in  developing  a scheme  he  made  up  in 
a redundancy  of  imagination.” 

The  Chinese  have  made  but  little  progress  in  investigating  the 
principles  and  forces  of  mechanics,  but  have  practically  under- 
stood most  of  the  common  powers  in  the  various  applications  of 
which  they  are  capable.  The  lever,  wheel  and  axle,  w^edge,  and 
pinion,  are  all  known  in  some  form  or  other,  but  the  modification 
of  the  wedge  in  the  screw  is  not  frequent.  The  sheave-blocks 
on  board  their  vessels  have  only  one  pulley,  but  they  understand 
the  advantages  of  the  windlass,  and  have  adopted  the  capstan 
in  the  working  of  vessels,  driving  of  piles,  raising  of  timber,  <fcc. 


RESEARCHES  IN  MECHANICS,  CHEMISTRY,  ETC. 


179 


They  have  long  understood  the  mode  of  raising  weights  by  a 
hooked  pulley  running  on  a rope,  attached  at  each  end  to  a cylinder 
of  unequal  diameters ; by  this  contrivance,  as  the  rope  wound 
around  the  larger  diameter  it  ran  off  the  smaller  one,  raising  the 
weight  to  the  amount  of  the  difference  between  the  circumference 
of  the  two  cylinders,  at  a very  small  expense  of  strength.  The 
graduations  of  the  weighing  beam  indicate  their  acquaintance 
with  the  relations  between  the  balance  and  the  weight  on  the 
long  and  short  arm  of  the  lever,  and  this  mode  of  weighing  is 
preferred  for  gold,  pearls,  and  other  valuable  things.  The  over- 
shot water-wheel  is  used  to  turn  stones  for  grinding  wheat,  and 
set  in  motion  pestles  to  hull  rice,  and  press  oil  from  seeds ; and 
the  undershot  power  for  raising  water.  There  is  a great  expen- 
diture of  human  strength  in  most  of  their  contrivances,  and  in 
many  the  object  seems  to  have  been  rather  to  give  a direction  to 
this  strength  than  to  abridge  it.  For  instance,  they  prefer  to  put 
a number  of  slings  upon  a heavy  stone  and  carry  if  off  bodily  on 
poles,  than  to  make  a low  car  to  roll  it  on  at  half  the  expense  of 
human  power. 

In  other  departments  of  science,  the  attainments  of  the  people 
are  few  and  imperfect.  Chemistry  and  metallurgy  are  unknown 
as  sciences,  but  many  operations  in  them  are  performed  with  a 
considerable  degree  of  success.  Sir  J.  Davis  gives  the  detail  of 
some  experiments  in  the  oxydizing  of  quicksilver,  and  preparation 
of  mercurial  medicines,  which  were  performed  by  a native  in  the 
presence  and  at  the  request  of  Dr.  Pearson  at  Canton,  and  “ af- 
forded a curious  proof  of  similar  results  obtained  by  the  most 
different  and  distant  nations,  possessing  very  unequal  scientific 
attainments ; and  bore  no  unfavorable  testimony  to  Chinese 
shrewdness  and  ingenuity  in  the  existing  state  of  their  know- 
ledge.”* The  same  opinion  might  be  safely  predicated  of  their 
metallurgic  manipulations,  though  the  same  opportunity  has  not 
been  afforded  for  scientific  foreigners  to  examine  them ; and  the 
character  of  the  work  thrown  out  is  the  only  index  of  the  efficacy 
of  the  process. 

This  compendious  review  of  the  science  of  the  Chinese  can  be 
brought  to  a close  by  a brief  account  of  their  theory  and  practice 
of  medicine  and  surgery.  Although  this  people  are  almost  as 


The  Chinese,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  286,  266-70. 


180 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


superstitious  as  the  Hindus  or  North  American  Indians,  they  do 
not  depend  in  case  of  sickness  upon  incantations  and  charms  for 
relief,  but  resort  to  the  prescriptions  of  the  physician  as  the  most 
reasonable  and  likely  way  to  recover ; mixed  up,  indeed,  with 
many  strange  practices  to  assist  the  efficacy  of  the  doses,  such  as 
pulling  the  skin  of  the  neck  till  it  is  black  and  blue  in  order  to 
haul  out  the  evil  spirit  within.  The  dissection  of  the  human 
body  is  never  attempted,  though  some  notions  of  its  internal  struc- 
ture are  taught  in  medical  works.  The  opposite  diagram  of  the 
internal  arrangement  of  the  viscera  presents  the  popular  opinions 
on  this  subject,  for  whatever  foreigners  may  have  imparted  to 
them  has  not  yet  become  generally  known. 

The  Chinese  seem  to  have  no  idea  of  the  distinction  between 
venous  and  arterial  blood,  nor  between  muscles  and  nerves,  ap- 
plying the  word  kin  to  both  tendons  and  nerves.  According  to 
these  physiologists,  the  brain  (A)  is  the  abode  of  the  yin  principle 
in  its  perfection,  and  at  its  base  (B),  where  there  is  a reservoir  of 
the  marrow,  communicates  through  the  spine  with  the  whole  body. 
The  larynx  (C)  goes  through  the  lungs  directly  to  the  heart, 
expanding  a little  in  its  course,  while  the  pharynx  (D)  passes 
over  them  to  the  stomach.  The  lungs  (a,  a,  a,  a,  a)  are  white, 
and  placed  in  the  thorax ; they  consist  of  six  lobes  or  leaves,  sus- 
pended from  the  spine ; four  on  one  side  and  two  on  the  other ; 
sound  proceeds  from  holes  in  them,  and  they  rule  the  various 
parts  of  the  body.  The  centre  of  the  thorax  (or  pit  of  the 
stomach)  is  the  seat  of  the  breath  ; joy  and  delight  emanate  from 
it,  and  it  cannot  be  injured  without  danger.  The  heart  ( b ) lies 
underneath  the  lungs,  and  is  the  prince  of  the  body  ; thoughts 
proceed  from  it.  The  pericardium  (c)  comes  from  and  envelops 
the  heart  and  extends  to  the  kidneys.  There  are  three  tubes 
communicating  from  the  heart  to  the  spleen,  liver,  and  kidneys, 
but  no  clear  ideas  are  held  as  to  their  office.  Like  the  pharynx, 
they  pass  through  the  diaphragm,  which  is  itself  connected  with 
the  spine,  ribs,  and  bowels.  The  liver  (n,  n,  n , n,  n)  is  on  the 
right  side  and  has  seven  lobes ; the  soul  resides  in  it,  and 
schemes  emanate  from  it ; the  gall-bladder  ( o ) is  below  and  pro- 
jects upwards  into  it,  and  when  the  person  is  angry  it  ascends ; 
courage  dwells  in  it ; hence  the  Chinese  sometimes  procure  the 
gall-bladder  of  animals,  as  tigers  and  bears,  and  even  of  men, 
"snecially  notorious  bandits  executed  for  their  crimes,  and  eat 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 


181 


Chinese  Notions  of  the  Internal  Structure  of  the  Human  Body. 

■A,  B— The  brain.  C— Larynx.  D— Pharynx,  a, a, a, a, a— Lungs,  A— Heart,  c— Perl 
cardium.  d — Bond  of  connexion  with  the  spleen,  e — The  oesophagus,  f — Bond  of  con- 
nexion with  the  liver,  g — Bond  of  connexion  with  the  kidneys.  A — The  diaphragm. 
i— Cardiac  extremity,  j— The  spleen.  A— The  stomach.  I — Omentum,  m— The  pylo 
rus.  n,n,n,n,n,n — The  liver,  o— The  gall-bladder,  p— The  kidneys,  q—' The  small 
Intestines,  r — The  large  intestines,  s — Caput  colt  t— The  navel,  u— The  bladder, 
e— ‘ The  11  gate  of  life,”  sometimes  placed  in  the  right  kidney,  w — The  rectum.  x,y— The 
urinal  and  fecal  passages. 


182 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  bile  contained  in  them,  under  the  idea  that  it  will  impart 
courage.  The  spleen  ( j ) lies  between  the  stomach  and  dia- 
phragm, and  assists  in  digestion,  and  the  food  passes  from  it  into 
the  stomach  ( k ),  and  thence  through  the  pylorus  ( m ) into  the 
large  intestines.  The  omentum  (/)  overlays  the  stomach,  but  its 
office  is  unknown,  and  the  mesentery  and  pancreas  are  entirely 
omitted. 

The  small  intestines  (q)  are  connected  with  the  heart,  and  the 
urine  passes  through  them  into  the  bladder,  separating  from  the 
food  or  foeces  at  the  caput  coli  (5),  where  they  divide  from  the 
larger  intestines.  The  large  intestines  (r)  are  connected  with 
the  lungs,  and  lie  in  the  loins,  having  sixteen  convolutions.  The 
kidneys  (p)  are  attached  to  the  spinal  marrow,  and  resemble  an 
egg  in  shape,  and  the  subtle  generative  fluid  is  eliminated  by 
them,  above  to  the  brain  and  below  to  the  spermatic  cord  and 
sacral  extremity ; the  testes,  called  wai  shin  or  outside  kidneys, 
communicate  with  them.  The  right  kidney,  or  the  passage  from 
it  ( v ),  is  called  the  “gate  of  life,”  and  sends  forth  the  subtle  fluid 
to  the  spermatic  vessels.  The  bladder  («)  lies  below  the  kidneys, 
and  receives  the  urine  from  the  small  intestines  at  the  iliac  valve. 

The  osteology  of  the  frame  is  briefly  dispatched;  the  pelvis, 
skull,  fore-arm,  and  leg,  are  considered  as  single  bones,  the  pro- 
cesses of  the  joints  being  quite  dispensed  with,  and  the  whole  con- 
sidered merely  as  a kind  of  internal  framework,  on  and  in  which 
the  necessary  fleshy  parts  are  upheld,  but  with  which  they  have  not 
much  more  connexion  by  muscles  and  ligaments  than  the  post 
has  with  the  pile  of  mud  it  upholds.  The  irrigation  of  the  body 
with  blood  is  rather  complicated,  and  authors  vary  greatly  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  accomplished.  Some  pictures  represent 
tubes  issuing  from  the  fingers  and  toes,  and  running  up  the  limbs 
into  the  trunk,  where  they  are  lost,  or  reach  the  heart,  lungs,  or 
some  other  organ  as  well  as  they  can,  wandering  over  most  parts 
of  the  body  in  their  course.  Theories  are  furnished  in  great  va- 
riety to  account  for  the  nourishment  of  the  body  and  the  functions 
of  the  viscera,  and  upon  their  harmonious  connexion  wit  1 each 
other,  and  the  five  metals,  colors,  tastes,  and  planets,  is  founded 
the  well-being  of  the  system  ; with  all  they  hold  an  intimate  re- 
lation, and  their  actions  are  alike  built  on  the  all  pervading  func- 
tions of  the  yin  and  yang — those  universal  solvents  in  Chinese 
philosophy.  The  pulse  is  very  carefully  studied,  and  its  condi- 


SURGICAL  AND  MEDICAL  PRACIICE. 


183 


tion  regarded  as  the  index  of  every  condition  of  the  body,  even 
to  determining  the  sex  of  an  unborn  infant ; great  parade  is 
usually  made  by  every  practitioner  in  examining  this  important 
symptom.  A diseased  state  of  an  organ  is  supposed  to  be  owing 
to  a disagreement  of  the  yin  and  yang,  the  presence  of  bad 
humors,  or  the  more  powerful  agency  of  evil  spirits,  and  until 
these  agencies  are  corrected,  medicines  cannot  exercise  their  full 
efficacy.  The  surface  of  the  body  receives  the  closest,  attention, 
for  there  is  not  a square  inch  without  its  appropriate  name. 
Plasters  and  lotions  are  applied  to  these  places  according  to  the 
diagnosis  of  the  disease,  predicated  on  the  dual  theory ; and  the 
strolling  quacks  and  regular  practitioners  both  administer  the 
rationale  and  the  dose  together, — considering,  probably,  that  the 
medicine  would  lose  half  its  efficacy  upon  the  organs  it  was  in- 
tended to  affect  if  it  was  not  mixed  with  faith  to  operate  upon 
the  sentient  principle  lodged  there. 

The  practice  of  the  Chinese  is  far  in  advance  of  their  theory, 
and  some  of  their  treatises  on  dietetics  and  medical  practice  con- 
tain good  advice,  the  result  of  experience.  Dr.  W.  Lockhart, 
now  of  Shanghai,  has  translated  a native  treatise  on  midwifery, 
in  which  the  author,  confining  himself  principally  to  the  best 
modes  of  treatment  in  all  the  stages  of  parturition,  and  dwelling 
briefly  on  the  reasons  of  things,  has  greatly  improved  upon  the 
physiologists.  This  branch  of  the  profession  is  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  women.  Surgical  operations  are  confined,  for  the  most 
part,  to  removing  a tooth,  puncturing  sores  and  tumors  with 
needles,  or  trying  to  reduce  dislocations  and  reunite  fractures  by 
pressure  or  bandaging.  Sometimes  they  successfully  execute 
more  difficult  cases,  as  the  amputation  of  a"  finger,  operation  for 
a harelip,  and  insertion  of  false  teeth.  In  one  case  of  dentistry, 
four  incisor  teeth  made  of  ivory  were  strung  upon  a piece  of 
catgut  and  secured  in  their  place  by  tying  the  string  to  the  eye- 
teeth ; they  were  renewed  quarterly,  and  served  the  purpose  tole- 
rably well.  The  common  practice  of  acupuncture,  or  thrusting 
needles  of  different  sizes  and  lengths  into  the  parts  affected,  has 
good  results  among  some  bad  ones.  That  of  applying  cauteries 
and  caustics  of  various  degrees  of  power  is  more  general,  and 
sometimes  entails  shocking  distress  upon  the  patient.  Cases  have 
presented  themselves  at  the  hospitals,  where  small  sores,  by  the 
applicatior  of  escharotics,  have  extended  until  a large  part  of 


184 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  tissue,  and  even  important  organs,  have  been  destroyed,  the 
charlatan  amusing  his  suffering  patient  by  promises  of  ultimate 
cure.  The  moxa,  or  burning  the  flowers  of  the  amaranthus  upon 
the  skin,  is  attended  with  less  injury  than  the  use  of  these  acrid 
irritants. 

Turning  in  of  the  eyelashes,  or  entropium,  is  a common  ail- 
ment, and  native  practitioners  attempt  to  cure  it  by  everting  the 
lid  and  fastening  it  in  its  place  by  two  slips  of  bamboo  tightly 
bound  on,  or  a pair  of  tweezers,  until  the  loose  fold  on  the  edge 
sloughs  off ; the  eye  is,  however,  more  frequently  disfigured  by 
this  clumsy  process  than  the  trouble  remedied.  Poultices  made 
of  many  strange  or  disgusting  substances  are  applied  to  injured 
parts.  Dr.  Parker  mentions  a man,  who,  having  injured  the  iris 
by  a fall,  his  doctor  ordered  half  a chicken  to  be  laid  on  the  eye 
as  a cataplasm,  and  the  other  half  to  be  eaten.  Venesection  is 
rarely  attempted,  but  leeches  and  cupping  are  employed  to 
remove  the  blood  from  a particular  spot.  Blood-letting  is  disap- 
proved in  fevers,  “ for,”  says  the  Chinese  reasoner,  “ a fever  is 
like  a pot  boiling ; it  is  requisite  to  reduce  the  fire  and  not 
diminish  the  liquid  in  the  vessel,  if  we  wish  to  cure  the  patient.” 

Many  of  the  operations  in  cases  of  fracture  present  a strange 
mixture  of  folly  and  sense,  proceeding  from  their  ideas  of  the 
internal  structure  of  the  human  body  conflicting  with  those  which 
common  sense  and  experience  teach  them  are  necessary.  Fa- 
ther Ripa’s  description  of  the  treatment  he  underwent  to  prevent 
the  ill  effects  of  a fall  will  serve  as  an  illustration.  Having  been 
thrown  from  his  horse  and  left  fainting  in  the  street,  he  was  car- 
ried into  a house,  where  a surgeon  soon  visited  him.  “ He  made 
me  sit  up  in  bed,  placing  near  me  a large  basin  filled  with  water, 
in  which  he  put  a thick  piece  of  ice  to  reduce  it  to  a freezing 
point.  Then  stripping  me  to  the  waist,  he  made  me  stretch  my 
neck  over  the  basin,  while  he  continued  for  a good  while  to  pour 
the  water  on  my  neck  with  a cup.  The  pain  caused  by  this 
operation  upon  those  nerves  which  take  their  rise  from  the  pia  ma- 
ter was  so  great  and  insufferable  that  it  seemed  to  me  unequalled, 
but  he  said  it  would  stanch  the  blood  and  restore  me  to  my 
senses,  which  was  actually  the  case,  for  in  a short  time  my  sight 
became  clear  and  my  mind  resumed  its  powers.  He  next  bound 
my  head  with  a band  drawn  tight  by  two  men  who  held  the 
ends,  while  he  struck  the  intermediate  parts  vigorously  with  a 


SURGICAL  OPERATIONS. 


185 


piece  of  wood,  which  shook  my  head  violently,  and  gave  me 
dreadful  pain.  This  he  said  was  to  set  the  brain,  which  he  sup- 
posed had  been  displaced,  and  it  is  true  that  after  the  second 
operation  my  head  felt  more  free.  A third  operation  was  now 
performed,  during  which  he  made  me,  still  stripped  to  the  waist, 
walk  in  the  open  air  supported  by  two  persons ; and  while  thus 
walking  he  unexpectedly  threw  a basin  of  freezing  cold  water 
over  my  breast.  As  this  caused  me  to  draw  my  breath  with  great 
vehemence,  and  as  my  chest  had  been  injured  by  the  fall,  it  may 
easily  be  imagined  what  were  my  sufferings  under  this  infliction  ; 
but  I was  consoled  by  the  information  that  if  any  rib  had  been 
dislocated,  this  sudden  and  hard  breathing  would  restore  it  to  its 
natural  position.  The  next  proceeding  was  not  less  painful  and 
extravagant.  The  operator  made  me  sit  on  the  ground,  and 
assisted  by  two  men,  held  a cloth  upon  my  mouth  and  nose  till  I 
was  almost  suffocated.  ‘ This,’  said  the  Chinese  Esculapius,  ‘ by 
causing  a violent  heaving  of  the  chest,  will  force  back  any  rib 
that  may  have  been  dislocated.’  The  wound  in  my  head  not 
being  deep,  he  healed  it  by  stuffing  it  with  burnt  cotton.  He  then 
ordered  that  1 should  continue  to  walk  much,  supported  by  two 
persons,  that  I should  not  sit  long,  nor  be  allowed  to  sleep  till  ten 
o’clock  at  night,  at  which  time  I should  eat  a little  thin  rice  soup. 
He  assured  me  that  these  walks  in  the  open  air  while  fasting, 
would  prevent  the  blood  from  settling  upon  the  chest,  where  it 
might  corrupt.  These  remedies,  though  barbarous  and  excruci- 
ating, cured  me  so  completely  that  in  seven  days  I was  able  to 
resume  my  journey.” — Riga’s  Residence,  p.  67. 

Mercury,  in  its  common  preparations  of  calomel  or  red  preci- 
pitate, is  exhibited  by  Chinese  physicians,  but  their  list  and  use  of 
mineral  medicines  is  small.  The  number  of  apothecary  shops  in 
towns  indicates  the  great  consumption  of  medicine  ; their  ar- 
rangement is  like  the  druggist  shops  in  the  west,  though  instead 
of  huge  glass  jars  at  the  windows  filled  with  bright  colored 
liquids,  and  long  rows  of  vials  and  decanters  in  glass  cases, 
three  or  four  branching  deer’s  horns  are  suspended  from  the 
walls,  and  lines  of  white  and  black  gallipots  cover  the  shelves. 
Hartshorn  is  reduced  to  a dust  by  filing,  for  exhibition  in  con- 
sumption. Many  roots,  as  rhubarb,  gentian,  &c.,  are  prepared 
by  paring  them  into  thin  laminae ; others  are  powdered  in  a 
mortar  with  a pestle,  or  triturated  in  a narrow  iron  trough  in 


186 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


which  a close  fitting  wheel  is  worked  by  the  feet  or  hands.  The 
use  of  acids  and  reagents  is  unknown,  for  they  imply  more  know- 
lege  of  chemistry  than  the  Chinese  possess.  Vegetable  substan- 
ses,  as  camphor,  myrrh,  ginseng,  rhubarb,  gentian,  and  a great 
variety  of  roots,  leaves,  seeds,  and  barks,  are  generally  taken  as 
pills  or  decoctions.  Ginseng  and  rhubarb  are  extensively  ad- 
ministered, a dose  would  hardly  be  considered  complete  without 
them. 

The  people  sometimes  cast  lots  as  to  which  one  of  a dozen 
doctors  they  shall  employ,  and  then  scrupulously  follow  his  direc- 
tions whatever  they  may  be,  as  a departure  therefrom  would 
vitiate  the  sortilege.  Sometimes  an  invalid  among  the  poor  will 
go  to  a doctor,  and  ask  for  how  much  he  will  cure  him,  and  how 
soon  the  cure  can  be  performed.  He  states  the  diagnosis  of  his 
case,  the  pulse  is  examined,  and  every  other  symptom  investi- 
gated, when  the  bargain  is  struck,  and  a portion  of  the  price 
paid.  The  patient  then  receives  the  suitable  medicines,  in  quan- 
tity and  variety  better  fitted  for  a horse  than  a man,  for  the  doc- 
tor reasons  that  out  of  a great  number  it  is  more  likely  that  some 
will  prove  efficacious,  and  the  more  he  gets  paid  for,  the  more 
he  ought  to  administer.  A decoction  of  a kettle-full  of  simples 
is  drunk  down  by  the  sick  man,  and  he  gives  up  both  working 
and  eating ; if,  however,  at  the  expiration  of  the  time  specified 
he  is  not  cured,  he  scolds  his  physician  for  an  ignorant  charlatan 
who  cheats  him  out  of  his  money,  and  seeks  another,  with  whom 
he  makes  a similar  bargain,  and  probably  with  similar  results. 
Sagacious  observance  of  cause  and  effect,  symptoms  and  pains, 
gradually  give  a shrewd  physician  great  power  over  his  igno- 
rant patients,  and  some  of  them  become  both  rich  and  influential ; 
a skilful  physician  is  honored  as  the  “ nation’s  hand.” 

There  is  a regular  system  of  fees  among  the  profession,  but 
the  remuneration  is  often  left  to  the  generosity  of  the  patient. 
New  medicines,  pills,  powders,  and  salves,  are  advertised  and 
puffed  by  flaunting  placards  on  the  walls  of  the  streets,  but  the 
Chinese  have  not  adopted  the  system  of  puffing  new  nostrums 
by  publishing  a long  list  of  recommendations  from  patients. 
Some  of  these  handbills  are  abominably  indecent  in  their 
details.  The  various  ways  devised  by  persons  to  dispose  of  their 
medicines  exhibit  the  ingenuity  of  the  Chinese.  Sometimes  a 
n an,  having  spread  a mat  at  the  side  of  the  street,  and  marshal- 


PRACTICE  OF  PHYSICIANS. 


197 


led  his  gallipots  and  salves,  will  commence  a harangue  upon  the 
goodness  and  efficacy  of  his  preparations  in  loud  and  eloquent 
tones,  until  he  has  collected  a crowd  of  hearers,  some  of  whom 
he  manages  to  persuade  will  be  the  better  for  taking  some  of  his 
potions.  He  will  exhibit  their  efficacy  by  first  pounding  his  naked 
breast  with  a brick  till  it  is  livid,  and  then  immediately  healing 
the  contusion  by  a lotion,  having  previously  fortified  the  inner 
parts  with  a remedy ; or  he  will  cut  open  his  flesh  and  heal  the 
wound  in  a few  moments  by  a wonderful  elixir,  all  of  which  he 
alone  has  to  sell.  Others,  more  learned  or  more  professional,  erect 
a pavilion  or  awning,  fluttering  with  signs  and  streamers,  and 
quietly  seat  themselves  under  it  to  wait  for  customers ; or  con- 
tent themselves  with  a flag  perched  on  a pole,  setting  forth  the 
potency  of  their  pills.  Dentists  make  a rosary  or  necklace  of 
the  rotten  teeth  they  have  obtained  from  the  jaws  of  their  custom- 
ers, and  perambulate  the  streets  with  these  trophies  of  their  skill. 
In  general,  however,  the  Chinese  enjoy  good  health,  and  when 
ill  from  colds  or  fevers,  lie  abed  and  suspend  working  and  eating, 
which  in  most  cases  allows  nature  to  work  her  own  cure,  what- 
ever doses  they  may  take.  They  are  perhaps  as  longlived  as 
most  nations,  though  sanatory  statistics  are  of  course  wanting  to 
enable  us  to  form  any  indisputable  conclusions  on  this  head. 

The  classes  of  diseases  which  most  prevail  in  China  are  ophthal- 
mic, cutaneous,  and  digestive ; intermittent  fevers  are  also  com- 
mon. The  great  proportion  of  affections  of  the  eye  which  are 
met  with  has  often  attracted  observation.  Dr.  Lockhart,  in  his 
report  of  the  hospital  at  Chusan,  ascribes  it  partly  to  the  inflam- 
mation which  often  comes  on  at  the  commencement  of  winter, 
and  which  is  allowed  to  run  its  course,  leaving  the  organ  in  an 
unhealthy  condition,  and  very  obnoxious  to  other  diseases.  This 
inflammation  is  beyond  the  skill  of  the  native  practitioners,  and 
sometimes  destroys  the  sight  in  a few  days.  Another  fruitful 
source  of  disease  is  the  practice  of  the  barbers  of  turning  the 
lids  over,  and  clearing  their  surfaces  of  the  mucus  which  may 
be  lodged  there.  He  adds,  “If  the  person’s  eyes  be  examined 
after  this  process,  they  will  be  found  to  be  very  red  and  irritated, 
and  in  process  of  time  chronic  conjunctivitis  supervenes,  which 
being  considered  proof  of  insufficient  cleansing,  the  practice  is 
persisted  in,  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  lid  becomes  covered 
with  granulations.  In  other  cases,  it  becomes  indurated  like 


188 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


thin  parchment,  and  the  tarsal  cartilages  contract  and  induce 
entropium.”  Dense  opacity  of  the  cornea  itself  is  frequently 
caused  by  this  barberous  practice,  or  constant  pain  and  weeping 
ensues,  both  of  which  materially  injure  the  sight,  if  the  patient 
does  not  lose  it.  The  practice  of  cleansing  the  ears  in  a similar 
way  frequently  results  in  their  serious  injury,  and  sometimes 
destruction.  When  the  ill  effects  of  such  treatment  of  these 
delicate  organs  must  be  plain  to  every  observing  person  in  his 
own  case,  it  is  strange  that  he  should  still  allow  the  operation  to 
be  repeated. 

The  physicians  in  charge  of  the  missionary  hospitals  so  suc- 
cessfully established  at  Canton,  Amoy,  Hongkong,  and  other 
places  in  China,  have  attended  more  to  diseases  of  the  eye  than 
any  other  class  of  maladies,  and  the  number  of  cases  brought 
under  their  notice  consequently  bears  an  undue  proportion  to 
the  whole  catalogue.  The  forms  of  these  diseases  most  com- 
mon are  ophthalmia  and  opaque  cornea,  of  which,  out  of  2190 
cases  treated  by  Dr.  Parker  at  Canton  in  1836,  there  were  375,  or 
nearly  one  sixth  of  them  of  the  various  species  of  acute,  chronic, 
purulent,  and  rheumatic  ophthalmia,  and  ophthalmitis;  and  the 
same  proportion  of  opaque  and  ulcerated  corneas.  Of  the  total 
number  of  cases,  160  had  cataracts,  171  were  operated  upon  for 
entropium,  and  148  had  lost  both  eyes.  At  Amoy,  out  of  571  cases 
of  eye  diseases,  there  were  233  or  about  three  sevenths,  afflicted  with 
conjunctivitis,  much  of  whi6h  may  be  ascribed,  probably,  medi- 
ately or  immediately,  to  the  dealings  of  the  barbers.  At  Chusan, 
a still  greater  proportion  of  affections  of  the  lids  and  cornea,  re- 
ferable to  this  same  practice,  was  noticed,  there  being,  out  of 
1554  cases  registered  in  1840,  more  than  eight  hundred  of  them 
diseases  of  these  parts.  Cataracts  are  common,  especially  among 
aged  persons,  and  their  frequency  is  ascribable,  mainly,  to  the 
inability  of  the  natives  to  couch  them. 

Asthma,  even  in  boys,  frequently  occurs  at  Amoy,  and  con- 
sumption at  Canton  and  Chusan.  Intermittent  fevers  are  common 
at  the  south,  and  more  or  less  wherever  the  cultivation  of  rice  is 
carried  on  near  villages  and  towns.  Elephantiasis  is  more  fre- 
quent at  Chusan  than  Canton,  where  leprosy  seems  to  exist  as 
its  equivalent.  This  loathsome  disease  is  regarded  by  the  Chinese 
as  incurable  and  contagious.  Lazar  houses  are  provided  for  the 
residence  of  the  infected,  but  as  the  allowance  of  poor  patients  is 


DISEASES  MOST  COMMON  IN  CHINA. 


189 


insufficient  for  their  support,  they  go  from  street  to  stree  solicit- 
ing alms,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  every  one.  As  soon  as  it 
appears  in  an  individual,  he  is  immediately  separated  from  his 
family  and  driven  forth  an  outcast,  to  herd  with  others  similarly 
affected,  and  get  his  living  from  precarious  charity.  The  insti- 
tution of  lazarettoes  is  praiseworthy,  but  they  fail  of  affording  re- 
lief on  account  of  the  mismanagement  and  peculation  of  those  who 
have  their  supervision  ; and  those  who  cannot  get  in  are  obliged 
to  live  in  a separate  part  of  the  city.  Lepers  can  intermarry 
among  themselves,  but  on  account  of  poverty  and  other  causes, 
they  do  not  often  do  so,  and  the  hardships  of  their  lot  soon  end 
their  days.  This  disease  will  probably  exist  among  the  Chinese 
until  houses  are  built  more  above  the  ground,  better  ventilation 
of  cities,  and  improvement  in  diet,  are  adopted,  when  it  will  dis- 
appear as  it  has  in  southern  Europe. 

Diseases  of  the  viscera  of  an  acute  inflammatory  nature  are 
not  so  fatal  or  rapid  among  the  Chinese  as  Europeans,  nor  do 
consumptions  carry  off  so  large  a proportion  of  the  inhabitants 
as  in  the  United  States.  Dyspepsia  has  been  frequently  met  at 
Amoy,  and  is  ascribed  by  Dr.  Hepburn  to  the  abundant  use  of 
salt  provisions,  pickled  vegetables,  and  fish,  irregularity  in  eat- 
ing, opium  smoking,  and  immoderate  use  of  tea ; though  it  may 
be  questioned  whether  the  two  last  reasons  are  more  general  and 
powerful  at  Amoy  than  Canton,  where  dyspepsia  is  comparatively 
rare.  The  diseases  which  result  from  vicious  and  licentious 
habits  are  not  as  violent  in  their  effects  as  in  countries  where  a 
greater  use  of  animal  food  and  higher  living  render  the  system 
more  susceptible  to  the  noxious  consequences  of  the  virus. 

The  existence  of  tumors  and  unnatural  growths  in  great  abun- 
dance and  variety,  which  the  establishment  of  the  missionary 
hospitals  has  brought  to  notice,  is  satisfactorily  accounted  for  by 
the  inability  of  the  native  practitioners  to  remove  them.  Those 
which  had  a healthy  growth  increased  until  a morbid  action 
supervened,  and  consequently  sometimes  grew  to  an  enormous 
size.  A peasant  named  Hu  Lu  went  to  England  in  1831,  to 
have  an  abdominal  tumor  extirpated  weighing  about  70  lbs. ; he 
died  under  the  operation.  None  so  large  have  been  removed  at 
the  hospitals  in  China,  but  great  numbers  of  smaller  oneson  the  neck 
and  trunk  have  presented,  and  in  most  cases  been  safely  removed. 
No  patients  bear  operations  with  more  fortitude  than  the  Chinese, 


190 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


and  owing  to  their  lymphatic  temperament,  they  are  followed  with 
less  inflammation  than  is  usual  in  European  pract'ce.  Goitre  is 
common  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  northern  provinces, 
attended  with  its  usual  accompaniment  of  mental  weakness  or 
idiocy  ; Dr.  Gillan  estimated  that  nearly  one  sixth  of  the  inhabit- 
ants met  in  the  villages  on  the  high  land  passed  through  by  the 
embassy  on  its  way  to  Jeh  ho,  were  afflicted  with  this  defor- 
mity ; which,  however,  is  said  not  to  be  so  considered  by  the 
villagers  themselves. 

The  Asiatic  cholera  has  been  almost  as  great  a scourge  in 
China  as  any  other  country  in  the  world,  but  no  data  are  avail- 
able to  sh6w  its  progress.  It  raged  at  Ningpo  in  May,  1820,  and 
an  intelligent  native  doctor  informed  Mr.  Milne  (Repository,  Yo\. 
xii.,  p.  487),  that  it  was  computed  that  ten  thousand  persons 
were  carried  off  by  it  in  the  city  and  department  of  Ningpo, 
during  the  summers  of  1820-23.  In  1842,  it  prevailed  at  Amoy 
and  Changchau  fu,  and  their  vicinity,  when  more  than  a hun- 
dred deaths  daily  occurred  at  the  former  place,  for  six  or  seven 
weeks.  It  has  never  taken  an  epidemic  form  at  Canton,  but 
sporadic  cases  constantly  occur.  It  raged  violently  at  Hangchau 
fu,  the  provincial  capital  of  Chehkiang,  in  1821  and  1822,  per- 
sons often  dropping  down  dead  in  the  streets,  or  dying  in  an  hour 
or  two  after  an  attack  ; many  myriads  were  computed  to  have 
fallen  victims,  and  the  native  doctors  finding  their  remedies  use- 
less, gave  up  all  treatment.  It  carried  off*  multitudes  in  Shantung 
and  Kiangsu  during  the  same  years,  and  was  as  fitful  in  its  pro- 
gress in  China  as  in  Europe,  going  from  one  city  to  another, 
passing  by  towns  apparently  as  obnoxious  as  those  visited. 
The  plague  is  said  to  have  existed  in  southern  China  about 
the"  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  it  has  not  been  heard 
of  lately. 

Small-pox  is  a great  scourge,  and  although  the  practice  and 
utility  of  vaccination  have  been  known  for  twenty-five  years  past 
at  Canton,  its  adoption  is  still  limited  even  in  that  city.  It  was 
first  introduced  in  1820,  by  Dr.  Pearson,  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany’s establishment,  and  native  assistants  were  fully  instructed 
jy  hftn  in  the  practice.  Vaccination  has  now  to  a greater  or  less 
degree  extended  over  all  the  eastern  provinces,  and  the  govern- 
ment has  given  its  sanction  and  assistance ; and  it  is  chiefly 
owing  to  the  heedlessness  of  the  people  in  not  availing  them 


LAWS  AND  TREATISES  REGARDING  MEDICAL  PRACTICE.  191 

selves  of  it  in  time,  that  it  has  done  no  more  to  lessen  the  ravages 
of  the  disease.  In  the  hospitals  at  Macao,  where  children  were 
gratuitously  vaccinated,  it  was  found  almost  impossible  to  induce 
parents  to  bring  them ; and  when  the  children  had  been  vacci- 
nated, it  was  increasingly  difficult  to  get  them  to  return,  to  allow 
the  physician  to  see  the  result  of  the  operation.  A native  prac- 
titioner at  Canton,  called  Hequa,  has  conducted  a vaccinating 
* establishment  for  many  years  for  his  countrymen,  and  the  results 
have  been  observable  in  the  diminution  of  the  disease  in  that 
vicinity.  Inoculation  has  long  been  practised  by  inserting  a 
pledget  in  the  nostrils,  containing  the  virus : this  mode  is  occa- 
sionally adopted  in  vaccination.  The  slovenly  habits  of  the 
Chinese,  as  well  as  insufficient  protection  and  unwholesome  food, 
give  rise  to  many  diseases  of  the  skin,  some  of  them  quite  in- 
curable. The  common  itch  is  universal,  and  among  the  natives, 
no  one  seems  to  notice  even  its  aggravated  forms. 

The  practice  of  medicine  has  attracted  considerable  attention 
from  the  Chinese,  and  there  are  numerous  treatises  on  its  various 
branches.  The  common  classification  of  diseases  is  under  nine 
heads,  viz.  those  which  affect  the  pulse  violently  or  feebly, 
those  arising  from  cold,  female  and  cutaneous  diseases,  those 
needing  acupuncture,  and  diseases  of  the  eyes,  the  mouth  and  its 
parts,  and  the  bones.  A professor  of  each  of  these  classes  is  at- 
tached to  the  imperial  family,  who  is  taken  from  the  Medical 
College  at  Peking  ; but  he  has  no  greater  advantages  there,  than 
he  could  get  in  his  own  reading  and  practice.  No  museums  of 
morbid  or  comparative  anatomy  exist  in  the  country,  nor  are 
there  any  lectures  or  dissections  ; but  the  routine  of  practice  is 
required  which  old  custom  has  sanctioned.  Sec.  ccxcvii.  of  the 
Code  orders,  that  “ whenever  an  unskilful  practitioner,  in  admi- 
nistering medicine,  or  using  the  puncturing  needle,  proceeds  con- 
trary to  the  established  forms,  and  thereby  causes  the  death  of  a 
patient,  the  magistrate  shall  call  in  other  practitioners  to  examine 
the  medicine  or  the  wound,  and  if  it  appear  that  the  injury  done 
was  unintentional,  the  practitioner  shall  then  be  treated  accord- 
ing to  the  statute  for  accidental  homicides,  and  shall  not  be  any 
longer  allowed  to  practise  medicine.  But  if  designedly  he  de- 
part from  the  established  forms,  and  deceives  in  his  attempt  to 
cure  the  malady  in  order  to  obtain  property,  then,  according  to 
its  amount,  he  shall  be  treated  as  a thief ; and  if  death  ensue  from 


192 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


his  mal-practice,  then,  for  having  thus  used  medicine  with  intent 
to  kill,  he  shall  be  beheaded.”*  This  statute  is  seldom  carried 
into  execution,  however,  and  the  doctors  are  allowed  to  kill  and 
cure,  secundum  artem,  as  their  patients  give  them  the  opportu- 
nity. 

There  are  many  medical  works  found  in  the  hands  of 
practitioners,  and  some  of  them  show  no  little  research  on  the  part 
of  the  authors  in  every  place  except  the  right  one,  viz.  the  body 
itself.  One  of  the  most  valuable  is  the  Pun  Tsau,  or  Herbal  of 
Li  Shichin  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  already  noticed  in  chapter  VI. 
There  is  a list  of  two  hundred  and  seventy-six  medical  works 
given,  which  supplied  its  compiler  with  the  materials  of  his  own 
performance,  and  of  four  hundred  and  eighty  miscellaneous 
works,  which  furnished  the  notices  of  the  habits,  localities,  &c., 
of  the  plants,  animals,  and  other  things  mentioned. 

Natural  history,  in  its  various  branches  of  geology,  botany, 
zoology,  &c.,  has  received  some  attention,  because  the  objects 
which  come  under  it  could  not  escape  the  notice  of  all  the  writers 
in  Chinese  literature.  As  sciences,  however,  none  of  them  have 
an  existence,  and  they  are  studied  chiefly  for  their  assistance  in 
furnishing  articles  for  the  materia  medica  of  the  native  physi- 
cian. To  these  persons  nothing  comes  amiss,  and,  like  the 
ingredients  of  the  hubbling,  bubbling  caldron  of  Macbeth’s  witches, 
the  stranger  it  is,  the  more  potent  they  think  a dose  will  be. 
Petrifactions  of  crabs  and  orthoceras,  bezoar  of  cows,  scales  of 
pangolins,  horns  of  rhinoceroses,  paws  of  bears,  tigers’  bones,  and 
other  such  like  things,  are  sought  after  as  medicines,  and  large 
sums  paid  for  them.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  their  investigations 
should  have  taken  such  a direction,  but  the  man  of  commanding 
influence  has  not  yet  arisen  to  direct  their  researches  into  na- 
ture, and  divert  them  from  the  marvellous  and  theoretical.  On 
the  whole  it  may  be  said  that,  in  all  departments  of  learning,  the 
Chinese  are  unscientific  ; and,  that  while  they  have  collected  a 
few  facts,  invented  many  arts,  and  brought  a few  to  a high  de- 
gree of  excellence,  they  have  never  pursued  a single  subject  in 
a way  calculated  to  lead  them  to  a right  understanding  of  it,  and 
proper  classification  of  the  information  they  possessed  relating 
to  it. 


Chinese  Chrestomathy,  Chap.  XVI.,  pp.  497-532. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


History  and  Chronology  of  China. 

The  history  of  the  Chinese  has  excited  less  attention  among  west- 
ern scholars  than  it  deserves,  though  in  some  respects  no  nation 
has  more  claims  to  have  its  chronicles  carefully  and  fairly  ex- 
amined ; the  best  accounts  of  the  succession  of  dynasties  and 
leading  events,  are  Mailla’s  translation  and  Pauthier’s  Chine  in 
the  Univers  Pittoresque ; and  the  sketches  of  Du  Halde,  Grosier, 
Gutzlaff,  and  others,  afford  a succinct  view  of  its  history.  The 
belief  is  generally  entertained  that  their  pretensions  to  antiquity 
are  ridiculous,  and  incompatible  with  the  Mosaic  chronology,  not 
only  making  the  world  to  have  existed  myriads  of  years,  but 
reckoning  the  succession  of  their  monarchs  far  beyond  the  crea- 
tion, and  ascribing  to  them  a longevity  that  carries  its  own  con- 
futation on  its  face.  In  consequence  of  this  opinion,  some  have 
doubted  the  native  historians  altogether,  and  the  whole  subject  of 
the  settlement  and  early  progress  of  this  ancient  race  has  been 
considered  beyond  the  reach,  and  almost  unworthy  the  attempt, 
of  sober  investigation.  But  this  is  an  erroneous  and  hasty  con- 
clusion, and  the  early  records  of  the  sons  of  Han  contain  much 
which  is  worthy  of  credence,  and  much  more  that  is  highly  pro- 
bable. A wide  field  is  here  opened  for  the  researches  of  a 
Heeren  or  a Niebuhr,  and  as  long  as  we  are  destitute  of  a good 
history  of  China,  and  its  connexions  with  other  Asiatic  nations, 
we  shall  not  only  be  unable  to  form  a correct  opinion  respecting 
the  people,  but  shall  lack  many  important  data  for  a full  illustra- 
tion of  the  early  history  of  the  human  race.  It  is  very  easy  to 
laud  the  early  records  of  the  Chinese  to  the  skies,  as  the  French 
writers  have  done ; nor  is  it  more  unjust  to  cry  them  down,  as  is 
now  the  fashion.  The  reputation  both  the  people  and  their  re- 
cords  have  received  is  owing,  in  some  measure,  to  the  undue 
laudation  and  depreciation  they  have  received  from  foreigners,  as 
well  as  to  the  intrinsic  merits  and  defeats  pf  their  histories,  and 
VOL.  II.  10 


194 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  want  of  correspondence  they  exhibit  with  the  records  anc* 
monuments  of  other  times  and  countries. 

China  has  her  mythological  history  like  other  countries,  and  il 
should  be  separated  from  the  more  recent,  and  received,  as  hei 
own  historians  regard  it,  as  the  fabrication  of  subsequent  times. 
She  also  has  her  ancient  history,  whose  earliest  dates  and  events 
blend  confusedly  with  the  mythological,  but  gradually  grow  more 
credible  and  distinct  as  they  come  down  the  stream  of  time  to  the 
beginning  of  modern  history.  The  early  accounts  of  every  nation 
whose  founding  was  anterior  to  the  invention  of  printing,  or  other 
means  of  making  authentic  records,  must  necessarily  be  obscure 
and  doubtful.  What  is  applicable  to  the  Chinese  has  been  true 
of  other  ancient  people,  and  “ national  vanity  and  a love  of  the 
marvellous  have  influenced  them  all,  and  furnished  materials  for 
many  tales,  as  soon  as  the  spirit  of  investigation  has  supplanted 
that  appetite  for  wonders  which  marks  the  infancy  of  nations  as 
well  as  of  individuals.”  The  ignorance  of  the  “art  preservative 
of  all  arts”  will  greatly  explain  the  subsequent  record  of  the 
wonderful,  without  supposing  that  the  infancy  of  nations  partook 
of  the  same  traits  of  weakness  and  credulity  as  that  of  indivi- 
duals. In  this  work,  it  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  or  abridge  the 
details  contained  in  authors,  concerning  the  history  and  suc- 
cession of  dynasties  that  have  swayed  the  Middle  Kingdom,  for 
to  one  not  specially  engaged  in  their  examination,  their  recital 
is  proverbially  dry,  and  the  array  of  uncouth  names  destitute 
of  lasting  interest ; mainly  because  the  absence  of  the  charm 
of  association  with  western  nations,  renders  them  uninviting  to  the 
general  reader.  Some  account  of  the  leading  events  and  changes 
is  all  that  is  necessary  to  explain  what  has  been  elsewhere  inci- 
dentally referred  to. 

Chinese  historians  have  endeavored  to  explain  the  creation  and 
origin  of  the  world  around  them  ; but,  ignorant  of  the  sublime  fact 
that  there  is  one  Creator  who  upholds  his  works  by  the  word  of 
his  power,  they  have  invented  various  modes  to  account  for  it,  and 
wearied  themselves  in  theorizing  and  disputing  with  each  other. 
One  of  them,  Yangtsz’,  remarks,  in  view  of  these  conflicting  sup- 
positions, “ Who  knows  the  affairs  of  remote  antiquity,  since  no 
authentic  records  have  come  down  to  us  ? He  who  examines 
these  stories  will  find  it  difficult  to  believe  them,  and  careful 
scrutiny  will  convince  him  that  they  are  without  foundation.  In 


COSMOGONY  OF  CHINESE  HIST,  RIANS. 


195 


the  primeval  ages  no  historical  records  were  kept.  Why  then, 
since  the  ancient  books  that  described  those  times  were  burnt  by 
Tsin,  should  we  misrepresent  those  remote  ages,  and  satisfy  our- 
selves with  vague  fables  ? But  as  everything  except  heaven  and 
earth  must  have  a cause,  it  is  clear  that  they  have  always  existed, 
and  that  cause  produced  all  sorts  of  men  and  beings,  and  endowed 
them  with  their  various  qualities.  But  it  must  have  been  man 
who  in  the  beginning  produced  all  things  on  earth,  and  who  may 
therefore  be  viewed  as  the  lord,  and  from  whom  rulers  derive 
their  dignities.” 

This  extract  is  not  a bad  example  of  Chinese  writers  and  his- 
torians ; a mixture  of  sense  and  nonsense,  partially  laying  the 
foundation  of  a just  argument,  and  ending  with  a tremendous 
non-sequitur,  which  form  together  an  incoherent  melange  like 
the  clay  and  iron  in  the  feet  of  Nebuchadnezzar’s  image.  Most 
of  the  Chinese  imagine  that  the  world  owes  its  existence  to  the 
retroactive  agency  of  the  dual  powers  yin  and  yang,  which  first 
formed  the  outline  of  the  universe,  and  were  themselves  influenced 
by  their  own  creations.  One  of  the  most  sensible  of  their  authors 
says : 

“ Heaven  was  formless,  an  utter  chaos ; and  the  whole  mass  was 
nothing  but  confusion.  Order  was  first  produced  in  the  pure  ether,  and 
out  of  it  the  universe  came  forth  ; the  universe  produced  air,  and  air  the 
milky-way.  When  the  pure  male  principle  yang  had  been  diluted,  it 
formed  the  heavens ; the  heavy  and  thick  parts  coagulated,  and  formed 
the  earth.  The  refined  particles  united  very  soon,  but  the  union  of  the 
thick  and  heavy  went  on  slowly  ; therefore  the  heavens  came  into  exist- 
ence first,  and  the  earth  afterwards.  From  the  subtle  essence  of  heaven 
and  earth,  the  dual  principles  yin  and  yang  were  formed  ; from  their  joint 
operation  came  the  four  seasons,  and  these  putting  forth  their  energies 
gave  birth  to  all  the  products  of  the  earth.  The  warm  effluence  of  the 
yang  being  condensed,  produced  fire  ; and  the  finest  parts  of  fire  formed 
the  sun.  The  cold  exhalations  of  the  yin  being  likewise  condensed  pro- 
duced water ; and  the  finest  parts  of  the  watery  substance  formed  the 
moon.  By  the  seminal  influence  of  the  sun  and  moon,  came  the  stars. 
Thus  heaven  was  adorned  with  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars ; the  earth  also 
received  rain,  rivers,  and  dust.”* 

But  this  acute  explanation,  like  the  notions  of  Hesiod  among  the 
Greeks,  was  too  subtle  for  the  common  people ; they  also  wanted 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  III.,  page  55. 


196 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


to  personify  and  deify  these  powers  and  operations,  but  lacking 
the  imaginative  genius  and  fine  taste  of  the  Greeks,  their  my- 
thological  personages  are  outrageous,  and  their  theories  shapeless 
monsters.  No  creator  of  the  world  is  known  or  imagined,  who, 
like  Brahm,  lives  in  space,  ineffable,  formless ; but  the  first 
man,  Pwanku,  had  a herculean  task  given  him,  no  less  a work 
than  to  mould  the  chaos  which  produced  him,  and  chisel  out  the 
earth  that  was  to  contain  him.  One  legend  is,  that  the  dual 
powers  were  fixed  when  the  primeval  chaos  separated.  Chaos  is 
bubbling  turbid  water,  which  inclosed  and  mingled  with  the  dual 
powers,  like  a chick  in  ovo,  but  when  their  offspring  Pwanku 
appeared,  their  distinctiveness  and  operations  were  apparent. 
Pwan  means  a basin,  referring  to  the  shell  of  the  egg  ; ku  means 
solid,  to  secure,  intending  to  show  how  the  first  man  Pwanku  was 
hatched  from  the  chaos  by  the  dual  powers,  and  then  settled  and 
exhibited  the  arrangement  of  the  causes  which  produced  him.” 
The  Rationalists  have  penetrated  furthest  into  the  D^dalian  mys- 
tery of  this  cosmogony,  and  they  go  on  to  show  what  Pwanku  did, 
and  how  he  did  it.  They  picture  him  holding  a chisel  and  mal- 
let in  his  hands,  splitting  and  fashioning  vast  masses  of  granite 
floating  confusedly  in  space.  Behind  the  openings  his  powerful 
hand  has  made,  are  seen  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  monuments  of 
his  stupendous  labors  ; and  at  his  right  hand,  inseparable  com- 
panions of  his  toils,  but  whose  generation  is  left  in  obscurity, 
stand  the  dragon,  the  phoenix,  and  the  tortoise,  and  sometimes  the 
unicorn,  divine  types  and  progenitors  with  himself  of  the  animal 
creation.  His  efforts  were  continued  eighteen  thousand  years, 
and  by  small  degrees  he  and  his  work  increased  ; the  heavens 
rose,  the  earth  spread  out  and  thickened,  and  Pwanku  grew  in 
stature,  each  of  them  six  feet  every  day,  till,  his  labors  done,  he 
died  for  the  benefit  of  his  handywork.  His  nead  became  moun- 
tains, his  breath  wind  and  clouds,  and  his  voice  thunder ; his 
limbs  were  changed  into  the  four  poles,  his  veins  into  rivers,  his 
sinews  into  the  undulations  of  the  earth:s  surface,  and  his  flesh 
into  fields ; his  beard,  like  Berenice’s  hair,  was  turned  into  stars, 
his  skin  and  hair  into  herbs  and  trees ; and  his  teeth,  bones,  and 
marrow,  into  metals,  rocks,  and  precious  stones  ; his  dropping 
sweat  increased  to  rain,  and  lastly  ( nascilur  ridiculus  mus)  the 
insects  which  stuck  to  his  body  were  transformed  into  people ! 


POPULAR  NOTIONS  OF  THE  CREATION 


197 


Pwanku  Chiselling  out  the  Heavens. 

Such  was  Pwanku,  and  these  were  his  works.  But  these  gro- 
tesque myths  afford  none  of  the  pleasing  images  and  personifica- 
tions of  Greek  fable  or  Egyptian  symbols  ; they  fatigue  without 
entertaining,  and  only  illustrate  the  childish  imagination  of  their 
authors.  Pwanku  was  succeeded  by  three  rulers  of  monstrous 
forms  called  the  Celestial,  Terrestrial,  and  Human  sovereigns, 
impersonations  of  a trinity  of  powers,  whose  traces  and  influen- 
ces run  through  Chinese  philosophy,  religion,  and  politics;  their 


199 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


acts  and  characters  are  detailed  with  the  utmost  gravity,  and 
more  than  Methusalean  longevity  allowed  them  to  complete  their 
plans.  Their  reigns  continued  eighteen  thousand  years  (more 
or  less  according  to  the  author  quoted),  during  which  time  good 
government  commenced,  men  learned  to  eat  and  drink,  the  sexes 
united,  sleep  was  invented,  and  other  improvements  adopted. 
One  would  think,  if  the  subjects  of  these  wonderful  beings  were 
as  longlived,  great  perfection  might  have  been  attained  in  these 
and  other  useful  arts  ; but  the  mysterious  tortoise,  companion  of 
Pwanku,  on  whose  carapace  was  written  in  tadpole-headed  cha- 
racters, the  history  of  the  anterior  world,  did  not  survive,  and  their 
record  has  not  come  down.  After  them  flourished  two  other 
monarchs,  one  of  them  called  Yu-chau,  which  means  having  a nest, 
and  the  other  Sui-jin,  or  match-man  ; whether  the  former  invented 
nests  for  the  abodes  of  his  subjects,  such  as  the  Indians  on  the 
Oronoco  have,  is  not  stated  ; but  the  latter  brought  down  fire  from 
heaven  for  them  to  cook  with,  and  became  a second,  or  rather 
tne  first,  Prometheus. 

One  thing  is  observable  in  these  fictions,  characteristic  of  the 
Chinese  at  the  present  day  : there  is  no  hierarchy  of  gods  brought 
in  to  rule  and  inhabit  the  world  they  made,  no  conclave  on  Mt. 
Olympus,  nor  judgment  of  the  mortal  soul  bv  Osiris  ; no  transfer 
of  human  love  and  hate,  passions  and  hopes,  to  the  powers  above  ; 
but  all  is  ascribed  to  disembodied  agencies,  and  their  works  are 
represented  as  moving  on  in  quiet  order  ; there  were  boards,  and 
academies,  and  observatories  to  take  note  of  the  heavenly  bodies  ; 
the  whole  state  was  perfect  in  all  its  parts,  it  was  as  easy  to 
rule  the  nation  as  it  was  to  “ turn  the  thumb  in  the  palm  of  the 
hand.”  There  is  no  religion  in  this  cosmogony,  and  there  is  no 
imagination  ; all  is  impassible,  passionless,  uninteresting.  It  may, 
perhaps,  be  considered  in  itself  as  sensible  a3  the  Greek  my- 
thology, if  any  one  looks  for  sense  in  such  figments,  but  it  has 
not,  as  their’s  has,  been  explained  in  sublime  poetry, shadowed  forth 
in  gorgeous  ritual  and  magnificent  festivals,  represented  in  ex- 
quisite sculptures,  nor  preserved  in  faultless,  imposing  fanes  and 
temples,  all  full  of  ideal  creations  ; and  for  this  reason,  it  appears 
more  in  its  true  colors,  and  when  compared  with  their’s,  “loses 
discountenanced  and  like  folly  shows,” — at  least  to  us,  who  can 
examine  both,  and  compare  them  with  the  truth. 

Chinese  mythological  history  ends  with  the  appearance  of 


DATE  OF  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  199 

Fuhhi,  and  their  chronology  should  not  be  charged  with  the  long 
periods  antecedent,  varying  from  forty-five  to  five  hundred  thou- 
sand years,  for  the  people  themselves  do  not  believe  this  duration. 
These  periods  are,  however,  a mere  twinkling  compared  with  the 
kulpas  of  the  Hindus,  whose  highest  era,  called  the  Unspeak- 
ably Inexpressible,  requires  4,456,448  cyphers  following  a unit 
to  represent  it.  If  the  epoch  of  the  reign  of  Fuhhi  can  be  settled, 
or  even  ascertained  with  any  probability  by  comparison  with  the 
history  of  other  nations,  or  with  existing  remains,  it  would  tend 
not  a little  to  settle  some  disputed  chronological  points  in  other 
countries  ; but  the  isolation  of  the  Chinese  throughout  their  whole 
existence,  makes  it  nearly  impossible  to  weave  in  the  events  of 
their  history  with  those  of  other  nations,  by  comparing  and 
verifying  them  with  Biblical,  Egyptian,  or  Persian  annals. 
Perhaps  further  investigations  in  the  vast  regions  of  eastern  and 
central  Asia  may  bring  to  light  corroborative  testimony  as  strik- 
ing and  unexpected  as  the  explorations  in  Mosul  and  Thebes. 

The  accession  of  Fuhhi  is  placed  in  the  Chinese  annals,  b.  c. 
2852,  or  eight  years  after  the  death  of  Enos,  1152  years  after 
the  creation,  and  508  before  the  deluge,  according  to  the  common 
received  chronology  of  Usher.  The  weight  of  evidence  which 
the  later  chronological  examinations  of  Hales  has  brought  to  bear 
against  the  common  period  of  4004  years  prior  to  the  Advent,  is 
such  as  to  cast  great  doubt  over  its  authenticity,  and  lead  to  the 
adoption  of  a longer  period  in  order  to  explain  many  events,  and 
afford  time  for  many  occurrences,  which  otherwise  would  be 
crowded  into  too  narrow  a space.  Chinese  chronology,  if  it  be 
allowed  the  least  credit,  strongly  corroborates  the  results  of  Dr. 
Hales’  researches,  and  particularly  so  in  the  date  of  Fuhhl’s 
accession.  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  respective  claims 
of  the  two  eras,  but  by  reckoning  as  he  does,  the  creation  to  be 
5411  years,  and  the  deluge  3155  years,  before  the  Advent,  we 
bring  the  commencement  of  ancient  Chinese  history,  303  years 
subsequent  to  the  deluge,  47  before  the  death  of  Noah,  and  about 
three  centuries  before  the  confusion  of  tongues.  If  we  suppose  that 
the  antediluvians  possessed  a knowledge  of  the  geography  of  the 
world,  and  that  Noah,  regarding  himself  as  the  monarch  of  the 
whole,  divided  it  among  his  descendants  before  his  death,  there 
is  nothing  improbable  in  the  further  supposition  that  the  progeni- 
tors of  the  black-haired  race,  and  others  of  the  house  and  lineage 


200 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  Shem,  found  their  way  from  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  across 
the  defiles  and  steppes  of  central  Asia,  to  the  fertile  plains  of 
China  before  the  end  of  the  third  diluvian  century.  Whether 
the  surface  of  the  world  was  the  same  after  the  cataclysm  as 
before,  matters  very  little  ; there  was  ample  time  for  the  multi- 
plication of  the  species  with  the  blessing  promised  them  by  God, 
sufficient  to  form  colonies,  if  there  was  time  enough  to  increase 
to  such  a multitude  as  conspired  to  build  the  tower  of  Babel. 

Fuhhi  and  his  seven  successors  are  stated  to  have  reigned  747 
years,  averaging  93  each.  Those  who  follow  Usher  consider  these 
monarchs,  if  they  ever  had  an  existence,  to  be  Chinese  travesties 
of  the  eight  antediluvian  patriarchs;  and  Marquis  d’Urban  has 
gone  so  far  as  to  write  what  he  calls  the  Antediluvian  History  of 
China,  collecting  all  the  notices  history  affords  of  their  acts.  The 
common  chronology  brings  the  deluge  about  thirteen  years  after 
the  accession  of  Yau,  and  the  death  of  Shun  the  last  of  the  eight. 
B.  c . 2205,  or  25  years  after  the  confusion  of  tongues.  Accord 
ing  to  Hales,  the  last  epoch  is  112  years  before  the  call  of  Abra 
ham,  and  these  eight  Chinese  monarchs  are  therefore  contempo- 
raries of  the  patriarchs  who  lived  between  Shem  and  Abraham, 
commencing  with  Salah,  and  ending  with  Nahor.  The  duration 
of  their  reigns,  moreover,  is  such  as  would  bear  the  same  pro- 
portion to  ages  of  five  hundred  years,  which  their  contemporaries 
lived,  as  the  present  average  of  twenty  and  twenty-five  years 
does  to  a life  of  sixty. 

Supposing  that  the  descendants  of  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japheth, 
knowing  from  their  fathers  and  grandfather,  that  the  void  world 
was  before  them,  began  to  colonize  almost  as  soon  as  they  began 
to  form  families,  three  centuries  would  not  be  too  long  a time  for 
some  of  them  to  settle  in  China,  perhaps  offsetting  from  Elam 
and  Asshur,  and  other  descendants  of  Shem  in  Persia.  The 
capital  of  Fuhhi,  placed  near  Kaifung  fu  in  Honan,  slightly 
indicates,  it  may  be  thought,  their  route  through  central  Asia  and 
the  pass  Kiayii  in  Kansuh,  and  then  down  the  Yellow  river  to  the 
Great  Plain.  But  these  observations  are  only  by  the  way,  as  is 
also  the  suggestion  that  teaching  of  fishing  and  grazing,  the  regu- 
lation of  times  and  seasons,  cultivation  of  music,  and  establish- 
ment of  government,  &c.,  compare  well  enough  with  the  duties 
that  might  reasonably  be  supposed  to  belong  to  the  founder  of  a 
colony,  and  subsequently  ascribed  to  him  as  his  own  inventions 


REIGNS  OF  FUHH1  AND  HIS  SUCCESSORS.  201 

The  long  period  allotted  to  human  life  at  that  date  would  allow 
these  arts  and  improvements  to  take  root,  and  their  memory  to 
remain  in  popular  legends  until  subsequent  historians  incorpo- 
rated them  into  their  writings.  This  view  of  the  credibility  of 
Chinese  chronology  was  strongly  impressed  upon  the  old  Romish 
missionaries,  and  many  of  them  were  in  favor  of  the  chronology 
of  the  Septuagint  from  the  congruity  of  the  two,  though  every 
argument  led  them  to  adhere  scrupulously  to  the  Vulgate. 

To  Shinnung,  i.  e.  Divine  Husbandman,  and  Hwangti,  i.  e. 
Yellow  Emperor,  are  also  ascribed  many  valuable  inventions,  but 
the  Chinese  themselves  do  not  endeavor  to  uphold  these  particu- 
lars, referiing  their  adopiion  to  the  age  rather  than  to  the  mon- 
archs.  The  first  was  the  patron  of  agriculture,  and  discoverer 
of  the  medicinal  properties  of  herbs  ; the  second  invented  the 
cycle  now  in  use  ; the  calendar  was  formed  in  his  reign,  and 
characters  were  made  for  recording  events.  The  Chinese  annal- 
ists fill  up  the  reigns  of  these  chiefs,  and  their  successors  down  to 
the  time  of  Yau,  with  a series  of  inventions  and  improvements 
in  the  arts  of  life  and  good  government,  sufficient  to  bring  society 
to  that  degree  of  comfort  and  order  they  suppose  consonant  with 
the  character  of  the  monarehs.  The  earliest  records  of  the 
Chinese  correspond  rather  too  closely  with  their  present  charac- 
ter to  receive  full  belief ; but  while  they  may  be  considered  as 
unworthy  of  entire  confidence,  it  will  be  allowed  that  they  pre- 
sent an  appearance  of  probability  and  naturalness  hardly  pos- 
sessed by  the  early  annals  of  Greece. 

The  establishment  of  the  sexagenary  cycle  in  the  61st  year 
of  Hwangti’s  reign  or  B.  c.  2637,  518  years  after  the  deluge, 
82  years  after  the  death  of  Arphaxad,  and  about  that  time  before 
the  confusion  of  tongues,  is  a remarkable  record ; and  although 
it  would  have  been  easy,  as  many  suppose  was  done,  to  have  an- 
tedated it  at  some  subsequent  period  in  order  to  impose  upon 
themselves  with  the  belief  of  antiquity,  no  arguments  or  facts 
are  adduced  to  prove  that  such  was  the  case.  The  uniform  ad- 
herence to  this  peculiar  mode  of  reckoning  time  certainly  since 
the  days  of  Confucius,  and  the  high  probability  that  it  was  gene- 
rally adopted  long  before  his  time ; the  remembrance  of  the 
individual,  Nau  the  Great,  who  invented  it,  and  the  odd  date  of 
its  adoption  in  the  middle  of  a reign,  are  all  strong  testimonies  in 
favor  of  the  date  and  antiquity  ascribed  to  it. 

VOL.  it.  lU*  ' 


202 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Three  reigns,  averaging  eighty  years’  duration,  intervened  be- 
tween that  of  Hwangti  and  the  celebrated  Yau,  but  no  records 
have  come  down  of  the  history  of  the  rulers,  except  that  they 
lived  and  died.  They  were  all  elected  by  the  people,  much  as 
were  Shamgar,  Jephthah,  and  other  judges  in  Israel,  and  probably 
exercised  a similar  sway.  The  reigns  and  characters  of  Yau 
and  Shun  have  been  immortalized  by  Confucius,  and  whatever 
was  their  real  history,  that  sage  showed  his  sagacity  in  going 
back  to  their  remote  times  for  his  models,  and  fixing  upon  a 
period  neither  fabulous  nor  certain,  one  which  prevented  the 
cavils  of  scepticism  and  the  appearance  of  complete  fabrication. 
Whether  they  were  fictitious  personages  or  not,  they  are  repre- 
sented as  following  those  principles  of  government  which  every 
man  of  sound  judgment  must  approve  ; and  their  system  of  re- 
ligious rites  savors  strongly  of  the  simplicity  of  patriarchal  times, 
when  even  in  China  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God  was  not 
utterly  lost. 

A tremendous  deluge  occurred  during  the  reign  of  Yau, 
b.  c.  2293,  caused,  it  is  said,  by  the  overflowing  of  the  rivers  in 
the  north  of  China.  Those  who  place  the  Noachic  deluge  b.  c. 
2348,  regard  this  as  only  a different  version  of  that  event ; the 
variation  of  55  years  being  unimportant ; M.  Klaproth,  who 
favors  the  Septuagint  chronology,  says  it  is  nearly  synchronous 
with  the  deluge  of  Xisuthrus,  b.  c.  2297.  The  record  of 
this  catastrophe  in  the  Shu  King  is  hardly  applicable  to  an  over- 
whelming flood  : “ Grandees,”  said  the  emperor,  “ we  suffer  much 
from  the  inundation ; the  waters  cover  the  hills  on  every  side, 
they  overtop  the  mountains,  and  seem  to  be  rising  even  to  the 
skies.  If  any  one  can  be  found  who  is  able  to  remedy  this  evil, 
I wish  he  may  be  employed.”*  They  presented  Kwan  as  a proper 
man,  but  he  showed  his  inefficiency  in  laboring  nine  years  with- 
out success  to  drain  off  the  waters.  Yau  was  then  advised  to 
employ  Shun,  who  called  in  Yu,  a son  of  Kwan,  to  his  aid,  and 
the  floods  were  assuaged  by  deepening  the  beds  of  the  rivers  and 
opening  new  channels.  These  slight  notices  hardly  comport  with 
a flood  like  the  Noachic  deluge,  and  are  with  much  greater  proba- 
bility referred  to  an  overflow  of  one  of  the  great  rivers,  or  to 
the  change  in  the  bed  of  the  Yellow  river  from  its  former  course 
into  the  Gulf  of  Pcchele  through  Chihli  north-east,  to  its  present 
* Gaubil’s  Shu  King,  p.  8. 


DATE  OF  THE  DELUGE  RECORDED  OF  YAU. 


203 


one  along  the  owlands  of  Kiangsu.  The  weight  of  topographi- 
cal evidence,  combined  with  the  strong  chronological  argument, 
the  discussions  in  council  said  to  have  taken  place  regarding  the 
disaster,  and  the  time  which  elapsed  before  the  region  was  drained, 
all  presuppose  and  indicate  a partial  inundation,  and  strengthen 
the  assumption  that  no  traces  of  the  Deluge  exist  in  the  histories 
of  the  Chinese.  In  our  view  of  the  chronology  of  the  Bible  as 
compared  with  the  Chinese,  it  requires  a far  greater  constraint 
upon  these  records  to  bring  them  to  refer  to  that  event,  than  to 
suppose  they  allude  to  a local  disaster  not  beyond  the  power  of 
remedy.  These  remarks  of  Yau  may  also  have  been  put  into 
their  present  shape  by  Confucius  nearly  seventeen  centuries  after, 
wards,  and  it  may  be  supposed,  without  militating  against  their 
authenticity,  that  the  extent  of  the  flood  has  been  described  so  as 
to  do  some  honor  to  the  distinguished  men  who  remedied  it. 

The  series  of  chieftains  down  to  the  accession  of  Yu  may  here 
be  recapitulated.  The  fabulous  period  ends  with  Sui-jin,  and 
ancient  history  commences  with  Fuhhi,  who  with  four  of  his  suc- 
cessors (Nos.  2,  3,  7,  and  8),  are  commonly  known  as  the  Five 


Sovereigns.  Their  names  and 

reigns  are  as  follows : 

YEARS 

BEGAN 

NAMES. 

REIGNED. 

B.  C. 

OTHER  EVENTS. 

1 Fuhhi 

115 

2852 

The  Deluge,  b.  c.  3155. 

2 Shinnung 

140 

2737 

Death  of  Noah,  b.  c.  2805. 

3 Hwangti 

100 

2697 

4 Shauhau 

84 

2597 

Death  of  Arphaxad,  2715. 

5 Chiuenhiuh 

78 

2513 

Death  of  Shem,  2555. 

6 Kuh 

78 

2435 

From  the  year  2715,  down  to  2082, 

7 Yau 

102 

2357 

sixteen  dynasties  ruled  in  Egypt. 

8 Shun 

50 

2255 

The  records 

in  the  Shu  King  of  Yau  and  Shun,  and  their  sue- 

cessor  Yu  the  Great,  who  began  to  reign  b.  c.  2205,  are  longer 
than  those  of  any  other  persons  who  lived  prior  to  Abraham. 
Those  who  follow  Usher,  regard  Yu  as  being  the  leader  of  the 
first  band  of  colonists  from  the  west  after  the  deluge,  139  years 
before, — much  too  short  a time,  however,  for  the  collecting  of  a 
large  colony  when  the  intermediate  countries  were  barely  settled, 
and  men  were  more  inclined  to  join  their  efforts  in  building  a 
tower.  The  chronicle  represents  the  merits  of  Yu  to  have  been 
first  exhibited  in  reducing  the  waters,  and  dividing  the  country 
into  nine  regions,  and  as  he  had  assisted  Shun  in  his  government 


204 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


during  his  lifetime,  he  was  unanimously  called  tt  the  vacant 
dignity,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  Hia  dynasty  Allowing 
that  the  records  of  these  times  and  people  are  brief  and  disjointed, 
and  many  things  in  them  hard  to  reconcile,  still  they  are  superior 
to  the  legendary  tales  describing  the  formation  of  some  other 
ancient  states ; and  should  not,  in  fairness,  be  ridiculed  as  trivial 
or  rejected  as  fabulous.  No  one  regards  them  as  entirely  trust- 
worthy, but  if  Abraham  found  the  Egyptians  to  be  living  under 
a regular  government  not  150  years  after  this,  and  Damascus, 
Nineveh,  and  other  cities  were  then  old,  no  one  need  be  unwil- 
ling to  give  the  Chinese  a line  of  monarchs,  and  a population 
quite  sufficient  to  have  deepened  the  channel  of  a river,  or  raised 
dikes  to  restrain  it.  The  glorious  reigns  and  spotless  characters 
of  these  three  sovereigns  are  looked  upon  by  the  Chinese  with 
much  the  same  feelings  of  veneration  that  the  Jews  regard  their 
three  patriarchs  ; and  to  have  had,  or  supposed  to  have,  such  pro- 
genitors and  heroes  is,  to  say  the  least,  as  much  to  their  credit  as 
the  Achilles,  Ulysses,  and  Romulus  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
A curious  analogy  can  also  be  traced  between  the  scheming 
Ulysses,  warlike  Romulus,  and  methodical  Yau,  and  the  subse- 
quent character  of  the  three  great  nations  they  represent. 

Chinese  historians  supply  many  details  regarding  the  conduct 
of  Yu  and  Kieh  Kwei,  the  first  and  last  princes  of  the  house  of 
Hia,  all  the  credible  particulars  of  which  are  taken  from  the 
classics,  particularly  the  Book  of  Records.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  records  of  the  reign  of  Yu  is  an  inscription  traced 
on  the  rocks  of  Hang  shan,  one  of  the  mountains  where  annual 
sacrifices  were  made  by  the  ancient  emperors,  and  preserved  in 
Sl-ngan  fu  in  Shensi.  This  inscription  relates  to  the  inundation, 
and  is  thus  given  by  Amyot,  who  regards  it  as  genuine,  although 
it  cannot  be  allowed  to  possess  the  same  authenticity  in  its  copied 
form  as  the  inscriptions  at  Karnac  and  Mosul,  which  are  still,  so 
to  speak,  in  situ. 

“ The  venerable  emperor  said.  Oh  ! aid  and  councillor ! Who  will  help 
me  in  administering  my  affairs?  The  great  and  little  islets  (the  inha- 
bited places)  even  to  their  summits,  the  abodes  of  the  beasts  and  birds, 
and  all  beings  are  widely  inundated.  Advise,  send  back  the  waters,  and 
raise  the  dikes.  For  a long  time,  I have  quite  forgotten  my  family;  I 
repose  on  the  top  of  the  mountain  Yohlu.  By  prudence  and  my  labors, 
I have  moved  the  spirits  ; I know  not  the  hours,  but  repose  myself  only 


REIGN  OF  YU,  FOUNDER  OF  THE  HIA  DYNASTY.  205 

in  my  incessant  labors.  The  mountains  Hvva,  Yoh,  Tai,  and  Hang,  have 
been  the  beginning  and  end  of  my  enterprise ; when  my  labors  were 
completed,  I offered  a thanksgiving  sacrifice  at  the  solstice.  My  afflic- 
tion has  ceased ; the  confusion  in  nature  has  disappeared ; the  deep  cur- 
rents coining  from  the  south  flow  into  the  sea;  clothes  can  now  be 
made,  food  can  be  prepared,  all  kingdoms  will  be  at  peace,  and  we  can 
give  ourselves  to  continual  joy.”* 

Whatever  may  be  the  exact  date  of  this  legend,  it  is  confes- 
sedly a very  ancient  one,  perhaps  the  most  ancient  of  any  in  the 
world,  though  the  tombs  of  Beni-Hassan,  and  the  obelisk  at  Heli- 
opolis erected  by  Osirtasen,  are  nearly  as  old,  and  much  more 
trustworthy  in  regard  to  their  antiquity.  Chinese  historians  do 
not  discard  it,  nor  the  other  facts  recorded  of  the  princes  of  Hia, 
for  those  times  would  then  be  blank,  but  they  receive  them  with 
doubt.  Every  one  has  observed  how  tame  and  reasonable  are 
the  Chinese  annals  of  these  remote  times  compared  with  the  high 
wrought  poetical  legends  of  similar  periods  in  other  ancient 
states ; and  Klaproth  remarks,  that  “ this  defect  of  incident  is  a 
proof  in  favor  of  their  authenticity,  for  the  ancient  historians  of 
China  had  rather  own  the  absence  of  historical  monuments,  than 
to  suppose  such  imaginary  annals  as  the  Shah-nameh.  It  is  a 
new  evidence  of  the  exact  matter-of-fact  spirit  which  character- 
izes the  Chinese.” 

Without  exaggerating  the  importance  and  credibility  of  the 
Shu  King  and  other  ancient  Chinese  records,  they  can  be  receiv- 
ed as  the  writings  of  a very  remote  period ; and  while  their 
claims  to  trustworthiness  would  be  fortified  if  more  intimations 
had  been  given  of  the  manner  in  which  they  were  kept  during 
the  long  period  antecedent  to  the  era  of  Confucius,  they  still 
deserve  a more  respectful  consideration  than  some  modern  writers 
are  disposed  to  allow  them.  For  instance,  Davis  remarks,  “ Yu 
is  described  as  nine  cubits  in  height,  and  it  is  stated  that  the 
skies  rained  gold  in  those  days,  which  certainly  (as  Dr.  Morri- 
son observes)  lessens  the  credit  of  the  history  of  this  period.” 
Now,  without  laying  too  much  stress  upon  the  record,  or  the 
objections  against  it,  this  height  is  but  little  more  than  that  of 
Og  of  Bashan  ; and  if  kin,  here  called  gold,  be  translated  metal 
(which  it  can  just  as  well  be),  it  may  be  a notice  of  a meteoric 

* Pauthier’s  Chine,  p.  53;  J Hager’s  Inscription  of  Yu,  Paris,  1802. 


i06 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


shower  of  extraordinary  duration.  Let  these  venerable  writings 
be  investigated  in  a candid,  cautious  manner,  weighing  their  inter- 
nal evidence,  and  comparing  their  notices  of  those  remote  periods 
as  much  as  they  can  be  with  those  of  other  nations,  and  they  will 
illustrate  ancient  history  and  customs  in  no  slight  degree.  Mr. 
Murray  has  given  a synopsis  from  Mailla  of  what  is  recorded  of 
the  Hia  dynasty,  which  will  exhibit  the  matter  of  Chinese  history. 
It  is  here  introduced  somewhat  altered. 

"The  accession  of  Yu  forms  a remarkable  era  in  Chinese  history. 
The  throne,  which  hitherto  had  been  more  or  less  elective,  became  from 
this  period  hereditary  in  the  eldest  son,  with  only  those  occasional  and  vio- 
lent interruptions  to  which  every  despotic  government  is  liable.  The  na- 
tional annals,  too,  assume  a more  regular  and  authentic  shape,  the  reigns 
of  the  sovereigns  being  at  the  same  time  reduced  to  a probable  duration. 

“Yu  justly  acquired  alasting  veneration,  but  it  was  chiefly  by  his 
labors  under  his  two  predecessors.  When  he  himself  ascended  the 
throne,  age  had  already  overtaken  him  ; still  the  lustre  of  his  government 
was  supported  by  able  councillors,  till  it  closed  with  his  life  at  the  end  ot 
seven  years.  Many  of  the  grandees  wished,  according  to  former  prac- 
tice, to  raise  to  the  throne  Piyih,  his  first  minister,  and  a person  of  dis- 
tinguished merit ; but  regard  for  the  father,  in  this  case,  was  strength- 
ened by  the  excellent  qualities  of  his  son  Ki,  or  Ti  Ki  (i.  e.  the  emperor 
Ki),  and  even  Piyih  insisted  that  the  prince  should  be  preferred.  His 
ieign  of  nine  years  was  only  disturbed  by  the  rebellion  of  a turbulent 
subject,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Tai  Kang.  But  this  youth 
was  devoted  to  pleasure;  music,  wine,  and  hunting,  entirely  engrossed 
his  attention.  The  Chinese,  after  enduring  him  for  twenty-nine  years, 
dethroned  him,  and  his  brother,  Chung  Kang,  was  nominated  to  succeed, 
and  held  the  reins  of  government  for  thirteen  years  with  a vigorous  hand. 
He  was  followed  by  his  son,  Ti  Siang,  who,  destitute  of  the  energy  his 
situation  required,  gave  himself  up  to  the  advice  of  his  minister  Yeh,  and 
was  by  him,  in  connexion  with  his  accomplice,  Hantsu,  declared  inca- 
pable of  reigning.  The  usurper  ruled  for  seven  years,  wrheu  he  was  killed  ; 
and  the  rightful  monarch  collected  his  adherents  and  gave  battle  to 
Hantsu  and  the  son  of  Yeh,  in  the  endeavor  to  regain  his  throne.  Ti 
Siang  was  completely  defeated,  and  lost  both  his  crown  and  life ; the 
victors  immediately  marched  to  the  capital,  and  made  so  general  a mas- 
sacre of  the  family,  that  they  believed  the  name  and  race  of  Yu  to  be 
for  ever  extinguished. 

“ The  empress  Min,  however,  managed  to  escape,  and  fled  to  a remote 
city,  where  she  brought  forth  a son,  called  Shau  Kang  ; and  the  better 
to  conceal  his  origin,  she  employed  him  as  a shepherd  boy  to  tend  flocks. 
Reports  of  the  existence  of  such  a youth,  and  his  occupation,  at  length 


RECORDS  OF  THE  HIA  DYNASTY. 


207 


reached  the  ears  of  Hantsii,  who  sent  orders  to  bring  him,  dead  or  alive. 
The  royal  widow  then  placed  her  son  as  under-cook  in  the  household  of 
a neighboring  governor,  where  the  lad  soon  distinguished  himself  by  a 
spirit  and  temper  so  superior  to  this  humble  station,  that  the  master’s 
suspicions  were  roused,  and  obliged  him  to  disclose  his  name  and  birth. 
The  officer,  being  devotedly  attached  to  the  house  of  Yu,  not  only  kept 
the  secret,  but  watched  for  an  opportunity  to  reinstate  him,  and  mean- 
while gave  him  a small  government  in  a secluded  situation,  which  he 
prudently  administered.  Yet  he  was  more  than  thirty  years  old  before 
the  governor,  by  engaging  other  chiefs  in  his  interest,  could  assemble 
such  a force  as  might  justify  the  attempt  to  make  head  against  the  usur- 
per. The  latter  hastily  assembled  his  troops  and  led  them  to  the  attack, 
but  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  and  Shau  Kang,  with  his  mother, 
returned  with  acclamations  to  the  capital.  His  reign  is  reckoned  to 
have  been  sixty-one  years’  duration  in  the  chronology  of  the  time,  which 
no  doubt  includes  the  usurpation. 

“ The  country  was  ably  governed  by  Shau  Kang,  and  also  by  his  son, 
Ti  Chu,  who  ruled  for  seventeen  years ; but  the  succeeding  sovereigns, 
in  many  instances,  abandoned  themselves  to  indolence  and  pleasure,  and 
brought  the  kingly  name  into  contempt.  From  Ti  Chu  to  Kieh  Kwei, 
a space  of  222  years,  between  b.  c.  2040  and  1818,  few  records  remain 
of  the  nine  sovereigns,  whose  bare  names  succeed  each  other  in  the 
annals.  At  length  the  throne  was  occupied  by  Kieh  Kwei,  a prince, 
who  is  represented  as  having,  in  connexion  with  his  partner,  Mei-hi, 
practised  every  kind  of  violence  and  extortion,  in  order  to  accumulate 
treasure,  which  they  spent  in  unbridled  voluptuousness.  They  formed  a 
large  pond  of  wine,  deep  enough  to  float  a boat,  at  which  three  thousand 
men  drank  at  once.  It  was  surrounded,  too,  by  pyramids  of  delicate 
viands,  which  no  one,  however,  was  allowed  to  taste,  till  he  had  first  in- 
toxicated himself  out  of  the  lake.  The  drunken  quarrels  which  ensued 
were  their  favorite  amusement.  In  the  interior  of  the  palace  the  vilest 
orgies  were  celebrated,  and  the  venerable  ministers,  who  attempted  to 
remonstrate  against  these  excesses,  were  either  put  to  death  or  exiled. 
The  people  were  at  once  indignant  and  grieved  at  such  crimes,  which 
threatened  the  downfall  of  the  dynasty  ; and  the  discarded  statesmen  put 
themselves  under  the  direction  of  the  wise  I Yin,  and  advised  Ching- 
tang,  the  ablest  of  their  number,  and  a descendant  of  Hwangti,  to  assume 
the  reins  of  government,  assuring  him  of  their  support.  He  with  reluc- 
tance yielded  to  their  solicitations,  and  assembling  a force  marched 
against  Kieh  Kwei,  who  came  out  to  meet  him  at  the  head  of  a nume- 
rous army,  but  fled  from  the  contest  on  seeing  the  defection  of  his  troops, 
and  ended  his  days  in  despicable  obscurity,  after  occupying  the  throne 
fifty-two  years.”* 


Murray’s  China,  Vol.  I.,  pages  51 — 55 


20S 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Chinese  annals  are  generally  occupied  in  this  way  ; the  em- 
peror and  his  ministers  fill  the  whole  field  of  historic  vision ; 
little  is  recorded  of  the  condition,  habits,  arts,  or  occupations  of 
the  people,  who  are  merely  considered  as  attendants  of  the  mo- 
narch, which  is,  in  truth,  a feature  of  the  ancient  records  of  nearly 
all  countries  and  people.  Monarchs  controlled  the  chronicles  of 
their  reigns,  and  their  vanity  led  them  to  represent  the  people  as 
only  made  to  fill  up  the  background  of  their  own  stately  dignity 
and  acts. 

The  Shang  dynasty  began  b.  c.  1766,  or  about  120  years  be- 
fore the  Exodus,  and  maintained  an  unequal  sway  over  the  feudal 
states  composing  the  empire  for  a period  of  644  years.  Its  first 
monarch,  Chingtang,  is  reputed  to  have  paid  religious  worship  to 
Shangti,  the  Supreme  Ruler,  under  which  name,  perhaps,  the 
true  God  was  intended.  On  account  of  a severe  drought  of 
seven  years’  duration,  this  monarch  is  reported  to  have  prayed, 
saying,  “ Do  not,  on  account  of  the  negligence  of  Ourself,  a sin- 
gle individual,  destroy  the  lives  of  the  people.”  With  regard  to 
his  own  conduct,  he  blamed  himself  in  six  particulars,  and  his 
words  were  not  ended  when  the  rain  descended  copiously.  The 
chronicles  of  the  Shang  dynasty  resemble  those  of  the  Hia,  in 
being  little  more  than  a mere  succession  of  the  names  of  the 
sovereigns,  interspersed  here  and  there  with  notices  of  some  re- 
markable events  in  the  natural  and  political  world.  Luxurious 
and  despised  princes  alternate  with  vigorous  and  warlike  ones  who 
commanded  respect,  and  the  condition  of  the  state  measurably 
corresponded  with  the  character  of  the  monarchs,  the  feudal 
barons  sometimes  increasing  in  power  and  territory  by  encroach- 
ing  on  their  neighbors,  and  then  suffering  a reduction  from  some 
new  state.  The  names  of  twenty-eight  princes  are  given,  the 
accounts  of  whose  reigns  are  not  quite  so  meagre  as  those  of  the 
dukes  of  Edom  in  Genesis,  but  the  slight  notices  would  be  more 
interesting,  if  the  same  confidence  could  be  reposed  in  them. 

The  bad  sovereigns  occupy  more  room  in  these  fasti  than  the 
good  ones,  and  the  palm  of  wickedness  is  given  to  Chau-sin,  and 
his  partner  Tan-ki,  with  whom  the  dynasty  ended.  The  wars 
which  broke  out  during  this  dynasty  were  numerous;  nearly 
every  succession  was  followed  by  a state  of  anarchy.  The 
droughts,  famines,  and  other  calamities,  which  occurred,  were 
likewise  frequent,  and  were  attended  by  dreadful  omens  and 


PRINCES  OF  THE  SHANG  DYNASTY. 


209 


fearful  sights  ; this  fancied  correlation  between  natural  casualties 
and  political  convulsions,  is  a feature  running  through  Chinese 
history,  and  grows  out  of  the  peculiar  position  of  the  monarch 
as  the  vicegerent  of  heaven.  The  people  seem  to  have  looked 
more  to  their  local  masters  than  to  their  lord  paramount,  for  oc- 
cupation and  protection,  ranging  themselves  under  their  separate 
banners,  as  they  were  bidden.  The  History  Made  Easy  speaks 
of  the  twenty-fifth  monarch,  Wu-yih,  as  the  most  wicked  of  them 
all.  “ Having  made  his  images  of  clay  in  the  shape  of  human 
beings,  dignified  them  with  the  name  of  gods,  overcome  them  at 
gambling,  and  set  them  aside  in  disgrace,  he  then,  in  order  to 
complete  his  folly,  made  leathern  bags  and  filled  them  with  blood, 
and  sent  them  up  into  the  air,  exclaiming,  when  his  arrows  hit 
them,  and  the  blood  poured  down,  ‘ I have  shot  heaven,’  mean- 
ing, I have  killed  the  gods.”  This  is  the  first  instance  of  idolatry 
recorded,  and  if  trustworthy,  the  natural  inference  is,  that  it 
was  not  till  fifteen  centuries  after  the  settlement  of  the  country 
that  the  Chinese  first  worshipped  images,  for  Wu-yih  began  to 
reign  b.  c.  1198,  or  four  years  after  Samson’s  death. 

The  names  of  Chausin  and  Tank!  are  synonymous  in  the  Chi- 
nese annals  for  everything  cruel  and  licentious,  as  Nero  and 
Messalina  are  in  Roman  history,  and  the  Book  of  Records  dwells 
largely  on  their  horrible  crimes  and  debauchery,  apparently  in 
order  to  exculpate  the  conduct  of  Wu  wang,  who  dethroned  them, 
and  founded  the  Chau  dynasty.  Chausin  is  said  one  winter’s 
morning  to  have  seen  a few  women  walking  bare-legged  on  the 
banks  of  a stream  collecting  shell-fish,  and  ordered  their  legs  to 
be  cut  off,  that  he  might  see  the  marrow  of  persons  who  could 
resist  cold  so  fearlessly.  The  heart  of  one  of  his  reprovers  was 
also  brought  him,  in  order  to  see  wherein  it  differed  from  that  of 
cowardly  ministers.  Many  acts  of  this  nature  alienated  the 
hearts  of  the  people,  until  Wan  wang,  the  leader  of  a state  in 
the  north-west  of  China,  united  the  principal  men  against  his  mis- 
rule ; but  dying,  bequeathed  his  crown  and  power  to  his  son,  Wu 
wang,  who  overcame  Chausin  in  one  engagement.  He,  feeling 
the  hopelessness  of  his  cause,  retired  to  his  palace,  and  burned 
himself  with  all  his  treasures,  like  another  Sardanapalus,  though 
his  immolation  preceded  the  Assyrian’s  by  more  than  three 
centuries. 

Wu  wang,  the  Martial  king,  the  founder  of  the  Chau  dynasty, 


210 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


his  father,  Wan  wang,  and  his  brother,  duke  Chau,  are  among 
the  most  distinguished  men  of  antiquity,  celebrated  by  their  bio- 
grapher Confucius  for  their  erudition,  integrity,  patriotism,  and 
inventions.  Wan  wang,  the  prince  of  Chau,  was  prime  minister 
to  Taiting,  the  grandfather  of  Chausin,  but  was  imprisoned  for  his 
fidelity.  His  son  obtained  his  liberation,  and  the  sayings  and 
acts  of  both  occupy  a large  space  in  the  Shu  King.  Duke  Chau 
is  reputed  to  have  invented  the  compass,  about  b.  c.  1112,  though 
others  ascribe  it  to  Hwangti,  and  survived  his  brother  to  become 
the  director  of  the  councils  of  his  nephew.  No  period  of  ancient 
Chinese  history  is  more  celebrated  among  the  people  than  that  of 
the  founding  of  this  dynasty,  chiefly  because  of  the  high  charac- 
ter of  its  leading  men,  who  were  regarded  by  Confucius  as  the 
impersonations  of  everything  wise  and  noble.  Wu  w'ang  is  re- 
presented as  having  invoked  the  assistance  of  Shangti  in  his 
designs,  and,  when  he  w^as  successful,  returned  thanks,  and  of- 
fered prayers  and  sacrifices.  He  removed  the  capital  from  the 
province  of  Honan  to  the  present  Singan  fu,  in  Shensi,  w'here  it 
remained  for  a long  period.  This  prince  committed  a great  poli- 
tical fault  in  dividing  the  empire  into  petty  states,  thus  destroying 
the  ancient  pure  monarchy,  and  leaving  himself  only  a small 
portion  of  territory  and  power,  which  were  quite  insufficient,  in 
the  hands  of  a weak  prince,  to  maintain  either  the  state  or  au- 
thority due  the  ruling  sovereign.  The  number  of  states  at  one 
time  was  one  hundred  and  twenty-five,  at  another  forty-one,  and, 
in  the  time  of  Confucius,  about  600  years  after  the  establishment 
of  the  dynasty,  fifty-tw'o,  all  quarrelling  among  themselves. 
From  about  b.  c.  700,  the  imperial  name  and  power  lost  the  al- 
legiance and  respect  of  the  feudal  princes,  and  gradually  became 
contemptible.  Its  nominal  sway  extended  over  the  country  lying 
north  of  the  Yangtsz’  kiang,  the  regions  on  the  south  being  occu- 
pied by  tribes  of  whom  no  intelligible  record  has  been  preserved. 

The  duration  of  the  three  dynasties,  the  Hia,  Shang,  and  Chau, 
comprises  a very  important  period  in  the  history  of  the  world, 
extending  from  b.  c.  2205  to  249,  from  the  time  w'hen  Terah 
dw'elt  in  Charran,  and  the  sixteenth  dynasty  of  Theban  kings 
ruled  in  Egypt,  down  to  the  reigns  of  Antiochus  Soter  and 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  the  translation  of  the  Septuagint. 

I.  The  Hia  Dynasty,  founded  by  Yu  the  Great,  existed  439 
years,  dowi  to  b.  c.  1766,  under  seventeen  monarchs,  the  re- 


FOUNDERS  AND  DURATION  OF  THE  CHAU  DYNASTY.  211 


cords  of  whose  reigns  are  very  brief.  Among  the  contemporary 
events  of  importance  are  the  call  of  Abraham,  in  the  year  b.  c. 
2093,  Jacob’s  flight  to  Mesopotamia  in  1916,  Joseph’s  elevation 
in  Egypt  in  1885,  and  his  father’s  arrival  in  1863. 

II.  The  Shang  Dynasty  began  with  Chingtang,  and  continued 
644  years,  under  twenty-eight  sovereigns,  down  to  b.  c.  1122. 
This  period  was  characterized  by  wars  among  rival  princes,  and 
the  power  of  the  sovereign  depended  chiefly  upon  his  persona 
character.  The  principal  contemporary  events  were  the  Exodus 
of  the  Israelites  in  1648,  their  settlement  in  Palestine  in  1608, 
judgeship  of  Othniel,  1564,  of  Deborah,  1406,  of  Gideon,  1359, 
of  Samson,  1202,  and  death  of  Samuel  in  1122. 

III.  The  Chau  Dynasty  began  with  Wu  wang,  and  continued 
for  873  years,  under  thirty-five  monarchs,  down  to  B.  c.  249,  the 
longest  of  any  recorded  in  history.  The  sway  of  many  of  these 
was  little  more  than  nominal,  and  the  feudal  states  increased  or 
diminished  according  to  the  vigor  of  the  monarch,  or  the  ambition 
of  the  princes.  The  contemporary  events  of  these  eight  centu- 
ries are  too  numerous  to  particularize.  The  accession  of  Saul  in 
1110  ; of  David,  1070  ; of  Rehoboam,  990  ; taking  of  Samaria, 
719;  of  Jerusalem,  586 ; death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  561 ; accession 
of  Cyrus,  and  return  of  the  Jews,  551  ; battle  of  Marathon,  490; 
accession  of  Alexander,  235,  &c.  The  conquest  of  Egypt  by 
Alexander  in  322,  brought  the  31st  and  last  dynasty  of  her  kings 
to  an  end,  the  first  of  which  had  begun  under  Menes  about  b.  c. 
2715,  or  22  years  after  Shinnung  began  to  reign. 

Among  the  feudal  states  under  the  house  of  Chau,  that  of 
Tsin  on  the  north-west  had  long  been  the  most  powerful,  occu- 
pying nearly  a fifth  of  the  country,  and  its  inhabitants  forming  a 
tenth  of  the  whole  population.  One  of  the  princes,  called  Chau- 
siang  wang,  carried  his  encroachments  into  the  acknowledged 
imperial  possessions,  and  compelled  its  master,  Tungchau  kiun, 
the  last  monarch,  to  humble  himself  at  his  feet.  Although,  in 
fact,  master  of  the  whole  empire,  he  did  not  take  the  title,  but 
left  it  to  his  son  Chwangsiang  wang,  who  exterminated  the  blood 
royal,  and  ended  the  Chau  dynasty,  yet  lived  only  three  years 
in  possession  of  the  supreme  power. 

The  son  carried  on  his  father’s  successes  until  he  had  reduced 
all  the  petty  states  to  his  sway.  lie  then  took  the  name  of  Chi 
hwangti  (i.  e.  First  emperor)  if  the  Tsin  dynasty,  and  set  him- 


212 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


self  to  regulate  his  conquests  and  establish  nis  authority  by  se- 
curing to  his  subjects  a better  government  than  had  been  experi- 
enced during  the  feudal  times.  He  divided  the  country  into  36 
provinces,  over  which  he  placed  governors,  and  went  throughout 
them  all  to  see  that  no  injustice  was  practised. 

This  monarch,  who  has  been  called  the  Napoleon  of  China,  was 
one  of  those  extraordinary  men  who  turn  the  course  of  events, 
and  give  an  impress  to  subsequent  ages ; Klaproth  gives  him  a 
high  character  as  a prince  of  energy  and  skill,  but  the  native 
historians  detest  his  name  and  acts.  It  is  recorded  that  at  his 
new  capital,  Hienyang,  on  the  banks  of  the  Hwai,  he  construct- 
ed a palace  exactly  like  those  of  all  the  kings  who  had  submitted 
to  him,  and  ordered  that  all  the  precious  furniture  of  each, 
and  those  persons  who  had  inhabited  them,  should  be  transported 
to  it,  and  everything  rearranged.  The  whole  occupied  an  im- 
mense space,  and  the  various  parts  communicated  with  each 
other  by  a magnificent  colonnade  and  gallery.  He  made  pro- 
gresses through  his  dominions  with  a splendor  hitherto  unknown, 
built  public  edifices,  opened  roads  and  canals  to  facilitate  inter- 
course and  trade  between  the  various  provinces,  and  repressed 
the  incursions  of  the  Huns,  driving  them  into  the  wilds  of  Mon- 
golia. In  order  to  keep  them  out  effectually,  he  conceived  the 
idea  of  extending  and  uniting  the  walls  which  the  princes  of  some 
of  the  northern  states  had  erected  on  their  frontier  into  one  grand 
wall,  stretching  across  the  empire  from  the  sea  to  the  desert. 
This  gigantic  undertaking  was  completed  in  ten  years,  but  not 
until  his  family  had  been  destroyed,  from  which  it  may  be  in- 
ferred, that  this  mode  of  protecting  the  country  commended 
itself  to  the  nation,  which  joined  heartily  in  it,  and  that  this  stu- 
pendous work  was  not  forced  out  of  the  labor  of  unwilling 
subjects ; whether  it  was  so  or  not,  it  has  made  the  name  of  Chi 
hwangti  celebrated  throughout  the  world,  however  ineffectual  it 
was  to  preserve  his  frontiers. 

The  vanity  of  the  new  monarch  led  him  to  endeavor  to  destroy 
all  records  written  anterior  to  his  own  reign,  that  he  might  be  by 
posterity  regarded  as  the  first  emperor  of  the  Chinese  race. 
Orders  were  issued  that  every  book  should  be  burned,  and  espe- 
cially the  writings  of  Confucius  and  Mencius,  upon  the  feudal 
states  of  Chau,  whose  remembrance  he  wished  to  blot  out.  This 
strange  command  was  executed  to  such  an  extent  that  many  of 


TSIN,  THE  BUILDER  OF  THE  GREAT  WALL. 


213 


the  Chinese  literati  believe  that  not  a perfect  copy  of  the  classical 
works  escaped  destruction,  and  the  texts  were  only  recorded  by 
rewriting  them  from  the  memories  of  old  scholars,  a mode  of 
reproduction  that  does  not  appear  so  singular  to  a Chinese  as  it 
does  to  us  ; and,  perhaps,  if  the  same  literary  tragedy  should  be 
reenacted,  thousands  of  persons  could  easily  be  found  in  China 
who  could  rewrite  from  memory  the  text  and  commentary  of 
their  nine  classical  works.  “ Nevertheless,”  as  Klaproth  re. 
marks,  “ they  were  not  in  fact  all  lost ; for,  in  a country  where 
writing  is  so  common,  it  was  almost  impossible  that  all  the  copies 
of  works  universally  respected  should  be  destroyed,  especially  at 
a time  when  the  material  on  which  they  were  written  was  very 
durable,  being  engraved  with  a stylet  on  bamboo  tablets,  or 
traced  upon  them  with  dark  colored  varnish.”  The  destruction 
was  no  doubt  as  nearly  complete  as  possible,  and  not  only  were 
many  works  entirely  des>royed,  but  a shade  of  doubt  thereby 
thrown  over  the  accuracy  of  others,  and  the  records  of  the 
ancient  dynasties  rendered  suspicious  as  well  as  incomplete. 
Not  only  were  the  books  sought  after  to  be  destroyed,  but  nearly 
five  hundred  literati  were  buried  alive,  in  order  that  no  one  might 
remain  to  reproach,  in  their  writings,  the  First  Emperor  with 
having  committed  so  barbarous  and  insane  an  act. 

The  dynasty  of  Tsin,  founded  in  such  cruelty  and  blood,  did 
not  long  survive  the  death  of  Chi  hwangti,  for  his  son  was  unable 
to  maintain  his  rule  over  the  half  subdued  feudal  chieftains,  and 
after  a nominal  reign  of  seven  years,  he  was  overcome  by  Liu 
Pang,  a soldier  of  fortune,  who,  having  been  employed  by  one 
of  the  chiefs  as  commander  of  his  forces,  used  them  to  support 
his  own  authority  when  he  had  taken  possession  of  the  capital. 
Under  the  name  of  Kautsu,  he  became  the  founder  of  the  Han 
dynasty,  and  his  accession  is  regarded  as  the  commencement  of 
modern  Chinese  history.  The  number  and  character  of  its 
heroes  and  literati  are  superior  to  most  other  periods,  and  to  this 
day  the  term  son  of  Han  is  one  of  the  favorite  names  by  which 
the  Chinese  call  themselves. 

The  first  fourteen  princes  of  this  dynasty  reigned  in  Shensi, 
but  Kwangwu  removed  the  capital  to  Lohyang  in  Honan,  for 
which  reason  he  and  his  successors  are  called  the  Eastern  Han 
dynasty.  During  the  reign  of  Ping  ti  (or  the  emperor  Peace) 
the  Prince  of  Peace,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  born  in  Judea,  a 


*214 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


remarkable  coincidence  which  has  often  attracted  notice.  During 
the  reign  of  Ming  ti,  a.  d.  65,  a deputation  was  sent  westward  to 
India,  where  they  found  the  doctrines  and  disciples  of  Budha, 
which  they  brought  to  China,  and  by  their  means  disseminated 
and  maintained  this  faith  in  the  popular  belief  of  the  Chinese, 
and  spread  it  eastward  into  Japan.  This  monarch  and  his  suc- 
cessor, Chang  ti,  penetrated  with  their  armies  as  far  westward  as 
the  Caspian  sea,  dividing  and  overcoming  the  various  tribes  on 
the  confines  of  the  desert,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Celestial  Mts.,  and 
extending  the  limits  of  the  monarchy  in  that  direction  further 
than  they  are  at  present.  The  Chinese  sway  w'as  maintained 
with  varied  success  until  towards  the  third  century,  and  seems 
to  have  had  a mollifying  effect  upon  the  nomads  of  those  regions. 
In  these  distant  expeditions  the  Chinese  heard  of  the  Romans,  of 
whom  their  authors  speak  in  the  highest  terms:  “Everything 
precious  and  admirable  in  all  other  countries,”  say  they,  “ comes 
from  this  land.  Gold  and  silver  money  is  coined  there ; ten  of 
silver  are  worth  one  of  gold.  Their  merchants  trade  by  sea  w ith 
Persia  and  India,  and  gain  ten  for  one  in  their  traffic.  They  are 
simple  and  upright,  and  never  have  two  prices  for  their  goods; 
grain  is  sold  among  them  very  cheap,  and  large  sums  are 
embarked  in  trade.  Whenever  ambassadors  come  to  the  fron- 
tiers they  are  provided  with  carriages  to  travel  to  the  capital, 
and  after  their  arrival,  a certain  number  of  pieces  of  gold  are 
furnished  them  for  their  expenses.”  This  description,  so  charac- 
teristic of  the  shopkeeping  Chinese,  reminds  one  of  the  accounts 
given  of  the  Chinese  themselves  by  some  western  authors. 
Klaproth  thinks  that  intercourse  w'as  maintained  between  the 
tw'o  governments  and  their  subjects  until  the  eleventh  century. 

The  period  between  the  overthrow  of  the  Han  dynasty,  A.  D.  190, 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Eastern  Tsin,  a.  d.  317,  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  in  Chinese  history,  from  the  variety  of 
characters  w'hich  the  troubles  of  the  times  developed.  The 
distractions  of  this  period  are  described  in  the  History  of  the 
Three  States,  but  this  entertaining  work  cannot  be  regarded  as 
much  better  than  a historical  novel.  The  bare  mention  of  the 
succession  of  dynasties,  and  the  names  of  sovereigns,  unless 
connected  with  events  of  interest,  is  too  brief  to  afford  much 
entertainment,  w'hile  the  recital  of  the  strifes  attending  the 
overthrow'  of  one  family  and  the  establishment  of  another,  the 


SUCCESSION  FROM  THE  FOURTH  TO  THE  NINTH  DYNASTIES.  215 

names  and  actions  of  the  leaders  in  these  turmoils,  and  the 
detail  of  their  defeats  and  successes,  are  not  subjects  of  such 
interest  that  many  wish  to  burden  their  memories  with  them.  A 
very  brief  recital  of  their  succession  will  therefore  be  sufficient 
for  reference. 

IV.  The  Tsin  Dynasty  is  computed  to  end  with  Chwangsiang 
by  the  authors  of  the  History  Made  Easy,  and  to  have  existed 
only  three  years,  from  b.  c.  249  to  246. 

V.  The  After  Tsin  Dynasty  is  sometimes  joined  to  the  pre- 
ceding, but  Chi  hwangti  regarded  himself  as  the  First  monarch, 
and  began  a new  house,  which,  however,  lasted  only  forty-four 
years,  from  b.  c.  246  to  202.  The  commotions  in  the  furthest 
East  during  this  period  were  not  less  destructive  of  life  than  the 
wars  in  Europe  between  the  Carthaginians  and  Romans,  and  the 
Syrians,  Greeks,  and  Egyptians. 

VI.  VII.  The  Han  and  Eastern  Han  dynasties.  Liu  Pang  took 
the  title  of  Han  for  his  dynasty,  after  the  name  of  his  principality, 
and  his  family  swayed  the  Middle  Kingdom  from  b.  c.  202  to  a.  d. 
221,  under  twenty-six  monarchs.  The  removal  of  the  capital  to 
Lohyang  is  assigned  as  the  reason  of  the  division  into  two  dynas- 
ties. During  this  bright  period  of  Chinese  history,  the  consoli- 
dation of  the  western  world  under  the  Roman  emperors,  and  their 
conquests  in  Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia,  with  the  advent  of  Christ 
and  establishment  of  his  church,  render  the  period  of  great  interest 
to  the  general  historian. 

VIII.  The  After  Han  Dynasty  began  a.  d.  211,  and  con- 
tinued 44  years  under  two  princes  to  a.  d.  265.  The  country 
was  divided  into  three  principalities,  called  Wei,  Wu,  and  Shuh  ; 
the  first  comprised  all  northern  China,  and  was  the  most  power- 
ful ; the  second  held  the  present  region  of  Chehkiang  and  part  of 
Kiangsu,  and  the  prince  of  the  third  had  his  capital  at  Chingtu  fu 
in  Sz’chuen. 

IX.  The  Tsin  Dynasty  was  founded  by  a general  in  the  em- 
ploy of  Hau  of  the  last  house,  and  seated  himself  on  the  throne 
of  his  master,  a.  d.  265  ; he  possessed  only  the  western  and 
southern  part  of  the  country,  and  waged  continual  war  with  the 
Huns  and  petty  states  which  still  opposed  his  sway.  Four  em- 
perors of  this  house  held  their  sway  at  Lohyang  during  52  years, 
till  a.  D.  317.  The  Huns  maintained  their  sway  in  Shensi,  until 
a.  d.  352,  under  the  name  of  the  Chau  dynasty. 


210 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


X.  The  Eastern  Tsin  is  the  same  house  as  the  last,  but 
Yuen  ti  having  moved  his  capital  from  Lohyang  to  Nanking, 
his  successors  are  distinguished  as  the  Eastern  Tsin.  Eleven 
princes  reigned  during  a period  of  103  years,  down  to  A.  D.  450. 
Budhism  was  the  chief  religion  at  this  time,  and  the  doctrines 
of  Confucius  were  highly  esteemed;  “children  of  concubines, 
priests,  old  women,  and  nurses,  administered  the  government,” 
says  the  indignant  annalist.  During  this  period,  Constantine 
moved  the  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  328,  and  the  nations 
of  northern  Europe  under  Attila  invaded  Italy  in  410. 

XI.  The  Sung,  or  Northern  Sung,  Dynasty  was  founded  by  Liu 
Yu,  who  commanded  the  armies  of  Tsin,  and  gradually  subdued 
all  the  opposing  states.  Displeased  at  the  weakness  of  his  mas- 
ter, Ngan  ti,  he  caused  him  to  be  strangled,  and  placed  his 
brother  Rung  ti  upon  the  throne,  who,  fearing  a like  fate  abdi- 
cated the  empty  crown,  and  Liu  Yu  became  monarch  under  the 
name  of  Kautsu,  a.  d.  420.  Eight  princes  held  the  throne  till 
a.  D.  479,  when  Siau  Tauching,  duke  of  Tsi,  the  prime  minister 
of  the  weak  successors  of  Liu  Yru,  recompensed  them  as  their 
ancestor  had  those  of  Tsin. 

XII.  Tsi  Dynasty.  The  new  monarch  took  the  name  of  Kau 
ti  or  High  emperor,  but  enjoyed  his  dignity  only  four  years. 
Four  princes  succeeded  him,  the  last  of  whom,  Ho  ti,  was  be- 
sieged in  his  capital  by  a faithless  minister,  assisted  by  the 
prince  of  Liang,  who  overthrew  the  dynasty,  a.  d.  502,  after  a 
duration  of  23  years. 

XIII.  Liang  Dynasty.  The  first  emperor,  Wu  ti,  reigned  48 
years,  and  reduced  most  of  his  opponents  ; he  was  so  great  a de- 
votee of  Budhism  that  he  retired  to  a monastery  like  Charles  V., 
but  being  persuaded  to  resume  his  crown,  employed  his  time  in 
teaching  those  doctrines  to  his  assembled  courtiers.  Three  suc- 
cessors occupied  the  throne,  the  last  of  whom,  King  ti,  was  kill- 
ed, A.  D.  557,  after  surrendering  himself,  by  the  general  of  the 
troops,  who  then  seized  the  crown. 

XIV.  Chin  Dynasty.  Three  brothers  reigned  most  of  the 
time  this  house  held  its  sway.  During  this  period,  and  that  of 
the  three  preceding  families,  the  kingdom  of  Wei  ruled  over  all 
the  northern  parts  of  China  from  a.  d.  38G  to  534,  under  eleven 
monarchs,  when  it  was  violently  separated  into  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Wei,  and  other  smaller  states.  One  of  the  sovereigns 


SUCCESSION  TO  THE  SIXTEENTH  OR  TANG  DYNASTY.  217 

had  given  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Yang  Kien,  the  prince  of 
Sui,  one  of  his  ministers,  who,  gradually  extending  his  influence, 
took  possession  of  the  throne  of  the  north  and  all  the  petty  prin- 
cipalities, and  then  extended  his  conquests  southward,  overthrew 
the  imbecile  scion  of  Chin  at  Nanking,  and  once  more  reunited 
all  China  under  his  hand,  a.  d.  589,  after  it  had  been  divided 
nearly  four  centuries. 

XV.  Sui  Dynasty.  The  successors  of  Kautsu,  as  Yang  Kien 
called  himself,  fell  into  the  same  idleness  and  vice  as  their  pre- 
decessors of  other  dynasties,  and  after  holding  the  reins  of 
government  for  31  years,  the  last  one,  called  Rung  t£,  resigned 
in  favor  of  Li  Yuen,  a.  d.  618,  a descendant  of  the  house  of 
Liang,  named  the  prince  of  Tang. 

XVI.  Tang  Dynasty.  This  celebrated  line  of  princes  began 
its  sway  in  peace,  and  during  the  287  years  they  held  the  throne 
China  was  probably  the  most  civilized  country  on  earth,  and  the 
darkest  days  of  the  West,  when  Europe  was  wrapped  in  the  igno- 
rance and  degradation  of  the  Middle  Ages,  formed  the  brightest 
era  of  the  East.  Li  Chimin,  the  son  of  the  founder,  was  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  monarchs  in  the  Chinese  annals ; like  Ha- 
run  A1  Raschid,  he  was  famed  alike  for  his  wisdom  and  noble- 
ness, his  conquests  and  good  government,  his  temperance,  cultivat- 
ed tastes,  and  patronage  of  literary  men.  While  still  prince  of 
Tang,  he  contributed  greatly  to  his  father’s  elevation  in  place  of 
the  imbecile  princes  of  the  family  of  Sui,  and  to  the  extension  of 
his  sway  over  the  regions  of  Central  Asia.  When  the  house  of 
Tang  was  fully  acknowledged,  and  all  rival  aspirants  overcome, 
the  capital  was  removed  from  Lohyang  back  to  Sj-ngan  in  Shensi, 
and  everything  done  to  compose  the  disordered  country,  and 
reunite  the  distracted  state  under  a regular  and  vigorous  adminis- 
tration. Feeling  himself  unequal  to  all  the  cares  of  his  new 
office,  Kautsu  resigned  the  yellow  in  favor  of  his  son,  who  took 
the  title  of  Tai-tsung,  a.  d.  627,  and  still  further  extended  his  vic- 
torious arms.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  establish  schools,  and 
institute  a system  of  literary  examinations  ; he  ordered  a com- 
plete and  accurate  edition  of  all  the  classics  to  be  published 
under  the  supervision  of  the  most  learned  men  in  the  empire,  and 
honored  the  memory  of  Confucius  with  special  ceremonies  of 
respect. 

He  drew  up  a code  of  laws  for  the  direction  of  his  high  offi. 

VOL.  it.  11 


218 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


cers  in  their  judicial  functions,  and  made  progresses  through  his 
dominions  to  inspect  the  condition  of  the  people.  During  his 
reign,  the  limits  of  the  empire  were  extended  over  all  the  Turk- 
ish tribes  lying  west  of  Kansuh.  and  south  of  the  Tien  shan  as 
far  as  the  Caspian  sea,  which  were  placed  under  four  satrapies, 
or  residencies,  those  of  Kuche,  Pisha  or  Khoten,  Harashar,  and 
Kashgar,  as  their  names  are  at  present.  West  of  the  last,  many 
smaller  tribes  submitted,  and  rendered  a partial  subjection  to  the 
emperor,  who  arranged  them  into  sixteen  governments  under  the 
management  of  a governor-general  over  their  own  chieftains. 
His  frontiers  reached  from  the  borders  of  Persia,  the  Caspian 
sea,  and  the  Altai  of  the  Kirghis  stepp,  along  those  mountains  to 
the  north  side  of  Cobi  eastward  to  the  Inner  Hingan.  Sogdiana 
and  part  of  Khorassan,  and  the  regions  around  the  Hindu-kush, 
also  obeyed  him.  The  rulers  of  Nipal  and  Magadha  or  Bahar  in 
India  sent  their  salutations  by  their  ambassadors,  and  the  Greek 
, emperor  Theodosius  sent  an  envoy  to  Si-ngan  in  643  carrying 
T presents  of  rubies  and  emeralds,  as  did  also  the  Persians.  The 
Nestorian  missionaries  also  presented  themselves  at  court.  Tai- 
tsung  received  them  with  respect,  and  heard  them  rehearse  the 
leading  tenets  of  their  doctrine ; he  ordered  a temple  to  be 
erected  at  his  capital,  and  had  some  of  their  sacred  books  trans- 
lated for  his  examination,  though  there  is  no  evidence  now 
remaining  that  any  portion  of  the  Bible  was  done  into  Chinese 
at  this  time. 

Near  the  close  of  his  life,  Taitsung  undertook  an  expedition 
against  Corea,  but  the  conquest  of  that  country  was  completed  by 
his  son  after  his  death.  During  his  reign,  his  life  was  attempted 
several  times,  once  by  his  own  son,  but  he  was  preserved  from 
these  attacks,  and  died  after  a reign  of  twenty-three  years,  deeply 
lamented  by  a grateful  people.  The  Chinese  accounts  state  that 
the  foreign  envoys  resident  at  his  court  cut  off  their  hair,  some 
of  them  disfigured  their  faces,  bled  themselves,  and  sprinkled  the 
blood  around  the  bier  in  testimony  of  their  grief.  Whatever 
may  have  been  the  truth  in  this  respect,  many  proofs  exist  of 
the  distinguished  character  of  this  monarch,  and  that  the  high 
reputation  he  enjoyed  during  his  lifetime  was  a just  tribute  to 
his  excellences ; he  will  favorably  compare  with  Akbar,  Kang- 
hi,  Charlemagne,  or  Harun  A1  Raschid. 

Taitsung  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Kautsung,  whose  indolent 

H/lw  £v.c~V*  VU.tfv'V 

.<$  ft,  'Vv'S  I t l/vt-'V* 


{•>  e 


TAITSUNG  AND  THE  EMPRESS  WU  OF  TANG. 


219 


imbecility  appeared  the  more  despicable  after  his  father’s  vigor, 
but  his  reign  fills  a large  place  in  Chinese  story,  from  the  extra- 
ordinary career  of  his  empress,  Wu  Tsihtien,  or  YVu  hau  as  she 
is  called,  who  by  her  blandishments  obtained  entire  control  over 
him.  The  character  of  this  woman  has,  no  doubt,  suffered  much 
from  the  bad  reputation  native  historians  have  given  her,  but 
enough  can  be  gathered  from  their  accounts  to  show  that  with 
all  her  cruelty,  she  understood  how  to  maintain  the  authority  of 
the  crown,  repress  foreign  invasions,  quell  domestic  sedition,  and 
provide  for  the  wants  of  the  people.  Introduced  to  the  hareem 
of  Taitsung  at  the  age  of  14,  she  was  sent  at  his  death  to  the 
retreat  where  all  his  women  were  condemned  for  the  rest  of  their 
days  to  honorable  imprisonment ; while  a member  of  the  palace, 
Kautsung  had  been  charmed  with  her  appearance,  and  having 
seen  her  at  one  of  the  state  ceremonies  connected  with  the  ances- 
tral worship,  brought  her  back  to  the  palace.  His  queen  Wang- 
shl  also  favored  his  attentions  in  order  to  draw  them  off  from 
another  rival,  but  the  charms  of  Wu  Tsihtien  soon  obtained  entire 
sway  over  the  monarch,  and  united  them  both  against  her;  she 
managed  to  fill  the  principal  offices  with  her  friends,  and  by  a 
series  of  manoeuvres,  supplanted  them  both,  and  became  empress. 
One  means  she  took  to  excite  suspicion  against  her  majesty  was, 
on  occasion  of  the  birth  of  her  first  child,  after  the  empress  had 
visited  it,  and  before  Kautsung  came  in  to  see  his  offspring,  to 
strangle  it  and  charge  the  crime  upon  her  majesty,  which  led  to 
her  trial,  degradation,  and  imprisonment,  and  ere  long  to  her  death. 

As  soon  as  she  became  empress,  Wu  began  gradually  to  as- 
sume more  and  more  authority,  until,  long  before  the  emperor’s 
death,  she  engrossed  the  whole  management  of  affairs,  and  at  his 
demise  openly  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  which  she 
wielded  for  twenty-one  years  with  no  weak  hand.  Her  generals 
extended  the  limits  of  the  empire,  and  her  officers  carried  into 
effect  her  orders  to  alleviate  the  miseries  of  the  people.  Her 
cruelty  vented  itself  in  the  murder  of  all  who  opposed  her  will, 
even  to  her  own  sons  and  relatives ; and  her  pride  was  rather 
exhibited  than  gratified  by  her  assuming  the  titles  of  queen  of 
heaven,  holy  and  divine  ruler,  holy  mother,  and  divine  sovereign. 
When  she  was  disabled  by  age,  her  son  Chungtsung,  supported 
by  some  of  the  first  men  of  the  land,  asserted  his  claim  to  the 
throne,  and  by  a palace  conspiracy  succeeded  In  removing  her 


220 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


to  her  own  apartments,  where  she  died  aged  81  years.  Her 
character  has  been  blackened  in  histories  and  popular  tales,  and 
her  conduct  held  up  as  an  additional  evidence  of  the  evil  of 
allowing  women  to  meddle  with  governments.* 

A race  of  twenty  monarchs  swayed  the  sceptre  of  the  house 
of  Tang,  but  after  the  demise  of  the  empress  Wu  Tsih- 
tien,  none  of  them  equalled  Taitsung,  and  the  Tang  dynasty  at 
last  succumbed  to  ambitious  ministers  lording  over  its  imbecile 
sovereigns.  In  the  reign  of  Hiuen-tsung,  about  the  year  722, 
the  population  of  the  fifteen  provinces  is  said  to  have  been 
52,884,818.  The  last  three  or  four  emperors  exhibited  the 
usual  marks  of  a declining  house,  and  the  general  of  Chautsung 
rose  against  his  master,  and  destroyed  him  a.  d.  903,  and  soon 
after  compelled  his  son  Chau-siuen  ti,  to  abdicate,  a.  d.  907. 

XVII.  After  Liang  Dynasty.  Numerous  competitors  arose 
against  the  regicide,  and  the  new  emperor  was  unable  to  extend 
his  sway  beyond  the  provinces  of  Honan  and  Shantung.  After 
a short  reign  of  six  years,  he  was  killed  by  his  brother  Liang 
Chu-tien,  who,  on  his  part,  fell  under  the  attack  of  a Turkish 
general,  and  ended  this  dynasty,  a.  d.  923,  after  a duration  of 
sixteen  years. 

XVIII.  After  Tang  Dynasty.  The  conqueror  called  himself 
Chwang-tsung,  and  his  dynasty  Tang,  as  if  in  continuation  of 
that  line  of  princes,  but  this  mode  of  securing  popularity  was 
unsuccessful.  Like  many  of  the  Roman  emperors,  he  was  killed 
by  his  troops,  who  chose  a successor,  and  his  grandson,  unable 
to  resist  his  enemies,  burned  himself  in  his  palace.  A.  D.  936,  and 
ended  the  dynasty  after  continuing  thirteen  years. 

XIX.  After  Tsin  Dynasty.  The  Kitan,  or  Tartars  of  Liau- 
tung,  who  had  assisted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  last  dynasty,  com- 
pelled the  new  monarch  to  subsidize  them,  at  his  accession  a.  d. 
936  ; but  his  nephew  Chuh  ti  who  succeeded  him,  refusing  to  pay 
the  shameful  tribute,  was  removed  a.  d.  947  by  them,  which 
ended  this  house,  after  eleven  years. 

XX.  After  Han  Dynasty.  The  Tartars  now  endeavored  to 
subdue  the  whole  country,  but  were  repulsed  by  a loyal  general 
who  assumed  the  yellow,  and  called  his  dynasty  after  the  re- 
nowned house  of  Han  ; he  and  his  son  held  sway  four  years, 
till  a.  d.  951,  and  then  were  cut  off. 

* Chiaese  Repository,  Vol.  III.  page  543. 


SUCCESSION  TO  THE  TWENTY-THIRD  DYNASTY. 


221 


XXI.  After  Chau  Dynasty.  Ko  Wei,  the  successful  aspiram 
to  the  throne,  maintained  his  seat,  but  died  in  three  years,  leav- 
ing his  power  to  an  adopted  son,  Shitsung,  whose  vigorous  rule 
consolidated  his  still  unsettled  sway.  His  early  death,  and  th-' 
youth  of  his  son,  decided  his  generals  to  bestow  the  sceptre  upor 
Chau  Kwangyu,  one  of  their  own  number,  lately  appointed  tutoi 
to  the  infant  monarch,  which  closed  the  After  Chau  dynasty  A.  d. 
960,  after  a brief  duration  of  nine  years.  These  shortlived 
houses  between  a.  d.  907-960  are  known  in  Chinese  history  as 
the  Wu  tai,  or  Five  Dynasties.  During  this  period,  Europe  was 
distracted  by  the  wars  of  the  Normans  and  Saracens,  and  learning 
there  was  at  a low  ebb. 

XXII.  Sung  Dynasty  began  a.  d.  970,  and  maintained  its 
power  over  the  whole  empire  under  nine  sovereigns  for  157  years, 
till  a.  d.  1127.  The  mode  in  which  its  founder  was  made  head 
of  the  state,  reminds  one  of  the  way  in  which  the  Praetorian 
guards  elevated  their  chiefs  to  the  throne  of  the  Caesars  : after 
the  military  leaders  had  decided  upon  their  future  sovereign, 
they  sent  messengers  to  announce  to  him  his  new  honor,  who 
found  him  drunk  with  wine,  and  “ before  he  had  time  to  reply, 
the  yellow  robe  was  already  thrown  over  his  person.”  His  suc- 
cessors were  unable  to  maintain  themselves  against  the  Kin 
Tartars,  who  compelled  them  to  pay  tribute  from  time  to  time, 
and  at  last  drove  them  south  of  the  Yellow  river,  a.  d.  1118, 
and  kept  possession  of  part  or  all  that  region  under  ten  princes 
until  a.  d.  1235. 

XXIII.  Southern  Sung  Dynasty  forms  part  of  the  preceding 
in  reality,  but  from  the  loss  of  the  northern  half  of  the  country, 
is  thus  designated.  From  a.  d.  1127  to  1280,  under  nine  em- 
perors, its  princes  continually  gave  way  to  the  power  of  Kublai 
khan  and  his  fierce  Mongols,  whom  Litsung,  about  1245,  called  in 
to  help  him  against  the  Kin,  until  Ti  Ping,  the  last  scion  of  the 
house,  drowned  himself  with  his  adherents  off  the  mouth  of  the 
Pearl  river  near  Canton.  The  subjugation  of  the  southern  parts 
of  the  country  was  attended  with  gi-eat  slaughter,  “ the  blood  of 
the  people  flowing  in  sounding  torrents,”  according  to  native 
chroniclers.  Marco  Polo  details  many  of  the  particulars  of  the 
conquest,  adding  “ that  the  number  of  inhabitants  is  so  great  that 
no  person  can  count  them,  and  if  they  were  men-at-arms,  those 
of  the  province  of  Manji  would  conquer  the  whole  world  ; they 


222 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


are  not  so,  however,  but  prudent  merchants.”  The  term  Manji 
here  applied  to  the  southern  Chinese,  was  used  as  a contemptuous 
epithet,  and  is  probably  derived  from  Man-i  or  Man-tsz’,  “ south- 
rons,” and  has  been  since  transferred  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Archipelago. 

XXIV.  The  Yuen  Dynasty  was  founded  by  Kublai,  who  soon 
succeeded  in  reducing  his  extensive  dominions  to  order,  gaining 
the  good  opinion  of  all  his  subjects  by  his  equable  rule  and  dis- 
posal of  offices.  He  was  a vigorous  and  magnificent  prince,  and 
had  the  advantage  of  having  his  acts  and  splendor  related  by 
Marco  Polo.  The  Grand  canal,  which  was  dug  during  his  reign, 
is  a lasting  monument  of  his  sagacity  and  enlightened  policy. 
The  Mongols  retained  their  power  under  the  reign  of  Ching- 
tsung,  or  Timur  khan,  a grandson  of  Ivublai,  and  Wu-tsung  or 
Genesek  khan,  a nephew  of  the  former,  but  their  successors  met 
with  opposition,  or  were  destroyed  by  treachery.  The  offices 
were  also  filled  with  Mongols,  without  any  regard  to  the  former 
mode  of  conferring  rank  according  to  literary  qualifications, 
and  the  native  Chinese  began  to  be  thoroughly  dissatisfied  with  a 
sway  in  which  they  had  no  part.  The  last  one,  Ching-tsung  or 
Tocatmur  khan,  came  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  gave 
himself  up  to  pleasure,  his  eunuchs  and  ministers  dividing  the 
possessions  and  offices  of  the  Chinese  among  themselves  and  their 
adherents.  This  conduct  aroused  his  subjects,  and  Chu  Yuen- 
chang,  a plebeian  by  birth,  and  formerly  a priest,  raised  the  standard 
of  revolt,  and  finally  expelled  the  Mongols,  a.  d.  1368,  after  a 
duration  of  89  years.  Like  most  of  the  preceding  dynasties,  the 
new  one  established  itself  on  the  misrule,  luxury,  and  weakness 
of  its  predecessors;  the  people  submitted  to  a vigorous  rule,  as 
one  which  exhibited  the  true  exposition  of  the  decrees  of  heaven, 
and  upheld  its  laws  and  the  harmony  of  the  universe ; but  a 
weak  sovereign  plainly  evinced  his  usurpation  of  the  “ divine 
utensil,”  and  unfitness  for  the  post,  by  the  disorders,  famines, 
piracies,  and  insurrections  which  afflicted  the  mismanaged  state, 
and  which  were  all  taken  by  ambitious  leaders  as  evidences  of 
a change  in  the  choice  of  heaven,  and  reasons  for  their  carrying 
out  the  new  selection  which  had  fallen  on  them.  Amid  all  the  re- 
volutions in  China,  none  have  been  founded  on  principle ; they  were 
mere  mutations  of  masters,  attended  with  more  or  less  destruc- 
tion of  life,  and  no  better  appreciation  of  the  rights  of  the  subject 


THE  YUEN  OR  MONGOL,  AND  MING  DYNASTIES. 


223 


or  the  powers  of  the  rulers.  Nor  without  some  knowledge  of  the 
high  obligations  man  owes  his  Maker  and  himself,  is  it  easy  to 
see  whence  the  sustaining  motive  of  free  religious  and  political 
institutions  can  be  derived. 

XXV.  The  Ming.  i.  e.  Bright  Dynasty.  The  character  of 
Hungwu,  as  Chu  Yuenchang  called  himself  on  his  accession, 
has  been  well  drawn  by  Remusat,  who  accords  him  a high  rank 
for  the  vigor  and  talents  manifested  in  overcoming  his  enemies 
and  cementing  his  power.  He  established  his  capital  at  Kiang- 
ning  fu,  or  Nanking,  on  the  Yangtsz’  kiang,  and  after  a reign 
of  thirty  years,  transmitted  the  sceptre  to  his  grandson,  Kienwan, 
a youth  of  sixteen.  Yungloh  his  son,  dissatisfied  with  this  ar- 
rangement, overcame  his  nephew  and  seized  the  crown  after  five 
years,  and  removed  the  capital  to  Shuntien  fu,  or  Peking  in 
Chihli.  This  prince  is  distinguished  for  the  code  of  laws  framed 
under  his  auspices,  which  has,  with  some  modifications  and  ad- 
ditions, ever  since  remained  as  the  basis  of  the  administration. 
During  the  reign  of  Kiahtsing,  the  Portuguese  came  to  China,  and 
in  that  of  Wanleih,  about  1580,  the  Jesuits  gained  an  entrance 
into  the  country.  In  his  time,  too,  the  eastern  Tartars,  whom  the 
Mongols  had  driven  away,  again  became  numerous  and  trouble- 
some, and  took  possession  of  the  northern  frontiers.  The  first 
chieftain  of  the  Manchus  who  attained  celebrity  was  Tienming, 
who  in  1618  published  a manifesto  of  his  designs  against  the 
house  of  Ming,  in  which  he  announced  to  heaven  the  seven 
things  he  was  bound  to  revenge.  These  consisted  of  petty  op- 
pressions upon  persons  passing  the  frontiers,  assisting  his  enemies, 
violating  the  oath  and  treaty  of  peace  entered  into  between  the 
two  rulers,  and  killing  his  envoys.  The  fierce  nomad  had  already 
assumed  the  title  of  emperor,  and  “vowed  to  celebrate  the  funeral 
of  his  father  with  the  slaughter  of  200,000  Chinese.”  Tienming 
overran  the  north-eastern  parts  of  China,  and  committed  unsparing 
cruelties  upon  the  people  of  Liautung,  but  died  in  1627,  before  he 
had  satisfied  his  revenge,  leaving  it  and  his  army  to  his  son 
Tientsung. 

The  Chinese  army  fought  bravely,  though  unsuccessfully, 
against  the  warlike  Manchus,  whose  chief  not  only  strove  to 
subdue,  but  endeavored  by  promises  and  largesses,  to  win  the 
troops  from  their  allegiance.  The  apparently  audacious  attempt 
of  this  small  force  to  subdue  the  Chinese,  was  assisted  by  nume- 


224 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


rous  bodies  of  rebels,  who,  like  wasps,  sprung  up  in  various 
parts  of  the  country,  the  leaders  of  each  asserting  his  claims  to 
the  throne,  and  all  of  them  rendering  their  common  country  an 
easier  prey  to  the  invader.  One  of  them,  called  Li  Tsz’ching, 
attacked  Peking,  and  the  last  emperor  Hwai-tsung,  feeling  that 
he  had  little  to  hope  for  after  the  loss  of  his  capital,  and  had 
already  estranged  the  affections  of  his  subjects  by  his  ill  conduct, 
first  stabbed  his  daughter  and  then  hung  himself,  in  1643,  and 
ended  the  race  of  Hungwu,  after  276  years.  The  usurper  re- 
ceived the  submission  of  most  of  the  eastern  provinces,  but  the 
Chinese  general,  Wu  Sankwei,  in  command  of  the  army  on  the 
north,  refused  to  acknowledge  him,  and  making  peace  with  the 
Manchus,  invoked  the  aid  of  Tientsung  in  asserting  the  cause  of 
the  rightful  claimant  to  the  throne.  This  was  willingly  agreed 
to,  and  the  united  army  marched  to  Peking,  and  speedily  entered 
the  capital,  whereupon  the  Manchus  declared  themselves  the 
rulers  of  the  empire.  Tientsung  dying,  his  son  Shunchi,  who 
succeeded  him  in  1644,  is  regarded  as  the  first  emperor. 

XXVI.  The  Tsing,  i.  e.  Puke  Dynasty.  During  the  eighteen 
years  he  sat  upon  the  throne,  Shuncln  and  his  officers  subdued 
most  of  the  northern  and  central  provinces,  but  the  maritime 
regions  of  the  south  held  out  against  the  invaders,  and  one  of  the 
leaders  by  means  of  his  fleets  carried  devastation  along  the  whole 
coast.  The  spirit  of  resistance  was  in  some  parts  crushed,  and 
in  others  exasperated  by  an  order  for  all  Chinese  to  adopt  the 
national  Tartar  mode  of  shaving  the  front  of  the  head,  and  braid- 
ing the  hair  in  a long  queue,  as  a sign  of  submission.  Those  who 
gave  this  order,  as  Davis  remarks,  must  have  felt  themselves 
very  strong  before  venturing  so  far  upon  the  spirit  of  the  con- 
quered, and  imposing  an  outward  universal  badge  of  submission 
upon  all  classes  of  the  people.  “ Many  are  the  changes  which 
may  be  made  in  despotic  countries,  without  the  notice  or  even  the 
knowledge  of  the  larger  portion  of  the  community  ; but  an  entire 
alteration  in  the  national  costume  affects  every  individual  equally, 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  and  is  perhaps  of  all  others  the 
most  open  and  degrading  mark  of  conquest.”  This  order  was 
resisted  by  many,  who  chose  to  lose  their  heads  rather  than  part 
with  their  hair,  but  the  mandate  was  gradually  enforced,  and  ha9 
now  for  about  two  centuries  been  one  of  the  distinguishing  marks 
of  a Chinese,  though  to  this  day  the  natives  of  Fuhkien  wear  a 


THE  TWENTY-SIXTH  OR  TSING  DYNASTY.  225 

kerchief  around  their  head  to  conceal  it.  The  inhabitants  of  this 
province  and  of  Kwangtung  held  out  the  longest  against  the  in- 
vaders, and  under  Ching  Chilung  and  his  son  Ching  Chingkung 
or  Koshinga,  molested  the  coast  to  such  a degree  that  the  empe- 
ror Kanghi  ordered  all  the  people  to  retire  three  leagues  inland, 
in  order  to  prevent  this  heroic  man  from  molesting  them.  This 
command  *vas  generally  obeyed,  and  affords  an  instance  of  the 
singular  mixture  of  power  and  weakness  seen  in  many  parts  of 
Chinese  legislation  ; for  it  might  be  supposed  that  a government 
which  could  compel  its  maritime  subjects  to  leave  their  houses  and 
towns  and  go  into  the  country  at  great  loss,  might  have  easily 
armed  and  equipped  a fleet  to  have  defended  those  towns  and 
homes.  Koshinga,  finding  himself  unable  to  make  any  serious 
impression  upon  the  stability  of  the  new  government,  went  to 
Formosa,  drove  the  Dutch  out  of  their  settlement,  and  made  him- 
self master  of  the  island. 

Shunchi  died  in  1661,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Kanghi, 
who  was  eight  years  old  at  his  accession,  and  remained  under 
guardians  till  he  was  fourteen,  when  he  assumed  the  reins  of 
government,  and  swayed  the  power  vested  in  his  hands  with  a 
prudence,  vigor,  and  success,  that  have  rendered  him  more  cele- 
brated than  almost  any  other  Asiatic  monarch.  During  his  un- 
usually long  reign  of  sixty-one  years  (the  longest  of  any  in 
Chinese  annals,  except  Taimau  of  the  Shang  dynasty,  B.  c.  1637- 
1562),  he  extended  his  dominions  to  the  borders  of  Kokand  and 
Badakshan  on  the  west,  and  to  the  confines  of  Tibet  on  the  south- 
west, simplifying  the  administration  and  consolidating  his  poWei 
in  every  part  of  his  vast  dominions.  To  his  regulations,  perhaps, 
are  mainly  owing  the  unity  and  peace  which  the  empire  has  ex- 
hibited for  more  than  a century,  and  which  has  produced  tho 
impression  abroad  of  the  unchangeableness  of  Chinese  institu- 
tions and  character.  This  may  be  ascribed,  chiefly,  to  his  inde- 
fatigable application  to  all  affairs  of  state,  to  his  judgment  and 
penetration  in  the  choice  of  officers,  his  economy  in  regard  to  him- 
self, and  liberal  magnificence  in  everything  that  tended  to  the 
good  of  his  dominions,  and  his  sincere  desire  to  promote  the  hap- 
piness of  his  people  by  a steady  and  vigorous  execution  of  the 
laws,  and  a continual  watchfulness  over  the  conduct  of  his  high 
officers.  These  qualities  have  perhaps  been  unduly  extolled  by 
his  foreign  friends  and  biographers,  the  Romish  missionaries,  and 
11* 


226 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


if  their  expressions  are  taken  in  their  widest  sense,  as  we  under 
stand  them,  they  do  elevate  him  too  high  ; he  is  to  be  compared, 
not  with  Alfred,  William  III.,  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  other 
European  kings,  but  with  other  Chinese  and  Asiatic  princes,  few 
of  whom  equal  him.  The  principal  events  of  his  long  reign  are  the 
conquest  of  the  Eleuths,  and  subjugation  of  several  tribes  lying  on 
the  north  and  south  of  the  Celestial  mountains  ; an  embassy  across 
the  Russian  possessions  in  1713  to  the  khan  of  the  Tourgouth  Tar- 
tars, preparatory  to  their  return  to  the  Chinese  territory  ; the  settle- 
ment of  the  northern  frontier  between  himself  and  the  czar,  of  which 
Gerbillon  has  given  a full  account ; the  survey  of  the  empire  by 
the  Romish  missionaries  ; and  the  publication  of  a dictionary  of 
the  language.  In  many  things,  he  showed  himself  liberal 
towards  foreigners,  and  the  country  was  thrown  open  to  their 
commerce  for  many  years. 

His  son  Yungching  succeeded  in  1722  ; during  his  reign  he  en- 
deavored to  suppress  Christianity  and  restore  the  ancient  usages, 
which  had  somewhat  fallen  into  desuetude  during  his  father’s 
sway,  and  generally  seems  to  have  held  the  sceptre  to  the  benefit 
of  his  subjects.  Yungching  is  regarded  as  an  usurper,  and  is 
said  to  have  changed  the  figure  four  to  fourteen  on  the  billet  of 
nomination,  himself  being  the  fourteenth  son,  and  the  fourth  being 
absent  in  Mongolia,  where  he  was  soon  after  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned, and  subsequently  died  in  a palace  near  Peking  ; whether 
he  was  put  to  death  or  not  is  uncertain,  but  Chinese  annals  sel- 
dom record  any  domestic  quarrels,  and  butcheries  of  the  sons 
and  nephews  of  a deceased  monarch  by  rival  aspirants.  Kien- 
lung  succeeded  Yungching  in  1736,  and  proved  himself  no  un- 
worthy descendant  of  his  grandfather  Kanghi ; like  him  he  had 
the  singular  fortune  to  reign  sixty  years,  and  for  most  of  that 
period  in  peace.  Some  local  insurrections  disturbed  the  general 
tranquillity,  principally  among  the  aborigines  in  Formosa  and 
Kweichau,  and  in  an  unprovoked  attack  upon  Birmah  his  armies 
sustained  a signal  defeat,  and  were  obliged  to  retreat.  The  incur- 
sions of  the  Nipalese  into  Tibet  induced  the  grand  lama  to  apply 
to  him  for  assistance,  and  in  doing  so,  he  contrived  to  establish  a 
guardianship  over  the  whole  country,  and  place  bodies  of  troops 
in  all  the  important  positions,  so  that  in  effect  he  annexed  that 
vast  region  to  his  empire,  but  continued  the  lamas  in  the  internal 
administration. 


REIGNS  OK  KANGH1,  KIENLUNG,  AND  KIAKING.  in 

During  his  long  reign,  Kienlung  received  embassies  from  the 
Russians,  Dutch,  and  English,  by  which  the  character  of  the 
Chinese,  and  the  nature  of  their  country,  became  better  known  to 
western  nations.  These  embassies  greatly  strengthened  the  im- 
pression on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  of  their  superiority  to  all 
other  nations,  for  they  looked  upon  them  as  acknowledgments  >n 
the  part  of  the  governments  who  sent  them  of  their  allegiance  to 
the  court  of  Peking.  The  presents  were  regarded  as  tribute,  the 
ambassadors  as  deputies  from  their  masters  to  acknowledge  the 
supremacy  of  the  emperor,  and  the  requests  they  made  for  trade 
as  rather  another  form  of  receiving  presents  in  return,  than  a 
mutual  arrangement  for  a trade  equally  beneficial  to  both.  Kien- 
lung abdicated  the  throne  in  favor  of  his  fifth  son,  and  retired 
with  the  title  of  supreme  emperor,  while  his  son,  Kiaking,  had  that 
of  emperor. 

The  character  of  this  prince  was  dissolute  and  superstitious, 
and  his  reign  of  25  years  was  much  disturbed  by  secret 
combinations  against  the  government,  and  by  insurrections  and 
pirates  in  and  about  the  empire.  A conspiracy  against  him  broke 
out  in  the  palace  in  1813,  where  he  was  for  a time  in  some 
danger,  but  was  rescued  by  the  courage  of  his  guard  and  family. 
A fleet  of  about  600  piratical  junks  under  Ching  Yih  and  Chang 
Pau,  infested  the  coasts  of  Kwangtung  for  several  years,  and 
were  at  last  put  down  in  1810,  by  the  provincial  government 
taking  advantage  of  internal  dissensions  between  the  leaders. 
The  principal  scene  of  the  exploits  of  this  fleet  was  the  estuary 
of  the  Pearl  river,  whose  numerous  harbors  and  channels  afforded 
shelter  and  escape  to  their  vessels  when  pursued  by  the  imperi- 
alists, while  the  towns  upon  the  islands  were  plundered,  and  the 
inhabitants  killed  if  they  resisted.  The  internal  government  of 
this  audacious  band  was  ascertained  by  two  Englishmen,  Mr. 
Turner  and  Mr.  Glasspoole,  who  at  different  times  fell  into  their 
hands,  and  were  obliged  to  accompany  them  in  their  marauding 
expeditions.  To  so  great  a height  did  they  proceed,  that  the 
governor  of  Canton  went  to  Macao  to  reside,  and  entered  into 
some  arrangements  with  the  Portuguese  for  assistance  in  suppress- 
ing them  ; the  piratical  fleet  was  attacked  and  blockaded  for  ten 
days  by  the  combined  forces,  but  without  much  damage  ; and 
there  was  little  prospect  of  overcoming  them,  had  not  rivalry 
between  the  two  leaders  gone  so  far  as  to  result  in  a severe  en- 


229 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


gagement  and  loss  on  both  sides.  The  conquered  pirate  soon 
after  made  his  peace  with  the  government,  and  the  victor  in  time 
followed  the  same  course.  The  story  of  those  disturbed  times  to 
this  day  affords  a frequent  subject  for  the  tales  of  old  people  in 
that  region,  and  the  same  waters  are  still  infested  by  the  “ foam  to 
the  sea,”  as  the  Chinese  term  these  freebooters. 

Tne  reign  of  Kiaking  ended  in  1820,  and  by  his  will  his  second 
son  was  appointed  to  succeed  him,  and  took  the  name  of  Tau- 
kwang.  Thus  far  his  administration  has  been  attended  with  a 
continual  succession  of  wars,  insurrections,  and  troubles,  in  one 
quarter  or  another  of  his  vast  dominions,  though  none  of  them 
threatened  the  overthrow  of  the  government,  until  the  war  with 
England  commenced  in  1840.  A rebellion  in  Turkestan  in 
1828  was  attended  with  great  cruelty  and  treachery  on  the  part 
of  the  Chinese,  and  its  leader  Jehangir  was  murdered  in  viola- 
tion of  the  most  solemn  promises.  An  insurrection  in  Formosa, 
and  a rising  among  the  mountaineers  of  Kwangtung,  in  1830-32, 
were  put  down  more  by  money  than  by  force,  but  as  peace 
is  both  the  end  and  evidence  of  good  government  in  China, 
the  authorities  are  not  very  particular  how  it  is  brought  about. 
Still,  so  far  as  can  be  judged  from  the  imperfect  data  of  native 
historians  of  former  days,  compared  with  the  observations  of  fo- 
reigners at  present,  there  is  little  doubt  that  this  enormous  mass 
has  been  better  governed  by  the  Manchus,  than  under  the  princes 
of  the  Ming  dynasty  ; there  has  been  more  vigor  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  government  and  less  palace  favoritism  and  intrigue  in 
the  appointment  of  officers,  more  security  of  life  and  property 
from  the  exactions  of  local  authorities,  bands  of  robbers,  or  pro- 
cesses of  law  ; — in  a word,  the  Manchu  sway  lias  well  developed 
the  industry  and  resources  of  the  country,  of  which  the  popula- 
tion, loyalty,  and  content  of  the  people  are  the  best  evidences. 

The  sovereigns  of  the  Ming  and  Tsing  dynasties,  being  more 
frequently  mentioned  in  history  than  those  of  former  races,  are 
here  given,  with  the  length  of  their  reigns.  The  succession  of 
the  emperors  of  all  the  dynasties  is  given  in  GutzlafPs  History 
of  China,  and  in  Du  Halde’s  China. 


emperors  of  last  two  dynasties. 


229 


KWOH  HIaU, 
OR  REIGNING 
TITLE. 

MIA V HIAU, 
OR  TEMPLE 
TITLE. 

z 7 
< ~ ~ 

5 ^ a 

s - 

r z 

b i : 

z ° a 
a x 

CONTEMPORARY  MONARCHS. 

].  Hnngwa, 

Taitsu, 

1368 

30 

Tamerlane,  Richard  II.,  Robert  II. 

2.  Kienwan, 

Kienwan  ti, 

1398 

5 

Manuel-Paleoloeus,  Henry  IV.  of  Eng 

3.  Yungloh, 

Taitsung, 

1403 

22 

James  I.,  Henrv  V.,  Martin  V. 

4.  Hur.ghi. 

.lint  un" 

1425 

1 

\ Amuraih  II..  Henry  VI..  Charles  VII 

5.  Siuentih. 

Siuentsung, 

1426 

10 

t Albert  II.,  Cosmo  de  Medicis. 

6.  Chingtung, 

Vingt-ung, 

1436 

21 

James  II.,  Fred  III.  of  A us..  Nich.  V. 

7.  Kingtti, 

Kinsti. 

1457 

8 

Mahomet  11..  Edward  IV..  Sixtus  IV. 

8.  Chinghwa, 

Hientsung, 

1465 

23 

James  1 1 r..  Ferd.  Ac  Isabella,  Louis  XI. 

9.  Hungchi, 

Hiaut'  img, 

1488 

18 

B jazet  II..  Junes  IV.  Henry  VII. 

1U.  Chingtih, 

Wuts  ung, 
Shilling, 

1 506 

16 

James  V..  Henrv  VIII.,  Charles  V. 

11.  Kiahtsimr, 

1522 

45 

Solvm  n II..  Mary,  Philip  II.,  Henry'll 

12.  Lungking, 

Muhtsung, 

1567 

6 

Selim  11.,  Elizabeth.  Gregory  III. 

13.  Wanleih, 

Shintsung, 

1573 

47 

James  !..  Henrv  IV..  Louis  XIII. 

14.  Taichang, 

Kwangt?ung, 

1620 

1 

Othman  II..  Philip  IV.,  Gregory  XV. 

15.  Tienki, 

Hitsung. 

1621 

7 

Amurath  IV..  Charles  I..  Urban  VIII. 

16.  Tsungching,  Hwaitsung, 

1628 

16 

Innocent  X.,  Frederick  the  Great. 

1.  Shunchi, 

Chans  hwangti. 

1644 

IS 

Mahomet  IV..  Cromwell,  Louis  XIV. 

2.  Kanghi. 

Jin  hwangti. 

1662 

61 

Charles  II.,  Clement  IX..  Sobiesky. 

3.  Yungching, 

Hien  hwangti. 

1723 

13 

Mahomet  V..  George  II..  Louis  XV. 

4.  Kienlung, 

Shun  hwangti, 

1736 

60 

Osman  III..  George  III.,  Clement  XIV. 

5.  Kiaking,  Jui  hvvangti, 

6.  Tankwang,  now  reigning, 

1796 

1621 

25 

Selim  III.,  Napoleon.  Fred.  VVm.  11. 
Mahmoud,  George  IV.,  Louis  XVIII. 

The  whole  number  of  sovereigns  in  the  twenty-six  dynasties, 
from  Yu  the  Great  to  Taukwang  is  235,  or  243  commencing  with 
Fuhhi,  during  a period  of  4699  years,  from  b.  c.  2852  to  a.  d. 
1847 ; this  gives  to  each  dynasty  a duration  of  180  years,  and 
to  each  monarch  an  average  of  19j  years.  If  the  computation 
commence  with  Yu,  the  time  comprised  in  the  Chinese  monar- 
chies gives  162  years  to  each  dynasty,  and  an  average  of  17J 
years  to  each  reign.  From  b.  c.  2715,  when  Menes  founded  the 
first  Egyptian  dynasty,  to  b.  c.  331,  a period  of  2384  years,  Mane- 
tho  reckons  thirty-one  dynasties,  and  378  kings,  which  is  77  years 
to  each  family,  and  only  6j  years  to  each  reign.  In  England, 
during  the  771  years  from  William  the  Conqueror  in  1066,  to 
Victoria,  in  1837,  there  have  been  34  sovereigns,  averaging  22§ 
years  to  each  reign  ; and  about  the  same  average  holds  in  other 
European  states. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


Religion  of  the  Chinese. 

The  real  religious  belief  and  practices  of  a heathen  people  are 
hard  to  describe  intelligibly.  Men  naturally  exercise  much 
ft’eedom  of  thought  in  such  matters,  and  feel  the  authority  of  their 
fellow-men  over  their  minds  irksome  to  bear  ; and  though  it  is 
comparatively  easy  to  describe  religious  ceremonies  and  festi- 
vals, the  real  belief  of  a people,  especially  a pagan  people, — that 
which  constitutes  their  religion,  their  trust  in  danger  and  guide 
in  doubt,  their  prompter  to  present  action  and  hope  for  future 
reward, — is  not  quickly  examined,  nor  easily  described.  The 
want  of  a well  understood  and  acknowledged  standard  of  doctrine, 
and  the  degree  of  latitude  each  one  allows  himself  in  his  ob- 
servance of  rites,  or  belief  of  dogmas,  the  diverse  views  and 
imperfect  knowledge  of  the  writer,  and  misapprehension  of  the 
effect  this  tenet  or  that  ceremony  has  upon  the  heart  of  the  wor- 
shipper, both  in  writer  and  reader,  also  tend  still  further  to  embar- 
rass the  subject.  This  at  least  is  the  case  with  the  Chinese,  and 
notwithstanding  what  has  been  written  upon  their  religion,  no 
one  has  very  satisfactorily  elucidated  the  true  nature  of  their 
belief,  and  the  intent  of  their  ritual.  The  reason  isowing  partly 
to  the  indefinite  ideas  of  the  people  themselves  upon  the  character 
of  their  ceremonies,  and  their  consequent  inability  to  give  a clear 
notion  of  them  ; and  partly  to  the  variety  of  observances  found  in 
distant  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  discordant  opinions  enter- 
tained by  those  belonging  to  the  same  sect,  so  that  what  is  seen 
in  one  district  is  sometimes  utterly  unknown  in  the  next  province, 
and  the  opinions  of  one  man  are  laughed  at  by  another. 

Before  proceeding,  two  negative  features  of  Chinese  religion 
deserve  to  be  noticed,  which  distinguish  it  from  the  faith  of  most 
other  pagan  nations.  These  are,  the  absence  of  human  sacrifices, 
and  the  non-deification  of  vice.  The  prevalence  of  human  offer- 
ings in  almost  all  ages  of  the  world,  and  among  nations  of  differ- 


REDEEMING  FEATURES  OF  CHINESE  RELIGION. 


231 


ent  degrees  of  civilization,  not  only  widely  separated  in  respect 
of  situation  and  power,  but  flourishing  in  ages  remote  from  each 
other,  and  having  little  or  no  mutual  influence,  has  often  been 
noticed.  Human  sacrifices  are  offered  to  this  day  in  some  parts 
of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Polynesia,  which  the  extension  of  Christian 
instruction  and  power  has,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  greatly  reduced  and 
almost  accomplished  the  extinction  of ; but  no  record  of  the 
sacrificial  immolation  of  man  by  his  fellow,  “ offering  the  fruit  of 
his  body  for  the  sin  of  his  soul,”  has  been  found  in  Chinese  annals, 
in  such  a shape  as  to  carry  the  conviction  that  it  formed  part  of  the 
religious  belief,  or  ceremonial  practice  of  the  people,  although 
the  Scythian  custom  of  burying  the  servants  and  horses  of  a 
deceased  prince  or  chieftain  with  him,  was  perhaps  observed 
before  the  days  of  Confucius,  and  may  have  been  occasionally 
done  since  his  time.  Still  this  feature,  negative  though  it  be, 
stands  in  strong  contrast  with  the  appalling  destruction  of  human 
life  for  religious  reasons,  still  existing  among  the  tribes  of  west- 
ern and  central  Africa,  and  recorded  as  having  been  sanctioned 
among  the  Aztecs  and  Egyptians,  the  Hindus  and  Carthaginians, 
and  other  ancient  nations,  not  excepting  the  Jews  and  Greeks. 

The  other,  and  still  more  remarkable  trait  of  Chinese  idolatry 
is,  that  there  is  no  deification  of  sensuality,  which,  in  the  name 
of  religion,  could  shield  and  countenance  those  licentious  rites 
and  orgies,  that  enervated  the  minds  of  worshippers,  and  polluted 
their  hearts,  in  so  many  other  pagan  countries.  No  Venus  or 
Lakshmi  occurs  in  the  list  of  Chinese  goddesses  ; no  weeping 
for  Thammuz,  no  exposure  in  the  temple  of  Mylitta,  or  obscene 
rites  of  the  Durga-puja,  have  ever  been  required  or  sanctioned 
by  Chinese  priests  ; nor  are  nautch  girls  as  in  Indian  temples, 
or  courtesans  as  at  Corinth,  kept  in  their  sacred  buildings.  Their 
speculations  upon  the  dual  powers  of  the  yin  and  yang  have  never 
degenerated  into  the  vile  worship  of  the  linga  and  yoni  of  the 
Hindus,  or  of  Amun-kem,  as  pictured  on  the  ruins  of  Thebes. 
Although  they  are  a licentious  people  in  word  and  deed,  the 
Chinese  have  not  endeavored  to  sanctify  vice,  and  lead  the  vota- 
ries of  pleasure,  falsely  so  called,  further  down  the  road  of  ruin, 
by  making  its  path  lie  through  a temple,  and  under  the  protection 
of  a goddess.  Nor  does  their  mythology  teem  with  the  disgust- 
ing relations  of  the  amours  of  their  deities,  which  render  the  reli- 
gious stories  of  the  Hindus  and  Greeks  so  revolting ; on  the 


232 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


contrary,  they  exalt  and  deify  chastity  and  seclusion  as  much  as 
the  Romanists  do,  as  a means  of  bringing  the  soul  and  body  nearer 
to  the  highest  excellence.  Vice  is  kept  out  of  sight,  as  well  as 
out  of  religion,  in  a great  degree,  and  it  may  be  safely  said,  that 
no  such  significant  sign  as  has  been  uncovered  at  Pompeii,  with 
the  inscription  Hie  habitat  felicitas,  was  ever  exhibited  in  a Chi- 
nese city. 

If  the  irresponsible  authority  of  the  Governor  of  the  world  be 
acknowledged  in  the  establishment  and  removal  of  the  kingdoms 
of  the  earth,  and  his  declared  detestation  of  these  things  be  re- 
garded as  one  reason  for  destroying  those  who  practised  them, 
then  may  not  one  reason  be  found  for  the  long  duration  of  the 
Chinese  people  and  government,  in  their  comparative  freedom 
from  these  abominations  ? He  expressly  says  to  his  chosen  peo- 
ple (Lev.  xviii.  24,  25),  “ Defile  not  yourselves  in  any  of  these 
things  ; for  in  all  these  the  nations  are  defiled  which  I cast  out 
before  you  : and  the  land  is  defiled  : therefore  I do  visit  the  ini- 
quity thereof  upon  it,  and  the  land  itself  vomiteth  out  her  inhabit- 
ants.” A principal  cause  of  the  subsequent  calamities  which 
befel  the  Jews,  is  repeatedly  ascribed  to  the  immolation  of  their 
sons  and  daughters  in  sacrifice  to  false  gods,  and  their  imitation 
of  the  bacchanalian  orgies  of  the  heathen  around  them.  If  the 
same  causes  produce  the  same  effects  among  other  people,  the 
removal  of  the  great  nations  of  antiquity  may  be  ascribed  as 
much  to  their  utter  pollution  and  cruelty,  as  to  their  loss  of  mar- 
tial vigor,  the  rancor  of  political  dissensions,  and  the  luxurious 
indolence  which  made  them  a prey  to  their  more  vigorous  neigh- 
bors. When  a land  is  defiled  and  spews  out  its  inhabitants,  the 
King  of  the  whole  earth  easily  finds  a besom  to  execute  his  pur- 
poses. One  pagan  nation  has  come  down  from  ancient  times> 
and  this  alone  is  distinguished  for  its  absence  from  religious 
slaughter  of  innocent  blood,  and  the  sanctified  license  of  unblush- 
ing lust. 

To  these  traits  of  Chinese  character,  preventive  of  their  na- 
tional chastisement  and  removal,  may  be  added  the  preservative 
features  of  their  regard  for  parents  and  superiors,  and  their  gene- 
ral peaceful  industry.  If  there  be  any  connexion  between  the 
former  of  these  virtues,  and  the  promise  attached  to  the  fifth 
commandment,  “ That  thy  days  may  be  long  in  the  land  which 
the  Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee,”  then  the  long  duration  of  the  Chi- 


NO  STATE  HIERARCHY  IN  CHINA. 


233 


nese  people  and  empire  is  a stupendous  monument  of  the  good 
effects  of  even  a partial  obedience  to  the  law  of  God,  by  those 
who  only  had  it  inscribed  on  their  hearts,  and  not  written  in  their 
hands.  If  this  view  of  the  case  suggest  an  answer  to  the  in- 
quiry as  to  the  causes  of  the  permanence  of  their  institutions, 
then  the  comparative  efficacy  of  the  means  made  use  of  to  per- 
petuate them,  such  as  general  education  in  morality,  a code  of 
laws,  a well  ordered  civil  magistracy,  regard  for  life  and  pro- 
perty, equality  of  social  privileges,  &c.,  are  accounted  for  in 
China,  while  they  have  failed  of  producing  the  same  conserva- 
tive effects  in  other  times  and  nations. 

The  absence  of  a hierarchy  supported  by  the  state  has  already 
been  noticed  as  a remarkable  feature  in  the  Chinese  polity.  No 
body  of  priests  has  ever  been  able  to  rise  to  power  and  influence, 
and  form  a hereditary  religious  caste  like  the  Brahmins,  although 
both  Budhists  and  Rationalists  have  been  repeatedly  patronized 
by  the  monarchs,  and  individuals  of  their  number  admitted  to 
imperial  confidence.  There  is,  however,  a state  religion  in 
China  of  very  ancient  date,  which  has  undergone  few  modifica- 
tions in  its  essential  features,  during  the  long  succession  of 
monarchs,  and  still  retains  much  of  its  primitive  simplicity. 
“ The  state  religion  of  the  Chinese,”  observes  Dr.  Morrison, 
“ does  not  consist  of  doctrines  which  are  to  be  taught,  learned, 
and  believed,  but  of  rites  and  ceremonies ; it  is  entirely  a bodily 
service,  and  its  ritual  is  contained  in  the  statistics  and  code  of  the 
empire.”  The  word  kiau,  which  means  to  teach,  or  doctrines 
taught,  is  applied  to  all  sects,  Jews  and  Mohammedans,  as  well 
as  Budhists  and  Rationalists,  but  not  to  this  state  religion ; there 
is  no  generic  term  for  religion.  The  objects  of  state  worship  are 
chiefly  things,  although  persons  are  also  included.  There  are 
three  grades  of  sacrifices,  the  great,  medium,  and  inferior,  col- 
lectively called  kivn  sz\  “ the  crowd  of  sacrifices.”  The  objects  to 
which  the  great  sacrifices  are  offered  are  only  four ; viz.  ti.en,  the 
heavens  or  sky,  called  the  imperial  concave  expanse ; U,  the 
earth,  likewise  dignified  with  the  appellation  imperial ; tai  miau, 
or  the  great  temple  of  ancestors,  in  which  the  tablets  of  deceased 
monarchs  are  placed  ; and  lastly,  the  shie  tsih,  or  gods  of  the 
land  and  grain,  the  special  patrons  of  each  dynasty.  These  four 
objects  are  placed  on  an  equality  by  the  present  monarchs, 
which  is  strong  presumptive  proof  that  by  lien  is  now  meant  the 


234 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


material  heavens.  What  may  have  been  the  precise  idea  con. 
nected  with  the  words,  lien,  “ heaven,”  and  hwangtien,  “ imperial 
heaven,”  as  they  were  used  in  ancient  times,  may  be  difficult  to 
determine  ; the  worship  rendered  to  them  was  probably  of  a 
mixed  sort,  the  material  heavens  being  taken  as  the  most  sub- 
lime manifestation  of  the  power  of  their  Maker,  whose  character 
was  then  less  obscured  and  unknown  than  in  after  times,  when 
it  degenerated  to  Sabianism. 

The  medium  sacrifices  are  offered  to  eight  objects;  viz.  the 
sun,  or  “ great  light,”  the  moon,  or  “ night  light,”  the  manes  of  the 
emperors  and  kings  of  former  dynasties,  Confucius,  the  ancient 
patrons  of  agriculture  and  silk  weaving,  the  gods  of  heaven, 
earth,  and  the  passing  year.  The  inferior  herd  of  sacrifices  are 
offered  to  the  ancient  patron  of  the  healing  art,  and  the  innume- 
rable spirits  of  deceased  philanthropists,  eminent  statesmen,  mar- 
tyrs to  virtue,  &c. ; clouds,  rain,  wind,  and  thunder ; the  five 
celebrated  mountains,  four  seas,  and  four  rivers;  famous  hills, 
great  water  courses,  flags,  trivias,  gods  of  cannon,  gates,  queen 
goddess  of  earth,  the  north  pole,  and  many  other  things.  The  state 
religion  has  been  so  fiir  corrupted  from  its  ancient  simplicity,  as 
to  include  as  objects  of  worship  with  the  heavens,  gods  terrestrial 
and  stellar,  and  ghosts  infernal,  flags  and  cannon,  as  well  as  idols 
and  tablets,  the  effigies  and  mementoes  of  deified  persons. 

The  personages  who  assist  the  emperor  in  his  worship  of  the 
four  superior  objects,  and  perform  most  of  the  ceremonies,  belong 
to  the  imperial  clan  and  the  Board  of  Rites ; but  while  they  go 
through  with  the  ceremony,  he,  as  pontifex  maximus,  refuses  to 
pay  the  same  homage  that  he  demands  of  all  who  approach  him, 
and  puts  off  heaven  with  three  kneelings  and  nine  profound 
bows.  When  he  worships  heaven,  he  wears  robes  of  a blue 
color,  in  allusion  to  the  sky  ; and  when  he  worships  earth,  he 
puts  on  yellow  to  represent  the  clay  of  this  earthly  clod ; so, 
likewise,  he  wears  red  for  the  sun,  and  pale  white  for  the  moon. 
The  princes,  nobles,  and  officers  who  assist,  are  clad  in  their 
usual  court  dresses,  but  no  priests  or  women  are  admitted,  except 
at  the  worship  of  Yuenfi,  the  goddess  of  silk  manufacture. 
There  exists  in  China  only  one  temple  consecrated  to  heaven, 
and  one  to  earth ; both  of  them  at  Peking,  and  there  also  the 
annual  sacrifices  at  the  solstices  are  offered.  The  temple  of  the 
sun  is  east,  and  that  of  the  moon  west  of  the  city,  and  at  the 


NATURE  AM)  OBJECTS  OF  THE  STATE  WORSHIP. 


235 


equinoxes,  a regulus,  or  prince  of  the  imperial  clan,  is  com- 
missioned  to  perform  the  requisite  ceremonies,  and  offer  the  ap- 
pointed sacrifices. 

The  hierophants  in  this  worship  of  nature,  so  lauded  by  some 
infidels,  are  required  to  prepare  themselves  for  the  occasion 
by  fasting,  ablutions,  and  change  of  garments,  and  separation 
from  their  wives  and  pleasurable  scenes,  and  from  the  dead  ; “for 
sickness  and  death  defile,  while  banqueting  dissipates  the  mind, 
and  unfits  it  for  holding  communion  with  the  gods.”  The  sacri- 
fices consist  of  calves  and  bullocks,  sheep  or  pigs,  and  the  offer- 
ings of  silks.  Botn  are  brought  into  the  temple  on  chargers,  not 
killed  before  or  on  the  altar,  but  laid  out  ready  dressed,  in  proper 
order.  This  custom  of  presenting  cooked  sacrifices  is  general  in 
Chinese  worship ; no  garlands  are  placed  on  the  victim  when  its 
life  is  taken,  nor  is  the  blood  sprinkled  on  any  particular  spot  or 
article.  The  statutes  annex  penalties  of  fines  or  blows  in  various 
degrees  of  punishment,  in  case  of  informality  or  neglect ; but, 
“ in  these  penalties,  there  is  not  the  least  allusion  to  any  dis- 
pleasure of  the  things  or  beings  worshipped,  there  is  nothing  to 
be  feared  but  man’s  wrath,  nothing  but  a forfeiture  or  a fine.” 
Heavier  chastisement,  however,  awaits  any  of  the  common  peo- 
ple or  the  unauthorized,  who  should  presume  to  state  their  wants 
to  high  heaven,  or  worship  these  objects  of  imperial  adoration ; 
strangulation  or  banishment,  according  to' the  demerits  of  the 
case,  would  be  their  retribution.  The  ignobile  vulgus  of  China 
may  worship  stocks  and  stones  in  almost  any  form  they  please, 
but  death  awaits  them  if  they  attempt  to  join  the  son  of  heaven, 
the  vicegerent  of  heaven  and  earth,  in  his  adorations  to  the  sup- 
posed sources  of  his  power. 

From  this  it  is  plain,  that  the  emperors  of  China,  like  the  popes 
of  Rome,  regard  themselves  as  the  exponents  of  the  will  of  heaven, 
and  both  of  them,  “ as  God,  sit  in  the  temple  of  God,  showing 
themselves  that  they  are  God.”  The  idea  the  Chinese  have  of 
heaven  seems  to  be  pantheistic,  and  in  worshipping  heaven,  earth, 
and  terrestrial  gods,  they  mean  to  include  and  propitiate  all  supe- 
rior powers.  If,  as  seems  probable,  the  original  idea  of  shanglt, 
worshipped  by  the  early  monarchs,  was  that  of  a supreme  Intel- 
ligence, it  has  since  been  lost ; and  the  words  of  Paul  are  applica- 
ble, when  he  says,  “that  when  they  knew  God,  they  glorified  him 
not  as  God,  neither  were  thankful ; . and  did  not  like  to  re- 


236 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


tain  God  in  their  knowledge.”  The  high  priests  of  China  love 
power  and  adulation  too  well  to  share  this  worship  with  their 
subjects,  and  in  engrossing  it  entirely,  they  have  escaped  the 
political  evils  of  a state  hierarchy,  and  the  people  the  combined 
oppressions  of  a church  and  state.* 

The  state  religion  of  China  is,  therefore,  a mere  pageant,  and 
can  no  more  be  called  the  religion  of  the  Chinese,  than  the  teach- 
ings of  Socrates  could  be  termed  the  faith  of  the  Greeks.  It  is, 
however,  intimately  connected  with  the  Ju  kiau,  or  sect  of  the 
Learned,  commonly  called  Confucianists,  because  all  its  mem- 
bers and  priests  are  learned  men,  who  venerate  the  classical 
writings.  It  is  somewhat  inappropriate  to  designate  the  Ju  kiau 
a religious  sect,  or  regard  it  otherwise  than  as  a comprehensive 
term  for  those  who  adopt  the  writings  of  Confucius  and  Chu  Hi, 
and  their  disciples.  The  word  ju  denotes  one  of  the  literati,  and 
was  first  adopted  a.  d.  1150,  as  an  appellation  for  those  who  fol- 
lowed the  speculations  of  Chu  Hi  regarding  the  ted  kih,  or  Great 
Extreme.  This  author’s  comments  on  the  classics,  and  his 
metaphysical  writings,  have  had  greater  influence  on  his  coun- 
trymen than  those  of  any  other  person,  except  Confucius  and 
Mencius;  whose  works,  indeed,  are  received  according  to  his 
explanations.  The  Ju  kiau  have  no  temples,  priests,  or  creed,  in 
the  common  acceptation  of  the  term,  and  they  can  consequently 
worship  at  Budhist  shrines,  or  with  the  Rationalists,  or  even  be- 
come Romanists,  without  thereby  losing  their  connexion  with  the 
learned  class  among  their  countrymen. 

The  remarks  of  Confucius  upon  religious  subjects  were  very 
few  ; he  never  taught  the  duty  of  man  to  any  higher  power  than 
the  head  of  the  state  or  family,  though  he  supposed  himself  com- 
missioned by  heaven  to  restore  the  doctrine  and  usages  of  the 
ancient  kings.  He  admitted  that  he  did  not  understand  much 
about  the  gods,  that  they  were  beyond  and  above  the  comprehen- 
sion of  man,  and  that  the  obligations  of  man  lay  rather  in  doing 
his  duty  to  his  relatives  and  society  than  in  worshipping  spirits 
unknown.  “Not  knowing  even  life,”  said  he,  “ how  can  we 
know  death  ?” — and  when  his  disciples  asked  him  in  his  last 
illness,  whom  he  should  sacrifice  to,  he  said  he  had  already  wor- 
shipped. Chu  Hi  resolved  the  few  and  obscure  references  to 


Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  III.,  page  49. 


THE  JU  KIAC,  OR  SECT  OF  THE  LEARNED. 


237 


shangti  in  the  Shu  King,  into  pure  materialism  ; making  nature 
to  begin  with  the  tai  kill,  called  premier  principe  materiel  by  the 
French,  which  operating  upon  itself  resolved  itself  into  the  dual 
powers,  the  yin  and  yang. 

Sir  John  Davis  compares  this  production  of  the  yin  and  yang, 
to  the  masculo-feminine  principle  in  the  development  of  the  mun- 
dane egg  in  the  Egyptian  cosmogony,  and  quotes  an  extract  show- 
ing that  the  idea  was  entertained  among  the  Hindus,  and  that  the 
androgyn  of  Plato  was  only  another  form  of  this  myth.  The 
Chinese  have  also  the  notion  of  an  egg,  and  that  the  tai  kill  was 
evolved  from  it,  or  acted  like  the  process  of  hatching  going  on  in 
it,  though  it  may  be,  that  w'ith  them  the  introduction  of  the  egg  is 
more  for  the  sake  of  illustration  than  as  the  form  of  the  cause. 
SomeofChu  Hi’s  philosophical  notions  have  already  been  quoted 
in  Chapter  XII.,  p.  550.  His  system  of  materialism  captivates 
his  countrymen,  for  it  allows  great  scope  for  the  vagaries  of  every 
individual,  who  thinks  he  understands  and  can  apply  it  to  explain 
whatever  phenomena  come  in  his  way.  Heat  and  cold,  light 
and  darkness,  fire  and  water,  mind  and  matter,  every  agent, 
power,  and  substance,  known  and  supposed,  are  endued  with 
these  principles,  and  their  infinite  reactions  and  varied  conse- 
quences explained  by  them.  With  regard  to  the  existence  of  gods 
and  spirits,  Chu  Hi  “ affirmed  that  sufficient  knowledge  was  not 
possessed  to  say  positively  that  they  existed,  and  he  saw  no  dif- 
ficulty in  omitting  the  subject  altogether.  His  system  is  also 
entirely  silent  respecting  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  as  well  as 
future  rewards  and  punishments.  Virtue  is  rewarded  and  vice 
is  punished  in  the  individual,  or  in  his  posterity  on  earth ; but  of 
a separate  state  of  existence  he  or  his  disciples  do  not  speak.” 

In  thus  disposing  of  the  existence  of  superior  powers,  the  philoso- 
phers do  not  shut  out  all  intelligent  agencies,  but  have  instituted 
a class  of  sages  or  pure-minded  men  of  exalted  intellects  and  sim- 
pie  hearts,  who  have  been  raised  up  from  time  to  time  by  heaven, 
shangti,  or  some  other  power,  as  instructors  and  examples  to  man- 
kind,  and  who  therefore  deserve  the  reverence  of  their  fellows. 
The  office  of  these  shing  jin,  “ holy  men”  or  saints,  is  to  expound 
the  will  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  form  with  them  a trinity ; they 
did  not  so  much  speak  their  ow  n thoughts  as  illustrate  and  settle 
the  principles  on  which  the  w'orld  should  be  governed  ; they  were 
men,  intuitively  wise  without  instruction,  while  common  people 


238 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


must  learn  to  be  wise.  Of  all  the  saints  in  the  calendar  of  the 
Ju  Idau,  Confucius  is  the  chief;  with  him  are  reckoned  the  early 
kings,  as  Yau  and  Shun,  king  Wan  and  lord  Chau,  but  China 
has  produced  no  one  since  the  “ most  holy  teacher  of  ancient 
times,”  whom  his  proud  disciples  are  willing  to  regard  his  equal, 
Mencius  being  only  a “ number  two  saint.”  The  deceased  empe- 
rors of  the  reigning  dynasty  are  canonized  as  saints,  but  a new  line 
of  monarchs  would  serve  them  as  they  did  their  predecessors,  by 
reducing  them  to  mere  spirits.  The  demonolatrv  of  the  learned 
has  gradually  become  so  incorporated  with  popular  superstitions 
that  there  is  now  little  practical  distinction  ; every  one  is  willing 
to  worship  whatever  can  promise  relief  or  afford  assistance. 
Learning  is  followed  chiefly  as  a means  of  attaining  office,  and 
a student  of  the  classical  works  naturally  adopts  their  views 
on  these  points,  without  supposing  that  they  militate  against 
worshipping  his  ancestors,  joining  the  villagers  in  adoring  the 
goddess  of  Mercy  or  any  other  Budhistic  idol,  or  calling  in  a 
Rationalist  to  write  a charm.  He  also,  on  coming  into  office, 
expects  to  perform  all  the  ex-officio  religious  ceremonies  re- 
quired of  him,  and  add  the  worship  of  the  emperor  to  the  rest. 
Form  is  the  end  of  the  whole  ; all  alike  fail  in  satisfying  the 
desire  of  pardon  for  sin,  and  answering  the  question,  How  shall  a 
man  be  just  with  his  God  ? No  one  of  them  reaches  the  heart  or 
conscience,  none  can  convince  the  soul  of  its  accountability,  or 
show  it  the  M ay  to  true  happiness. 

Every  magistrate  is  officially  required  to  perform  various  idol- 
atrous ceremonies  at  the  temples.  The  objects  of  M'orship  are 
numerous,  including  many  others  besides  those  forming  the  “ herd 
of  inferior  sacrifices,”  and  new  deities  are  frequently  made  by 
the  emperor,  on  the  same  principle  that  new  saints  are  canonized 
by  the  pope.  The  worship  of  certain  hills  and  rivers,  and  of 
spirits  supposed  to  preside  over  particular  cities  and  districts,  has 
prevailed  among  the  Chinese  from  ancient  times,  long  before  the 
rise  of  Rationalism  or  introduction  of  Budhism,  and  is  no  doubt 
the  origin  of  this  official  worship.  In  every  city,  the  Ching- 
hwang  miau,  i.  e.  City  and  Moat  temple,  contains  the  tutelar  divin- 
ity of  the  city  called  Ching-liv:ang,  with  other  gods,  and  here  on 
the  solstices,  equinoxes,  neMr  and  full  moons,  &c.,  officers  repair 
to  sacrifice  to  it  and  the  gods  of  the  land  and  grain.  Over  the 
door  of  the  one  in  Canton,  is  written,  “ Right  and  wrong,  truth 


RELIGIOUS  DUTIES  OF  MAGISTRATES. 


239 


and  falsehood  are  blended  on  earth,  but  all  are  most  clearly  dis- 
tinguished in  heaven.”  Capt.  Loch  describes  the  Ching-hwang 
rniau  at  Shanghai  as  a fine  building  • 

“ In  the  centre  of  a serpentine  sheet  of  water,  there  is  a rocky  island, 
and  on  it  a large  temple  of  two  stories,  fitted  up  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  wealthy  public.  Pillars  of  carved  wood  support  the  roof,  fretted 
groups  of  uncouth  figures  fill  up  the  narrow  spaces,  while  movable  lat- 
tices screen  the  occupants  from  the  warmth  of  the  noonday  sun.  No- 
thing can  surpass  the  beauty  and  truth  to  nature  of  the  most  minutely 
carved  flowers  and  insects  prodigally  scattered  over  every  screen  and 
cornice.  This  is  the  central  and  largest  temple.  A number  of  other 
light  aerial  looking  structures  of  the  same  form  are  perched  upon  the 
corners  of  artificial  rocky  precipices  and  upon  odd  little  islands.  Light 
and  fanciful  wooden  bridges  connect  most  of  these  islands,  and  are 
thrown  across  the  arms  of  the  serpentine  water,  so  that  each  sequestered 
spot  can  be  visited  in  turn.  At  a certain  passage  of  the  sun,  the  main 
temple  is  shaded  in  front  by  a rocky  eminence,  the  large  masses  of  which 
are  connected  with  great  art  and  propriety  of  taste,  but  in  shape  and 
adjustment  most  studiously  grotesque.  Trees  and  flowers  and  tufts  of 
grass  are  planted  where  art  must  have  been  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  pro- 
cure them  a lodgment.  In  another  part  of  the  garden  there  is  a minia- 
ture wood  of  dwarf  trees,  with  a dell  and  waterfall;  the  leaves,  fruit, 
and  blossoms  of  the  trees  are  proportionate  to  their  size.  Tortuous 
pathways  lead  to  the  top  of  the  artificial  mountain,  each  turn  formed 
with  studied  art  to  surprise  and  charm  by  offering  at  every  point  fresh 
views  and  objects.  Flowers  and  creepers  sprout  out  from  crevices,  trees 
hang  over  the  jutting  crags,  small  pavilions  are  seen  from  almost  every 
vista,  while  grottoes  and  rocky  recesses,  shady  bowers  and  labyrinths, 
are  placed  to  entrap  the  unwary,  each  with  an  appropriate  motto,  one 
inviting  the  wanderer  to  repose,  another  offering  a secluded  retreat  to 
the  philosopher.” — Loch’s  E cents  in  China,  p.  47. 

According  to  the  Repository  there  are  1560  temples  dedicated 
to  Confucius,  attached  to  the  examination  halls,  and  the  offerings 
presented  in  them  are  all  eaten  or  used  by  the  worshippers  ; there 
are,  it  is  said,  62,606  pigs,  rabbits,  sheep,  and  deer,  and  27,000 
pieces  of  silk,  annually  presented  upon  their  altars.  The  muni- 
cipal temple  is  not  the  only  one  where  the  officers  worship,  but 
like  the  common  people,  they  bow  before  whatever  they  think 
can  aid  them  in  their  duties  or  estates.  It  has  already  been 
stated  that  the  duty  of  Chinese  officers  extends  to  the  securing 
of  genial  seasons  by  their  good  administration,  and  consequently 


240 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


if  bad  harvests  ensue  or  epidemics  rage,  the  fault  and  removal 
of  the  calamity  belong  to  them.  The  expedients  they  resort  to 
are  both  ludicrous  and  melancholy.  In  1835,  the  prefect  of 
Canton,  on  occasion  of  a distressing  drought  of  eight  months, 
issued  the  following  invitation,  which  would  have  better  befitted 
a chieftain  of  the  Sechuanas. 

“ Pwan,  acting  prefect  of  Kwangchau,  issues  this  inviting  summons. 
Since  fora  longtime  there  has  been  no  rain,  and  the  prospects  of  drought 
continue,  and  supplications  are  unanswered,  my  heart  is  scorched  with 
grief.  In  the  whole  province  of  Kwangtung,  are  there  no  extraordinary 
persons  who  can  force  the  dragon  to  send  rain  ? Be  it  known  to  you, 
all  ye  soldiers  and  people,  that  if  there  be  any  one,  whether  of  this  or  any 
other  province,  priest  or  such  like,  who  can  by  any  craft  or  arts  bring 
down  abundance  of  rain,  I respectfully  request  him  to  ascend  the  altar 
[of  the  dragon],  and  sincerely  and  reverently  pray.  And  after  the  rain 
has  fallen,  I will  liberally  reward  him  with  money  and  tablets  to  make 
known  his  merits.” 

This  invitation  called  forth  a Budhist  priest  as  a “ rain  maker,” 
and  the  prefect  erected  an  altar  for  him  before  his  own  office, 
upon  which  the  man  armed  with  cymbal  and  wand,  for  three 
days  vainly  repeated  his  incantations  from  morning  to  night,  ex- 
posed bareheaded  to  the  hot  sun,  the  butt  of  the  jeering  crowd. 
The  prefect  himself  was  lampooned  by  the  people  for  his  folly, 
the  following  quatrain  being  pasted  under  a copy  of  his  invitation  : 

“ Kwangchau’s  great  protector,  the  magnate  Pwan, 

Always  acting  without  regard  to  reason ; 

Now  prays  for  rain,  and  getting  no  reply, 

Forthwith  seeks  for  aid  to  force  the  dragon.” 

The  'unsuccessful  efforts  of  the  priest  did  not  render  the  cala- 
mity less  grievous,  and  their  urgent  necessities  led  the  people  to 
resort  to  every  expedient  to  force  their  gods  to  send  rain.  The 
authorities  forbade  the  slaughter  of  animals,  or  in  other  words  a 
fast  was  proclaimed,  to  keep  the  hot  winds  out  of  the  city,  the 
southern  gate  was  shut,  and  all  classes  flocked  to  the  temples. 
It  was  estimated  that  on  one  day  20,000  persons  went  to  a cele- 
brated shrine  of  the  goddess  of  Mercy,  among  whom  were  the 
governor  and  prefect  and  their  suites,  who  all  left  their  sedans 
and  walked  with  the  multitude.  The  governor,  as  a last  expe- 


EFFECT  OF  THE  STATE  RELIGION. 


241 


dient,  the  day  before  rain  came,  intimated  his  intention  of  liberat- 
ing all  prisoners  not  charged  with  capital  offences.  As  soon  as 
the  rain  fell,  the  people  presented  thank-offerings,  and  the  south- 
ern gate  of  the  city  was  opened,  accompanied  by  an  odd  cere- 
mony of  burning  the  tail  off  a live  sow,  while  the  animal  was 
held  in  a basket. 

The  officers  and  literati,  though  acknowledging  the  folly  of 
these  observances,  and  even  ridiculing  the  worship  of  senseless 
blocks,  still  join  in  it.  Sometimes  devotees  become  irritated 
against  their  gods,  and  resort  to  summary  means  to  force  them  to 
hear  their  petitions.  It  is  said  that  the  governor  having  gone  re- 
peatedly in  a time  of  drought  to  the  temple  of  the  god  of  Rain  in 
Canton  dressed  in  his  burdensome  robes,  through  the  heat  of  a 
tropical  sun,  on  one  of  his  visits  said,  “ The  god  supposes  I am 
lying  when  I beseech  his  aid  ; for  how  can  he  know,  seated  in 
his  cool  niche  in  the  temple,  that  the  ground  is  parched  and  the 
sky  hot?”  Whereupon  he  ordered  his  attendants  to  put  a rope 
around  his  neck  and  haul  his  godship  out  of  doors,  that  he  might 
see  and  feel  the  state  of  the  weather  for  himself ; after  his  excel- 
lency had  become  cooled  in  the  temple,  the  idol  was  reinstated  in 
its  shrine,  and  the  good  effects  of  this  treatment  considered  to  be 
fully  proved  by  the  copious  showers  which  soon  after  fell.  The 
emperor  himself  on  such  occasions  resorts  to  unusual  sacrifices, 
and  a prayer  for  rain  offered  by  him  has  already  been  noticed, 
Vol.  I.,  p.  369.  Imperial  patronage  of  the  popular  superstitions 
is  sought  after  by  the  officers  in  one  way  and  another,  to  please 
the  people,  but  it  does  not  involve  much  outlay  of  funds.  One 
common  mode  is  to  solicit  his  majesty  for  an  inscription  to  be 
placed  over  the  doorway  of  a temple,  or  a higher  title  to  be  con- 
ferred upon  the  god.  On  occasion  of  a victory  over  the  rebels  in 
Kwangtung  in  1822,  the  shrine  of  a neighboring  deity,  supposed 
to  have  assisted  in  obtaining  it,  received  a new  title  commemora- 
tive of  the  event,  and  a temple  was  built  for  him  at  the  expense 
of  government. 

The  combined  effect  of  the  state  religion  and  classical  writings, 
notwithstanding  their  atheism  and  coldness,  has  had  some  effect 
in  keeping  the  people  out  of  the  swinish  ditch  of  pollution.  It 
is  one  of  their  prime  tenets  that  human  nature  is  originally  vir- 
tuous, and  becomes  corrupt  entirely  by  bad  precept  and  example. 
This  is  taught  children  from  their  earliest  years,  and  officers  refe? 
vol.  u.  12 


242 


THE  MIDDLE  KIXGD;? 


to  it  in  their  exhortations  to  obedience,  and  its  necessary  results  of 
happiness,  if  carried  out,  are  illustrated  by  trite  comparisons  drawn 
from  common  life  and  general  experience.  The  Chinese  seldom 
refer  to  the  vengeance  of  the  gods  or  future  punishment,  as 
motives  for  reform,  but  to  the  well-being  of  individuals  and  good 
order  of  society  in  this  world.  Examples  of  this  standard  of 
human  perfection,  fully  developed,  are  constantly  set  before  the 
people  in  Confucius  and  the  ancient  kings  he  delineates.  The 
classical  tenets  require  duties  that  carry  their  own  arguments 
in  their  obedience,  as  well  as  afford  matter  of  thought,  while  the 
books  of  the  Budhists  and  Rationalists  are  mostly  filled  with 
solemn  nonsense.  Consequently  the  priests  of  those  sects  had  only 
the  superstitious  fear  of  the  people  to  work  upon  where  reason 
was  at  fault,  and  so  could  not  take  the  whole  man  captive ; foi 
his  reason  accorded  with  the  teaching  of  the  classics  as  far  as 
they  went,  and  only  took  up  with  divination  and  supplication  of 
higher  powers  where  their  instructions  ceased.  The  govern, 
ment,  therefore,  being  composed  chiefly  of  such  people,  educated 
to  venerate  pure  reason,  could  not  be  induced  to  take  the  initia- 
tory step  of  patronizing  a religion  of  such  an  uncertain  character, 
and  confessedly  inferior  to  what  they  already  possessed.  The 
current  has,  more  or  less,  always  set  this  way,  and  the  two 
superstitions  been  tolerated  so  far  as  they  did  not  interfere  with 
government.  It  is  too  true  that  the  instructions  of  Confucius  and 
his  school  are  imperfect  and  erroneous,  and  the  people  can  never 
emerge  from  selfish  atheism  and  silly  superstition  as  long  as  they 
have  nothing  better,  but  the  vagaries  of  the  Budhists  neither 
satisfy  the  reason  nor  reprove  vice,  nor  does  their  celibate  idle- 
ness benefit  society.  If  the  former  be  bad,  the  latter  is  confes- 
sedly worse. 

The  sect  of  the  Rationalists,  or  Tau  kia , was  founded  by  Lautsz’ 
or  Laukiun.  He  was  born  b.  c.  604,  in  the  kingdom  of  Tsu,  now 
Hupeh,  54  years  before  Confucius,  and  is  believed  to  have  had 
white  hair  and  eyebrows  at  his  birth,  and  been  carried  in  the 
womb  eighty  years,  whence  he  was  called  Lau-tsz’,  the  “old  boy,” 
and  afterwards  Lau-kiun,  the  “ venerable  prince.”  According  to 
Pauthier,  who  has  examined  his  history  with  some  attention,  his 
parents  were  poor,  and  after  entering  mature  years,  he  was  ap- 
pointed librarian  by  the  emperor,  where  he  diligently  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  books,  and  became  acquainted 


SECT  OF  TAV  OR  RATIONALISTS. 


243 


with  all  the  rites  and  histories  of  former  times.  During  his  life, 
he  made  a journey  through  Central  Asia,  but  what  was  its  extent 
and  duration  is  not  recorded.  De  Guignes  says  he  went  to  Ta 
Tsin,  a country  under  the  rule  of  the  Romans,  but  he  forgets  that 
the  Romans  had  not  then  even  conquered  Italy ; some  suppose 
Ta  Tsin  to  be  Judea.  His  only  philosophical  work,  the  Tau  Teh 
King,  or  Memoir  on  Reason  and  Virtue,  was  written  before  his 
travels,  but  whether  the  teachings  contained  in  it  are  entirely  his 
own,  or  were  derived  from  hints  imported  from  India  and  Persia, 
cannot  be  decided.  A parallel  has  been  suggested  between  the 
tenets  of  the  Rationalists  of  China,  the  Zoroastrians  of  Persia, 
Essenes  of  Judea,  Gnostics  of  the  primitive  church,  and  the 
eremites  of  the  Thebaid,  but  a common  source  for  their  confor- 
mity— the  desire  to  live  without  labor  on  the  credulity  of  their 
fellow  men — explains  most  of  the  likeness,  without  supposing  that 
their  tenets  were  derived  from  each  other. 

The  teachings  of  Lautsz’  are  not  unlike  those  of  Zeno ; both 
recommend  retirement  and  contemplation  as  the  most  effectual 
means  of  purifying  the  spiritual  part  of  our  nature,  annihilating 
the  material  passions,  and  finally  returning  to  the  bosom  of  the 
supreme  Reason.  He  says  “ All  material  visible  forms  are  only 
emanations  of  Tau  or  Reason  ; this  formed  all  beings.  Before 
their  emanation,  the  universe  was  only  an  indistinct  confused 
mass,  a chaos  of  all  the  elements  in  a state  of  a germ  or  subtle 
essence.”  In  another  section  he  says,  “ All  the  visible  parts  of 
the  universe,  all  beings  composing  it,  the  heavens  and  all  the 
stellar  systems,  all  have  been  formed  of  the  first  elementary 
matter  : before  the  birth  of  heaven  and  earth,  there  existed  only 
an  immense  silence  in  illimitable  space,  an  immeasurable  void  in 
endless  silence.  Reason  alone  circulated  in  this  infinite  void  and 
silence.”  In  one  of  his  sections,  Lautsz’  says,  “ Reason  has  pro- 
duced one,  one  produced  two,  two  produced  three,  and  three 
made  all  things.  All  beings  repose  on  the  feminine  principle, 
and  they  embrace,  envelope  the  male  principle  ; a fecundating 
breath  keeps  up  their  harmony.”  He  teaches  the  emanation  and 
return  of  all  good  beings  into  the  bosom  of  Reason,  and  their 
eternal  existence  therein,  but  if  not  good,  the  miseries  of  succes- 
sive births  and  their  accompanying  sorrows,  await  them.  M. 
Pauthier,  in  his  high  estimation  of  these  speculations,  regards 
this  as  the  Asiatic  form  of  the  doctrine  and  procession  of  the 


244 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Trinity,  and  the  Biblical  idea  of  the  reunion  of  good  men  with 
their  Maker  ! 

His  own  life  was  passed  in  ascetic  privacy,  and  he  recommends 
the  practice  of  contemplation,  joined  with  the  performance  of 
good  deeds.  Lautsz’  says,  when  enforcing  benevolent  acts, 

“ The  holy  man  has  not  an  inexorable  heart : 

He  makes  his  heart  like  that  of  all  men. 

The  virtuous  man  should  be  treated  as  a virtuous  man, 

The  vicious  man  should  likewise  be  treated  as  a virtuous  man  ; 

This  is  wisdom  and  virtue. 

The  sincere  and  faithful  man  should  be  treated  as  a sincere  and  faithful 
man. 

The  insincere  and  unfaithful  should  likewise  be  treated  as  a sincere  and 
faithful  man : 

This  is  wisdom  and  sincerity. 

The  perfect  man  lives  in  the  world  tranquil  and  calm ; 

It  is  only  on  account  of  the  world,  for  the  happiness  of  man,  that  his 
heart  experiences  disquiet. 

Though  all  men  think  only  of  pleasing  their  eyes  and  their  ears, 

Those  who  are  in  a state  of  sanctity  will  treat  them  as  a father  treats 
his  children.” 

M.  Pauthier,  in  his  admiration  of  the  Chinese  philosopher, 
says,  “ La  sagesse  humaine  n’a  peutetre  jamais  exprime  des 
paroles  plus  saintes  et  plus  profondes  and  perhaps  he  properly 
compares  Lautsz’  with  his  countryman  Rousseau  in  his  com- 
plaints upon  the  evil  of  the  times.  The  precept  found  in  the 
Confucian  school  of  commencing  all  reformation  at  home,  and 
making  our  own  thoughts  and  actions  correct  before  endeavoring 
to  regulate  those  of  others,  is  also  found  in  the  Tau  Teh  King. 

“ He  wffio  knows  men  is  wise  ; 

He  who  knows  himself  is  truly  enlightened. 

He  who  cau  subjugate  men  is  powerful, 

He  who  conquers  himself  is  truly  strong. 

He  who  knows  when  he  has  enough  is  rich. 

He  wrho  accomplishes  difficult  and  meritorious  W’orks  leaves  a durable 
remembrancer  among  men. 

He  who  does  not  dissipate  his  life  is  imperishable; 

He  who  dies  and  is  not  forgotten  has  eternal  life.” 

The  writings  of  this  teacher,  unlike  those  of  Confucius,  seldom 


CHARACTER  OF  THEIR  FOUNDER. 


245 


refer  to  ancient  models  or  personages ; he  derives  his  ideas  of 
reason  and  virtue  entirely  from  his  own  conceptions.  The3e  have 
been  strangely  altered  and  travestied  by  his  followers,  and  their 
notions,  both  of  the  reason  they  pretend  to  follow,  and  of  the 
founder  of  their  sect,  have  given  them  a character  nearly  allied  to 
the  magicians  of  Egypt ; but  so  far  as  can  be  learned  from  the 
Tau  Teh  King , their  extravagant  vagaries  are  not  fully  charge- 
able  to  Lautsz’  himself,  or  to  his  doctrine.  M.  Pauthier  isenthu 
siastic  in  his  praises  of  this  teacher  (Chine,  pp.  110-120),  ant/ 
estimates  the  value  of  his  instructions  much  higher  than  has  been 
usually  done  ; but  the  students  of  Chinese  ethics  are  under  obli- 
gations to  him  for  his  translation,  which  enables  them  to  judge  of 
their  character  for  themselves. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  Rationalist  writers  is  Chwanw-tsz’, 
a disciple  of  Lautsz5,  from  whom  his  followers  derive  more  of 
their  opinions  than  from  their  master  himself;  his  writings  have 
been  repeatedly  commented  upon  by  members  of  the  fraternity, 
and  are  referred  to  as  authoritative.  In  ancient  times,  small 
parties  of  them  retired  to  secluded  places  to  meditate  upon  virtue. 
When  Confucius  visited  Lautsz’,  the  cynic  upbraided  the  sage 
for  his  ambition  in  collecting  so  many  disciples  and  seeking  after 
office,  and  added  that  such  a course  of  conduct  was  more  likely 
to  nourish  pride  than  cherish  the  love  of  virtue  and  wisdom. 
“ The  wise  man,”  he  said,  “ loves  obscurity  ; far  from  being 
ambitious  of  offices,  he  avoids  them.  Persuaded  that  at  the  end 
of  life,  a man  can  only  leave  behind  him  such  good  maxims  as 
he  has  taught  to  those  who  were  in  a state  to  receive  and  practise 
them,  he  does  not  reveal  himself  to  all  he  meets : he  observes 
time  and  place.  If  the  times  be  good,  he  speaks ; if  bad,  he 
keeps  quiet.  He  who  possesses  a treasure,  conceals  it  with  care 
lest  it  be  taken  from  him  ; he  is  careful  about  publishing  every- 
where that  he  has  it  at  his  disposal.  The  truly  virtuous  man 
makes  no  parade  of  his  virtue,  he  does  not  announce  to  the  world 
that  he  is  a wise  man.  This  is  all  I have  to  say ; make  as  much 
of  it  as  you  please.” 

Such  speculative  teachings  and  waiting  till  the  times  were 
good,  were  not  adapted  to  entertain  or  benefit,  and  Confucius  un- 
derstood his  countrymen  and  his  own  duty  much  better  than 
Lautsz’,  in  doing  all  he  could  by  precept  and  practice,  to  show 
them  the  excellence  of  what  he  believed  to  be  right.  The  dis- 


246 


TIIE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


ciples  of  Lautsz’  discourse  upon  Reason  in  a way  that  would  befit 
the  pages  of  the  Dial,  and  the  teachings  of  the  ancient  and 
modern  transcendentalists  are  alike  destitute  of  common  sense 
and  unproductive  of  good  to  their  fellow-men.  Dr.  Medhurst 
quotes  one  of  the  Chinese  Rationalists,  who  praises  reason  in  a 
most  rapturous  rhapsody  : 

“ What  is  there  superior  to  heaven,  and  from  which  heaven  and  earth 
sprang  1 Nay,  what  is  there  superior  to  space  and  which  moves  in 
space  ? The  great  Tau  is  the  parent  of  space,  and  space  is  the  parent 
of  heaven  and  earth,  and  heaven  and  earth  produced  men  and  things.” 
“ The  venerable  prince  (Reason)  arose  prior  to  the  great  original,  standing 
at  the  commencement  of  the  mighty  wonderful,  and  floating  in  the  ocean 
of  deep  obscurity.  He  is  spontaneous  and  self-existing,  produced  before 
the  beginning  of  emptiness,  commencing  prior  to  uncaused  existences, 
pervading  all  heaven  and  earth,  whose  beginning  and  end  no  years  can 
circumscribe.” 

The  sectarians  suppose  their  founder  was  merely  an  imperso- 
nation of  this  power,  and  that  he  whom  they  call  “ the  venerable 
prince,  the  origin  of  primary  matter,  the  root  of  heaven  and  earth, 
the  occupier  of  infinite  space,  the  commencement  of  all  things, 
further  back  than  the  utmost  stretch  of  numbers  can  reach,  cre- 
ated the  universe.”  They  notice  three  incarnations  of  him  during 
the.  present  epoch,  one  during  the  Shang  dynasty,  B.  c.  1407, 
one  at  the  time  of  Confucius,  and  a third  about  a.  d.  623,  when 
a man  of  Shansi  reported  having  seen  an  old  man,  who  called 
himself  Laukiun.  Only  the  priests  of  this  sect  are  regarded  as 
its  members ; they  live  in  temples  and  small  communities  with 
their  families,  cultivating  the  ground  attached  to  the  establish- 
ment, and  thus  perpetuate  their  body ; many  lead  a wandering 
life,  and  derive  a precarious  livelihood  from  the  sale  of  charms 
and  medical  nostrums.  They  shave  the  sides  of  the  head,  and 
coil  the  rest  of  the  hair  in  a tuft  upon  the  crown,  thrusting  a 
pin  through  it ; and  are  moreover  recognised  by  their  slate 
colored  robes.  They  study  astrology,  and  profess  to  have  deal- 
ings with  spirits,  and  their  books  contain  a great  variety  of  stories 
of  priests  who  have  done  wonderful  acts  by  their  help ; the 
Pastimes  of  the  Study,  already  noticed,  is  one  of  these  books,  and 
Davis  introduces  a pleasant  story  of  Chvvang  and  his  wife  from 
another  work.*  They  long  endeavored  to  find  a beverage  which 
* The  Chinese,  Vol  II.,  pp.  113-128. 


RITES  AND  MYTHOLOGY  OF  THE  TAOSz’. 


241 


would  insure  longevity  or  immortality,  and  during  the  Tang 
dynasty,  the  emperor  and  highest  officers  were  carried  away  with 
the  delusion.  The  title  of  Heavenly  Doctors  was  conferred  on 
them,  and  a superb  temple  erected  to  Laukiun,  containing  his 
statue ; examinations  were  ordered  in  a.  d.  674,  to  be  held  in  his 
Memoir  on  Reason,  and  some  of  the  priests  reached  the  highest 
honors  in  the  state.  Since  that  time  they  ha.ve  degenerated,  and 
are  now  looked  upon  as  ignorant  cheats  and  designing  jugglers, 
who  are  quite  as  willing  to  use  their  magical  powers  to  injure 
their  enemies  as  to  help  those  who  seek  their  aid. 


Tau  Priests  jumping  through  the  fire. 


In  some  places,  the  votaries  of  Tau  on  the  third  day  of  the 
third  month  go  barefoot  over  ignited  charcoal ; and  on  the  anni- 
versary of  the  birthday  of  the  High  Emperor  of  the  Sombre  Hea- 
vens, “ they  assemble  together  before  the  temple  of  this  imagi- 
nary being,  and  having  made  a great  fire,  about  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet  in  diameter,  go  over  it  barefoot,  preceded  by  the  priests,  and 
bearing  the  gods  in  their  arms.  The  previous  ceremonies  con- 
sist in  chanting  prayers,  ringing  bells,  sprinkling  holy  water, 
blowing  horns,  and  brandishing  swords  in  and  over  the  flames  in 
order  to  subdue  the  demon,  after  which  they  dart  through  the 
devouring  element.  They  firmly  assert  that  if  they  possess  a 
sincere  mind,  they  will  not  be  injured  by  the  fire,  but  both  priests 
and  people  get  miserably  burnt  on  these  occasions.  Yet  such 
is  the  delusion,  and  the  :dea  the  people  entertain  of  the  benefit 


248 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  these  services,  that  they  willingly  contribute  large  sums  to 
provide  the  sacrifices  and  pay  the  performers.”* 

This  ceremony  is  practised  in  Fukhien  and  at  Batavia,  but 
is  not  very  general,  for  the  Chinese  are  the  antipodes  of  the 
Hindus  in  their  endurance  and  relish  for  such  sufferings  and 
austerities.  The  Rationalists  worship  a great  variety  of  idols, 
among  which  Yuh-hwang  Shangti  is  one  of  the  highest ; their 
pantheon  also  includes  genii,  devils,  inferior  spirits,  and  number- 
less other  objects  of  worship.  The  Siu  Shin  Ki,  or  Records  of 
Researches  concerning  the  Gods,  contains  an  account  of  the  birth 
of  the  deity  whose  anniversary  is  celebrated  as  above  described. 

“ There  was  once  a childless  emperor  called  Tsingtih,  i.  e.  Pure  Virtue, 
who  summoned  a large  company  of  Tau  priests  to  perform  their  rites 
in  his  behalf,  and  continued  their  worship  half  a year.  The  empress 
Pau  Yueh-kwang,  i.e.  Gemmeous  Moonlight,  on  a night  dreamed  that 
she  saw  the  great  and  eminent  Laukiun,  together  with  a large  number  of 
superior  deities,  riding  in  particolored  carriages  with  vast  resplendent 
banners  and  shaded  by  bright  variegated  umbrellas.  Here  was  the  great 
founder  Laukiun  sitting  in  a dragon  carriage,  and  holding  in  his  arms  a 
young  infant,  whose  body  was  entirely  covered  with  pores,  from  which 
unbounded  splendors  issued,  illuminating  the  hall  of  the  palace  with 
every  precious  color.  Banners  and  canopies  preceded  Laukiun  as  he 
came  floating  along.  Then  was  the  heart  of  the  empress  elated  with 
joy,  and  reverently  kneeling  before  him,  said,  ‘ At  present  our  monarch 
has  no  male  descendants,  and  I wishfully  beseech  you  for  this  child,  that 
he  may  become  the  sovereign  of  our  hearts  and  altars.  Prostrate  I look 
up  to  your  merciful  kindness,  earnestly  imploring  thee  to  commiserate 
and  grant  my  request.’  He  at  once  answered,  ‘ It  is  m v special  desire 
to  present  the  boy  to  you whereupon  she  thankfully  received  him,  and 
immediately  returned  from  the  pursuit  of  the  dream,  and  found  herself 
advanced  a year  in  pregnancy.  When  the  birth  took  place,  a resplendent 
light  poured  forth  from  the  child’s  body,  which  filled  the  whole  country 
with  brilliant  glare.  His  entire  countenance  was  super-eminently  beau- 
tiful, so  that  none  became  weary  in  beholding  him.  When  in  childhood, 
he  possessed  the  clearest  intelligence  and  compassion,  and  taking  the 
possessions  of  the  country  and  the  funds  of  the  treasury,  he  distributed 
them  to  the  poor  and  afflicted,  the  widowers  and  widows,  orphans  and 
childless,  the  houseless  and  sick,  halt,  deaf,  blind,  and  lame. 

“ Not  long  after  this,  the  demise  of  his  father  took  place,  and  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  government;  but  reflecting  on  the  instability  of  life,  he 
resigned  his  throne  and  its  cares  to  his  ministers,  and  repaired  to  the 

• Medhurst’s  China,  its  State  and  Prospects,  p.  108. 


SECT  OF  FUH  OR  THE  BUDHISTS. 


249 


hills  of  Puming,  where  he  gave  himself  up  to  meditation,  and  being 
perfected  in  merit  ascended  to  heaven  to  enjoy  eternal  life.  He  how- 
ever descended  to  earth  again  eight  hundred  times,  and  became  the 
companion  of  the  common  people  to  instruct  them  in  his  doctrines.  After 
that  he  made  eight  hundred  more  journeys,  engaging  in  medical  practice, 
and  successfully  curing  the  people;  and  then  another  similar  series, 
in  which  he  exercised  universal  benevolence  in  hades  and  earth,  ex- 
pounded all  abstract  doctrines,  elucidated  the  spiritual  literature,  mag- 
nanimously promulged  the  renovating  ethics,  gave  glory  to  the  widely 
spread  merits  of  the  gods,  assisted  the  nation,  and  saved  the  people. 
During  another  eight  hundred  descents,  he  exhibited  patient  suffering, 
though  men  took  his  life,  yet  he  parted  with  his  flesh  and  blood.  After 
this  he  became  the  first  of  the  verified  golden  genii,  and  was  denominated 
the  pure  and  immaculate  one,  self-existing,  of  highest  intelligence.”* 

These  figments,  which  seem  to  be  merely  a transcript  of  the  va- 
garies of  the  Hindu  theosophists,  and  not  the  teachings  of  Lautsz,’ 
still  amuse  his  followers.  The  learned  Confucianists  laugh  at 
their  fables,  but  are  still  so  much  the  prey  of  fears  as  to  be  often 
duped  by  them,  and  follow  even  when  sure  of  being  deceived. 

The  most  popular  religious  sect  is  the  Budhists,  or  the  follow- 
ers of  Fuh,  Fo,  Fat,  or  Fuh-tu,  whose  tenets  were  introduced 
into  China  about  A.  d.  66,  by  means  of  an  embassy  sent  to  the 
west  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Rationalists,  to  seek  for  a wise  man 
said  to  have  appeared  there ; according  to  others,  it  arose  from  a 
remarkable  expression  of  Confucius,  “ The  people  of  the  west 
have  sages,  or  a sage.”  It  may  have  been  that  this  mission  was 
excited  by  some  indistinct  tidings  of  the  advent  and  death  of 
Christ,  though  there  is  no  trace  of  such  a rumor  having  reached 
the  land  of  Sinim  : the  Christian,  however,  is  naturally  led  to  spe- 
culate upon  the  results  which  might  have  followed  if  these  men 
had  been  led,  like  the  magians,  to  the  land  of  Judea,  and  had 
returned  with  the  knowledge  of  Him  whom  to  know  aright  is  life 
eternal.  Many  data  have  been  collected  by  the  industry  of  ori- 
ental scholars  from  Budhist  books,  relating  to  the  rise  and  pro- 
gress of  this  sect,  and  the  leading  features  of  its  faith. 

Budha  is  supposed  to  have  been  a human  being,  though  some 
say  he  was  the  last  avatar  of  Vishnu,  who  brought  himself  by 
contemplation  to  a state  of  puri  y and  perfection,  and  spent  his 
life  in  teaching  his  doctrines,  which  were  received  with  such 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  X.,  p.  306 

VOL.  II.  12* 


250 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


success,  that  at  his  death,  about  b.  c.  950,  at  tiie  age  of  eighty, 
they  had  spread  over  all  India.  His  name  was  Sarvarthasidda, 
and  his  father  Suddhodana  was  king  of  Magadha  in  Bahar ; he 
was  during  his  life  complimented  by  the  titles  Sakya-sinha  and 
Sakya-muni,  i.  e.  the  “ lion  ” or  “ devotee  ” of  the  race  Sakya  • 
and  towards  the  end  of  his  days  was  called  Budha  or  the  Sage. 
Gaudama,  by  which  he  is  known  in  Siam  and  Birmah,  appears 
to  have  been  a patronymic ; it  has  also  been  changed  in  the  for- 
mer tongue  into  Sommona-codom,  i.  e.  the  “ ascetic  Gaudama.” 
This  superstition,  the  least  revolting  and  impure  of  the  false 
religions  which  have  deluded  and  afflicted  mankind,  has  also 
reckoned  the  greatest  number  of  devotees,  if  the  entire  popula- 
tion of  the  countries  where  it  is  known  be  included.  Ceylon, 
Tibet,  Siam,  and  Burmah,  are  the  countries  where  it  holds  the 
least  divided  sway ; but  Cochinchina,  China,  Mongolia,  Man- 
churia, Corea,  Lewchew,  and  Japan,  all  contain  more  or  less  of 
its  adherents  and  priests,  though  they  cannot  be  called  Budhist 
countries  with  the  same  strictness  the  first  four  are.  In  China, 
no  one  is  called  a Budhist  except  the  priests  and  nuns,  and  the 
same  is  true  in  Japan  and  Lewchew,  and  probably  in  Corea,  in 
all  of  which  Budhism  has  no  support  from  government,  though 
approved  by  many  officers. 

Budhist  priests  are  more  numerous  in  China  than  the  Tau  sz?, 
and  they  obtained  influence  more  rapidly  over  the  people.  Their 
demonolatry  allows  the  incorporation  of  the  deities  and  spirits  of 
other  religions,  and  goes  even  further,  in  permitting  the  priests 
to  worship  the  gods  of  other  pantheons,  so  that  they  could  adapt 
themselves  to  the  popular  superstitions  of  the  countries  they  went 
to,  and  ingraft  all  the  foreign  spirits  into  their  calendar  they  saw 
fit.  They  had  a good  entrance  into  China  through  imperial  favor, 
and  as  their  rites  presented  nothing  cruel  or  revolting,  and  their 
tenets  held  out  promises  of  happiness  hereafter,  of  which  Confu- 
cius said  nothing,  the  people  naturally  looked  upon  them  with 
favor.  The  worship  of  the  manes  of  ancestors,  of  spirits  sup- 
posed to  pervade  and  rule  this  world,  and  every  superior  power, 
was  perfectly  compatible  with  the  reception  of  Budhism ; and 
thus  its  priests  gradually  became  the  high  priests  of  the  popular 
superstition,  and  have  since  remained  so.  They  first  ingratiated 
themselves  by  making  their  services  useful  in  the  indigenous 
ritual,  and  were  afterwards  looked  upon  as  necessary  for  its  exe- 


NUMBERS  AND  LITURGY  OF  THE  BUDHISTS. 


251 


cution.  They  propagated  their  doctrines  principally  by  books 
and  tracts,  rather  than  by  collecting  schools  or  disciples  in  their 
temples ; the  quiet  indolent  life  they  led,  apparently  absorbed  in 
books  and  worship,  and  yet  not  altogether  estranged  from  the 
world,  likewise  held  out  charms  to  some  people.  China  is  full 
of  temples,  in  most  of  which  Budhist  priests  are  found,  but  it  is 
not  quite  the  true  inference  to  suppose  that  all  the  buildings  were 
erected  or  the  priests  hired,  because  the  people  wished  to  do  reve- 
rence to  Budha.  It  is  impossible  to  state  the  proportion  in  which 
Budhist  priests  are  found ; there  are  124  in  Canton  alone,  con- 
taining idols  of  every  name  and  attribute,  in  most  of  which  they 
live  and  act  as  the  mediators  and  assistants  of  whoever  comes 
to  worship. 

The  tenets  of  Budhism  require  a renunciation  of  the  world, 
and  the  observance  of  austerities  to  overcome  evil  passions,  and 
fit  its  disciples  for  future  happiness.  A vow  of  celibacy  is  taken, 
and  the  priests  dwell  together  for  mutual  assistance  in  attaining 
perfection  by  worshipping  Budha,  and  calling  upon  his  name. 
They  shave  the  entire  head  as  a token  of  purity,  but  not  the 
whole  body,  as  the  ancient  Egyptian  priests  did ; they  profess  to 
eat  no  animal  food,  wear  no  skin  or  woollen  garments,  and  get 
their  living  by  begging,  by  the  alms  of  worshippers,  and  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  grounds  of  the  temple.  Much  of  their  support  is 
derived  from  the  sale  of  incense  sticks,  gilt  paper,  and  candles, 
and  fees  for  services  at  funerals.  In  the  monasteries  of  this 
sect,  like  the  Hai-chwang  sz’  atHonam,  the  people  only  occasion- 
ally worship,  the  priests  performing  the  whole  service ; but  in 
other  temples,  they  contrive  to  gain  a livelihood,  and  many  of  those 
better  situated,  derive  a large  portion  of  their  income  from  enter- 
taining strangers  of  wealth  and  distinction.  The  sale  of  charms, 
the  profits  of  theatrical  exhibitions,  the  fees  paid  by  neighbor- 
hoods for  feeding  hungry  ghosts  on  All-Souls’  day,  and  other 
incidental  services  performed  for  the  living  or  the  dead,  also  fur- 
nish resources.  Their  largest  monasteries  contain  extensive 
libraries,  and  a portion  of  the  fraternity  are  well  acquainted  with 
letters,  though  numbers  of  them  are  ignorant  even  of  their  own 
books.  Their  moral  character,  as  a class,  is  on  a par  with  their 
countrymen,  and  many  of  them  are  respectable,  intelligent,  and 
sober  minded  persons,  who  seem  to  be  sincerely  desirous  of  making 
themselves  better,  if  possible,  by  their  religious  observances. 


252 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  liturgy  is  in  the  language  of  Fan  or  Sanscrit,  with  which 
the  majority  are  unacquainted,  nor  have  they  many  bilingual 
glossaries  or  dictionaries  to  explain  the  words.  Dr.  Milne,  speak- 
ing of  the  use  of  unknown  tongues  in  liturgies,  thus  remarks : 
“ There  is  something  to  be  said  in  favor  of  those  Christians  who 
believe  in  the  magic  powers  of  foreign  words,  and  who  think  a 
prayer  either  more  acceptable  to  the  Deity,  or  more  suited  to 
common  edification,  because  the  people  do  not  generally  under- 
stand it.  They  are  not  singular  in  this  belief.  Some  of  the 
Jews  had  the  same  opinion  ; the  followers  of  Budha  and  Mo- 
hammed all  cherish  the  same  sentiment.  From  the  chair  of  his 
holiness  at  Rome,  and  eastward  through  all  Asia  to  the  mountain 
retreats  of  the  Yama-bus  in  Japan,  this  opinion  is  espoused. 
The  bloody  Druids  of  ancient  Europe,  the  gvmnosophists  of 
India,  the  Mohammedan  hatib,  the  Budhists  of  China,  the  tala- 
poins  of  Siam,  and  the  bonzes  of  Japan,  the  Romish  clergy,  the 
vartabeds  of  the  Armenian  church,  and  the  priests  of  the  Abys- 
sinian and  Greek  communions,  all  entertain  the  notion,  that  the 
mysteries  of  religion  will  be  the  more  revered  the  less  they  are 
understood,  and  the  devotions  of  the  people  (performed  by  proxy) 
the  more  welcome  in  heaven,  for  being  dressed  in  the  garb  of  a 
foreign  tongue.  Thus  the  synagogue  and  mosque,  the  pagan 
temple  and  Christian  church,  seem  all  to  agree  in  ascribing  mar- 
vellous efficacy  to  the  sounds  of  an  unknown  language  ; and,  as 
they  have  Jews  and  Mohammedans,  Abvssinians  and  pagans,  on 
their  side,  those  Christians,  who  plead  for  the  use  of  an  unknown 
tongue  in  the  services  of  religion,  have  certainly  the  majority. 
That  Scripture,  reason,  and  common  sense,  should  happen  to  be 
on  the  other  side,  is  indeed  a misfortune  for  them,  but  there  is  no 
help  for  it.”  * 

The  following  canon,  delivered  by  Fuh,  forexterminating  mis- 
fortune, is  extracted  from  the  Budhist  liturgy,  and  the  priest, 
while  repeating  it,  strikes  upon  a wooden  drum  shaped  like  a 
skull,  to  arouse  the  attention  of  the  god. 

“ Nan-mo  O-mi-to  po-ye,  to-ta-kia  to-ye,  to-tf-yi-ta  O-mi-lf-to  po-kw&n. 
O-mf-li-to,  sieh-tan-po-kw&n,  O-mi-lf-to,  kwan-kia-lan-ti  O-mf-lf-to,  kwSn- 
kia-lan-tf ; kia-mf-m  kia-kia-na,  chih-to-kia-lf  po-po-ho.” 

* Penny  Cyclopaedia,  Art.  Buddha.  Indochinese  Gleaner,  Vol.  Ill  , 
p 141  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  640. 


TENETS  AND  OBSERVANCES  OF  THE  BUDHISTS. 


253 


This  is  as  unintelligible  to  most  Chinese  Burlhists  as  it  is  to  the 
English  reader,  and  similar  invocations,  with  the  name  O-mi-to 
Full  (Amida  Budha)  are  repeated  thousands  and  myriads  of  times 
to  attain  perfection,  affording  a good  illustration  of  the  propriety 
of  our  Savior’s  direction,  “ When  ye  pray,  use  not  vain  repeti- 
tions as  the  heathen  do  ; for  they  think  they  shall  be  heard  for 
their  much  speaking.”  A plate,  in  one  Budhistic  work  contains 
5048  open  dots,  arranged  in  the  shape  of  a pear  ; each  dot  to  be 
filled  u.p  when  the  name  of  Budha  has  been  repeated  a hundred 
or  a thousand  times,  and  then  the  paper  to  be  burned  to  pass  into 
the  other  world  to  the  credit  of  the  devotee.  The  Budhists  have 
a system  of  merits  and  demerits,  which  Sir  John  Davis  notices, 
and  remarks,  “ that  this  method  of  keeping  a score  with  heaven  is 
as  foolish  and  dangerous  a system  of  morality  as  that  of  penances 
and  indulgences  in  the  Romish  church.”  In  this  Budhist  scale 
of  actions,  “ to  repair  a road,  make  a bridge,  or  dig  a well,  ranks 
as  ten  ; to  cure  a disease,  or  give  enough  ground  for  a grave,  as 
thirty  ; to  set  on  foot  some  useful  scheme,  ranks  still  higher.  On 
the  other  hand,  to  reprove  another  unjustly,  counts  as  three  on 
the  debtor  side  ; to  level  a tomb,  as  fifty  ; to  dig  up  a corpse,  as 
one  hundred  ; to  cut  off  a man’s  male  heirs,  as  two  hundred,  and 
so  on.”  This  notion  of  keeping  accounts  with  heaven  prevails 
among  all  classes  of  ihe  Chinese,  and  the  score  is  usually  settled 
about  the  end  of  the  year,  by  fasting  and  doing  charitable  acts, 
such  as  making  a piece  of  road,  repairing  a temple,  or  distribut- 
ing food,  to  prove  their  repentance,  and  benefit  the  world.  Fes- 
tival days  are  chosen  by  devout  people  to  distribute  alms  to  the 
poor,  and  on  such  occasions  troops  of  beggars  cluster  about  their 
doors,  holding  clap-dishes  in  their  outstretched  hands,  while  the 
donor  stands  behind  the  half  opened  door  dealing  out  the  rice. 

Considering  how  few  restraints  this  religion  imposes  on  the  evil 
propensities  of  the  human  heart,  and  how  easily  it  provides  for 
the  expiation  of  crimes,  it  is  surprising  that  it  has  not  had  as 
great  success  among  the  Chinese,  as  among  the  Tibetans,  Bir- 
mese,  and  Siamese.  The  probable  explanation  is,  the  thorough 
education  in  the  reasonable  teachings  of  the  classics,  and  the  want 
of  filial  duty,  so  repugnant  to  Chinese  ideas  of  propriety,  shown 
by  celibates  to  their  parents,  in  leaving  them  to  take  care  of 
themselves.  The  priests  have  always  had  the  better  judgment 
of  the  people  against  them,  and  being  shut  out  by  their  very  pro- 


254 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


fession  from  entering  into  society  as  companions  or  equals,  and 
regarded  as  servants,  to  be  sent  for  when  their  services  were 
wanted,  they  can  neither  get  nor  maintain  that  influence  over 
their  countrymen,  which  would  enable  them  to  fo.'m  a party,  or  a 
powerful  sect.  One  of  the  officers  of  Chingtih  of  the  Ming 
dynasty,  Wang  Yangning,  who  addressed  a remonstrance  to  his 
sovereign  against  sending  an  embassy  to  India,  to  fetch  thence 
books  and  priests  of  that  faith,  relies  for  his  chief  argument  on 
a comparison  between  the  precepts  and  tendency  of  the  Budhist 
faith,  and  the  higher  doctrines  of  the  classics,  proving  to  his  own 
satisfaction  that  the  latter  contained  all  the  good  there  was  in  the 
former,  without  its  nonsense  and  evil.  The  opposition  to  Budhism 
on  the  part  of  the  literati  has  been  in  fact  a controversy  between 
common  sense,  imperfectly  enlightened  indeed,  and  superstitious 
fear ; the  first  inclines  the  person  to  look  at  the  subject  with  refer- 
ence  to  the  principles  and  practical  results  of  the  system,  as 
exhibited  in  the  writings  and  lives  of  its  followers,  while,  not 
having  themselves  anything  to  look  forsvard  to  beyond  the  grave, 
they  are  still  led  to  entertain  some  of  its  dogmas,  because  there 
may  be  something  in  them  after  all,  and  they  have  themselves 
nothing  better.  The  result  is,  as  Dr.  Morrison  has  observed, 
“ Budhism  in  China  is  decried  by  the  learned,  laughed  at  by  the 
profligate,  yet  followed  by  all.”  The  paraphrase  and  commen- 
tary on  the  seventh  of  Kanghi’s  maxims  against  strange  religions 
present  a singular  anomaly,  for  while  the  emperor  decries  Bud- 
hism and  Rationalism,  and  exalts  the  “ orthodox  doctrine,”  as  he 
terms  the  teachings  of  the  classics,  he  was  himself  a daily  wor- 
shipper of  Budhist  idols  served  by  the  lamas. 

He  inveighs  against  selling  poor  children  to  the  priests,  in  no 
measured  terms,  and  shows  the  inutility  and  folly  of  repeating  the 
books  or  reciting  the  unintelligible  charms  written  by  the  priests, 
where  the  person  never  thought  of  performing  what  was  good. 
He  speaks  against  the  promiscuous  assemblage  of  men  and 
women  at  the  temples,  which  leads  to  unseemly  acts,  and  joins 
in  with  another  of  his  own  class,  who  remarked  in  reference  to  a 
festival,  “ That  most  of  the  worshippers  are  women,  who  like 
these  worshipping  days,  because  it  gives  them  an  opportunity  to 
see  and  be  seen  in  their  fine  clothes  ; and  most  of  the  men  who 
go  there,  go  to  amuse  themselves  and  look  at  the  women.” — “ The 
sum  of  the  whole  is,  these  dissolute  priests  of  Budha  are  lazy ; 


NUNNERIES  IN  CHINA. 


255 


they  will  neither  labor  in  the  fields,  nor  traffic  in  the  markets,  and 
being  without  food  and  clothing  they  set  to  work  and  invent  means 
of  deceiving  people.”  But  though  this  upholder  of  the  good  old 
way  well  exhibits  the  follies  of  these  idolatrous  sects,  he  has 
nothing  better  to  present  his  countrymen  than  “ the  two  living 
divinities  placed  in  the  family,”  nothing  to  lead  their  thoughts 
beyond  this  world ; his  best  advice  and  consolation  for  their 
troubled  and  wearied  souls  is,  “ Seek  not  for  happiness  beyond 
your  own  sphere;  perform  notan  action  beyond  the  bounds  of 
reason,  attend  solely  to  your  own  duty  ; then  you  will  receive  the 
protection  of  the  gods.”* 

The  mutual  forbearance  exhibited  by  the  different  sects  in 
China,  is  praiseworthy  so  far  as  it  goes,  but  the  government 
tolerates  no  denomination  suspected  of  interfering  with  its  own 
influence,  and  as  none  of  the  sects  have  any  state  patronage,  none 
of  them  hold  any  power  to  wield  for  persecution,  and  the  people 
soon  tire  of  petty  annoyances  and  unavailing  invectives.  The 
Budhists  perpetuate  their  priesthood  cnierly  by  purchasing  orphans 
and  poor  children,  and  rearing  them  ; persons  occasionally  enter 
late  in  life,  weary  with  the  vexations  of  the  world ; Mr.  Milne 
was  acquainted  with  one  who  had  two  sons  when  he  took  the 
vows  upon  him,  but  gave  himself  no  care  as  to  what  had  become 
of  them.  The  only  education  whicn  most  of  the  acolytes  receive 
consists  in  memorizing  the  prayers  in  tne  liturgy,  and  reading  the 
canonical  works,  of  which  there  is  a vast  collection.  A few  fra- 
ternities have  tutors  from  whom  they  receive  instruction. 

A few  nunneries  also  exist,  most  ot  them  under  the  patronage  of 
the  Holy  Mother,  Queen  of  Heaven.  From  the  account  given  by 
Mr.  Milne,  who  resided  in  one  at  Ningpo  for  a short  time,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  priests  advocate  their  establishment  as  a good  means 
of  working  upon  the  feelings  of  the  more  susceptible  part  of  society, 
to  whom  they  themselves  cannot  get  admittance.  The  succession 
among  the  “ sisters  ” is  kept  up  by  purchase,  and  by  self-consecra- 
tion ; the  feet  of  children  bought  young  are  not  bandaged.  The 
novice  is  not  admitted  to  full  orders  till  she  is  sixteen,  though 
previous  to  this  she  adopts  the  garb  of  the  sisterhood  ; the  only 
difference  consists  in  the  front  part  of  the  head  being  shaved,  and 

* Milne’s  Sacred  Edict,  pages  133-M3.  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  I., 
page  2 )7  ; Vol.  II.,  page  265. 


256 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  hair  plaited  in  a queue,  while  nuns  shave  the  whole.  It  is  not 
easy  to  distinguish  the  monks  from  the  nuns  as  they  walk  the 
streets,  for  both  have  natural  feet,  wear  clumsy  shoes,  long 
stockings  drawn  over  full  trousers,  short  jackets,  and  have  bald 
pates.  Like  her  sister  in  Romish  countries,  the  Chinese  nun, 
when  her  head  has  been  shaved — the  opposite  of  taking  the  veil, 
though  the  hair  of  both  is  sacrificed — is  required  to  live  a life  of 
devotion  and  mortification,  eat  vegetables,  care  nothing  for  the 
world,  and  think  only  of  her  eternal  canonization,  keeping  her- 
self busy  with  the  service  of  the  temple.  “ Daily  exercises  are 
to  be  conducted  by  her;  the  furniture  of  the  small  sanctuary  that 
forms  a part  of  the  convent  must  be  looked  after  and  kept  clean 
and  orderly ; those  women  or  men  who  come  to  worship  at  the 
altars,  and  seek  guidance  and  comfort,  must  be  cared  for  and 
assisted.  When  there  is  leisure,  the  sick  and  the  poor  are  to  be 
visited  ; and  all  who  have  placed  themselves  under  her  special 
direction  and  spiritual  instruction,  have  a strong  claim  upon  her 
regard.  That  she  may  live  the  life  of  seclusion  and  self-denial, 
she  must  vow  perpetual  virginity.  The  thought  of  marriage 
should  never  enter  her  head,  and  the  society  of  men  must  be 
shunned.  On  her  death,  she  will  be  swallowed  up  in  nihility  !” 
In  this  nunnery  at  Ningpo,  there  were  only  seven  inmates,  anO 
two  conducted  the  daily  services,  but  on  special  occasions,  nuns 
from  other  convents  and  priests  came  in  to  assist.  As  might  he 
supposed,  the  rehearsal  of  an  unmeaning  liturgy  before  a senseless 
idol  has  nothing  devotional  in  it : “ they  are  as  merry  and  trickv. 
as  flirting  and  frolicksome,  as  any  party  of  girls  met  to  keep  th'* 
birthday  of  one  of  their  schoolmates.” 

Most  of  them  are  taught  to  read  the  classics  as  well  as  their 
own  literature,  and  some  of  the  sisterhood  are  said  to  be  well  read 
in  the  lore  of  the  country.  Each  nun  has  her  own  disciples 
among  the  laity,  and  cultivates  and  extends  her  acquaintances  a® 
much  as  she  can,  inasmuch  as  upon  them  her  support  principally 
depends.  Each  of  her  patrons,  whether  male  or  female,  receives 
a new  name  from  her,  as  she  herself  also  did  when  her  head  wa° 
shaven.  Contributors’  names  are  written  or  engraved  in  con- 
spicuous places  in  the  building,  casual  fees  or  donations  go  to  th° 
general  expenses.  Each  nun  also  receives  ten  cents  when  pub- 
lic masses  are  recited  for  those  who  have  engaged  them.  Their 
moral  character  is  uniformly  represented  by  the  Chinese  a3  dis- 


SOLEMN  KITUAL  OF  THE  BUDHISTS. 


257 


solute,  and  they  are  both  despised  for  their  profligacy,  and  dreaded 
for  the  supposed  power  they  can  exert  by  means  of  their  con. 
nexion  with  spirits.  The  number  of  nunneries  in  the  department 
of  Ningpo  is  stated  to  be  thirty,  and  the  sisterhood  in  them  all  to 
amount  to  upwards  of  three  hundred  persons.* 

The  numerous  points  of  similarity  between  the  rites  of  the 
Budhists,  and  those  of  the  Romish  church,  early  attracted  atten- 
tion ; the  reader  will  have  already  noticed  some  of  these  coinci- 
dences, such  as  the  vow  of  celibacy  in  both  sexes,  the  object  of 
their  seclusion,  the  loss  of  hair,  taking  a new  name,  and  looking 
after  the  care  of  the  convent.  There  are  many  grounds  for  sup- 
posing, too,  that  their  favorite  goddess  Kwanyin,  i.  e.  the  Hearer 
of  Cries,  called  also  Holy  Mother,  Queen  of  Heaven,  is  only 
another  form  of  Our  Lady.  The  monastic  habit,  holy  water, 
counting  rosaries  to  assist  in  prayer,  the  ordinances  of  celibacy 
and  fasting,  and  reciting  masses  for  the  dead,  worship  of  relics 
and  canonization  of  saints,  are  alike  features  of  both  sects.  Both 
burn  candles  and  incense,  and  bells  are  much  used  in  their  tem- 
ples ; both  teach  a purgatory,  from  which  the  soul  can  be  delivered 
by  prayers,  and  use  a dead  language  for  their  liturgy,  and  their 
priests  pretend  to  miracles.  These  striking  resemblances  led  the 
Romish  missionaries  to  suppose  that  some  of  them  had  been  de- 
rived from  the  Romanists  or  Syrians  who  entered  China  before 
the  twelfth  century  ; others  referred  them  to  St.  Thomas,  but 
Premare  ascribes  them  to  the  devil,  who  had  thus  imitated  holy 
mother  church  in  order  to  scandalize  and  oppose  its  rites.  But 
as  Davis  observes,  “ To  those  who  admit  that  most  of  the  Romish 
ceremonies  are  borrowed  directly  from  paganism,  there  is  less 
difficulty  in  accounting  for  the  resemblance.” 

The  worship  is  similar  and  equally  imposing.  One  eyewitness 
describes  the  scene  he  saw  in  a Bud  hist  temple  : “ There  stood 
fourteen  priests,  seven  on  each  side  of  the  altar,  erect,  motionless, 
with  clasped  hands  and  downcast  eyes,  their  shaven  heads  and 
flowing  grey  robes  adding  to  their  solemn  appearance.  The  low 
and  measured  tones  of  the  slowly  moving  chant  they  were  sing- 
ing might  have  awakened  solemn  emotions,  too,  and  called  away 
the  thoughts  from  worldly  objects.  Three  priests  kept  time  with 
the  music,  one  beating  an  immense  drum,  another  a large  iron 


• Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XIII.,  pages  93-98. 


258 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


vessel,  and  a third  a wooden  ball.  After  chanting,  they  kneeled 
upon  low  stools,  and  bowed  before  the  colossal  image  of  Budha, 
at  the  same  time  striking  their  heads  upon  the  ground.  Then 
rising  and  facing  each  other,  they  began  slowly  chanting  some 
sentences,  and  rapidly  increasing  the  music  and  their  utterance 
until  both  were  at  the  climax  of  rapidity,  they  diminished  in 
the  same  way  until  they  had  returned  to  the  original  measure. 
In  the  meantime,  some  of  the  number  could  not  restrain  their 
curiosity,  and  even  while  chanting  and  counting  their  beads,  left 
their  places  to  ask  for  books.  The  whole  service  forcibly  re- 
minded me  of  scenes  in  Romish  chapels;  the  shaven  heads  of  the 
priests,  their  long  robes,  mock  solemnity,  frequent  prostrations, 
chantings,  beads,  yea,  and  their  idol  too,  all  suggested  their  types, 
or  their  antitypes  in  the  apostate  church.”* 

The  form  of  Budhism  prevailing  among  the  Mongols  and 
Tibetans  differs  more  in  its  state  and  power  than  in  its  doctrines ; 
it  is  called  Shamanism,  or  Hioang  kiau,  the  Yellow  doctrine,  from 
the  color  of  the  priestly  robes.  The  dalai  lama  at  H'lassa,  in  the 
great  monastery  of  the  Putala,  is  the  pope  of  the  religion,  the 
incarnation  of  deity.  Mongolia  swarms  with  lamas,  and  the 
government  at  Peking  aids  in  supporting  them  in  order  to  main- 
tain its  sway  more  easily  over  the  tribes,  though  the  Manchus 
have  endeavored  to  supplant  the  civil  authority  of  the  dalai-lama 
and  banchin-erdeni,  by  partial!}'  aiding  and  gradually  subdivid- 
ing their  power.  The  ritual  of  the  Shamans,  in  which  the  lead- 
ing tenets  held  and  taught  by  the  lamas  arc  exhibited,  has  been 
translated  by  Neumann,  a German  sinologue.  They  have  ten 
principal  precepts,  forming  a kind  of  decalogue,  viz.  1.  Do  not 
kill  sentient  beings ; 2.  Do  not  steal ; 3.  Do  not  marry  ; 4.  Speak 
not  falsely  ; 5.  Drink  not  w ine ; 6.  Perfume  not  the  hair  on  the 
crown  nor  paint  the  body  ; 7.  Do  not  behold  songs  or  plays,  and 
perform  none  thyself;  8.  Sit  not  nor  lie  on  a high  large  couch  ; 
9.  Do  not  eat  after  the  time  ; 10.  Do  not  grasp  hold  of  gold  or 
silver,  or  any  valuable  thing.  The  book  contains  also  twenty- 
four  sections  of  directions  as  to  the  conduct  to  be  observed  in 
various  places,  and  before  different  persons.  When  using  the 
sacred  books,  the  devotee  must  consider  himself  to  be  in  the  pre- 
sence of  Budha,  and  he  is  forbidden  to  study  books  of  divination, 

* Foreign  Missionary  Chronicle,  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  300. 


SHAMANISM  AND  LAMAS  IN  MONGOLIA. 


259 


physiognomy,  medicine,  drawing  lots,  astronomy,  geography, 
alchemy,  charms,  magic,  or  poetry  : — no  wonder  the  priests  are 
ignorant,  when  almost  every  source  of  instruction  is  thus  debarred 
them.  The  number  of  temples  scattered  over  Mongolia  and 
Tibet,  and  the  proportion  of  priests,  are  far  greater  than  in  China, 
and  the  literature  is  not  less  enormous  for  bulk  than  are  the  con- 
tents  of  the  volumes  tedious  and  uninstructive.  A good  device 
for  a religion  of  formality  to  economize  time  and  accommodate 
ignorance  is  adopted  by  the  lamas,  which  is  to  write  the  prayers 
on  a piece  of  paper  and  fasten  them  to  a wheel,  carried  round  by 
the  wind  ; chests  are  also  set  up  in  temples  having  prayers  for 
worshippers  engraved  on  the  outside  in  large  letters,  and  the 
prayer  is  repeated  as  often  as  the  wind  or  the  hand  revolves  the 
wheel  or  chest.  The  lamas  exert  a great  influence  through  their 
incantations  and  demoniacal  exhibitions,  and  no  intelligent  or 
educated  class  interposes  any  obstacle. 

The  hold  of  the  Budhists  upon  the  mass  of  Chinese  consists  far 
more  in  the  position  they  occupy  in  relation  to  the  rites  performed 
in  honor  of  the  dead,  than  in  their  temples  and  tenets.  This 
brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  real  religion  of  the  Chinese, 
that  in  which  more  than  anything  else  they  trust,  and  to  which 
they  look  for  consolation  and  reward, — the  worship  of  deceased 
ancestors.  The  doctrines  of  Confucius,  and  the  ceremonial  of 
the  state  religion,  exhibit  the  speculative,  intellectual  dogmas  of 
the  Chinese ; the  tenets  of  Lautsz’,  and  the  sorcery  and  invoca- 
tions of  his  followers,  may  be  regarded  as  the  marvellous  and 
subtle  part  of  the  popular  creed  ; while  the  idle,  shaven  priest 
of  Budha  impersonates  its  sensual  and  scheming  features ; but 
the  heart  of  the  nation  reposes  more  upon  the  rites  offered  at  the 
family  shrine  to  the  two  “ living  divinities  ” who  preside  in  the 
hall  of  ancestors  than  to  all  the  rest.  This  sort  of  family  wor- 
ship has  been  popular  in  other  countries,  but  in  no  part  of  jjw* 
world  has  it  reached  the  consequence  it  has  received-w-Rastern 
Asia  ; every  natural  feeling  serves,  indeed,  to  strengthen  it  when 
once  it  becomes  common.  Who  so  likely  to  watch  over  their  chil- 
dren, protect  from  harm,  and  rescue  from  danger,  cure  in  sick- 
ness and  preserve  in  health,  prosper  in  business  and  succor  in 
poverty,  as  those  who  had  performed  these  kindly  offices  when 
they  were  alive,  and  around  whom  the  best  affections  of  the  heart 
are  entwined  ? That  the  worship  rendered  to  their  ancestors 


260 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


by  the  Chinese,  is  idolatrous  cannot  be  doubted ; and  it  forms 
one  of  the  subtlest  phases  of  idolatry,  essentially  evil  with  the 
guise  of  goodness,  ever  established  among  men. 

The  prevalence  of  infanticide,  and  the  indifference  with  which 
the  crime  is  regarded,  may  seem  to  militate  against  this  view  of 
Chinese  social  character,  and  throw  discredit  on  the  degree  of 
respect  and  reverence  paid  to  parents  ; for  how,  some  will  ask, 
can  a man  thus  worship  and  venerate  parents  who  once  imbrued 
their  hands  in  his  sister’s  blood  ? Such  anomalies  may  be  found 
in  the  distorted  minds  and  depraved  hearts  educated  under  the 
superstitions  of  heathenism  in  every  country,  and  the  Chinese  are 
no  exception.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult,  however,  to  ascer- 
tain the  extent  of  infanticide  in  China,  and  all  the  reasons  which 
prompt  to  the  horrid  act.  Investigations  have  been  made  about 
Canton,  and  evidence  obtained  to  show  that  it  is  comparatively 
rare,  and  not  at  all  countenanced  by  public  opinion  ; though  by 
no  means  unknown,  nor  punished  by  law  when  done.  Similar 
investigations  at  Amoy  have  disclosed  a fearful  extent  of  murders 
of  this  nature  ; yet  while  the  latter  are  believed,  the  assertions  of 
the  former  are  regarded  as  evasions  of  the  truth  from  the  fear  of 
displeasing  a foreign  examiner,  or  a greater  sense  of  shame  when 
detected ! The  whole  nation  has  been  branded  as  systematic 
murderers  of  their  children  from  the  practice  of  the  inhabitants 
of  a portion  of  two  provinces,  who  are  generally  regarded  by  their 
countrymen  as  among  the  most  violent  and  poorest  people  in  the 
eighteen.  Sir  John  Barrow  heard  that  the  carts  went  about  the 
streets  of  Peking  daily,  to  pick  up  dead  and  dying  infants  thrown 
out  by  their  unnatural  parents,  but  he  does  not  mention  ever  hav. 
ing  seen  a single  corpse  in  all  his  walks  or  rides  about  the  capital. 
The  bodies  of  children  are  not  as  often  seen  in  the  lanes  and 
creeks  of  Canton  as  those  of  adults,  and  the  former  are  as  likely 
to  have  died  natural  deaths  as  the  latter. 

In  Fuhkien  province,  especially  in  the  departments  of  Tsiuen- 
chau  and  Changchau,  infanticide  prevails  to  a greater  extent  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  empire  yet  examined.  Mr.  Abeel  ex- 
tended his  inquiries  to  forty  different  towns  and  villages  lying  in 
the  first,  and  found  that  the  percentage  was  between  seventy  and 
eighty  down  to  ten,  giving  an  average  of  about  forty  per  cent, 
of  all  girls  born  in  those  places  being  murdered.  In  Changchau, 
out  of  seventeen  towns,  the  proportion  lies  between  one  fourth  and 


EXTENT  AND  REASONS  FOR  INFANTICIDE. 


261 


three  tenths,  in  some  places,  occasionally  rising  to  one  third,  and 
in  others  sinking  to  one  fifth,  making  an  average  of  one  fourth 
put  to  death.  In  other  departments  of  the  province,  the  practice 
is  confessed,  but  the  proportion  thought  by  intelligent  natives  to 
be  less,  since  there  was  less  poverty  and  fewer  people.  The  ex- 
amination was  conducted  in  as  fair  a manner  as  possible,  and 
persons  of  all  classes  questioned  as  to  the  number  of  children 
they  had  killed  themselves,  or  known  were  killed  by  their  rela- 
tives or  neighbors.  One  of  eight  brothers  told  him  that  only 
three  girls  were  left  among  all  their  children,  sixteen  having 
been  killed.  On  one  occasion,  he  visited  a small  village  on 
Amoy  I.,  called  Bo-au,  where  the  whole  population  turned  out 
to  see  him  and  Doct.  Cumming,  the  latter  of  whom  had  recently 
cut  out  a large  tumor  from  a fellow  villager.  He  says : — 

“ From  the  number  of  women  in  the  crowd  which  turned  out  to  greet 
us,  we  were  pretty  well  persuaded  that  they  were  under  as  little  restraint 
as  the  men  from  indulging  their  curiosity  ; and,  upon  inquiry,  found  it  to 
be  so.  We  were  conducted  to  a small  temple,  when  I had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  conversing  with  many  who  came  around  us.  On  a second  visit, 
while  addressing  them,  one  man  held  up  a child,  and  publicly  acknow- 
ledged that  he  had  killed  five  of  the  helpless  beings,  having  preserved 
but  two.  I thought  he  was  jesting,  but  as  no  surprise  or  dissent  was  ex- 
pressed by  his  neighbors,  and  as  there  was  an  air  of  simplicity  and  regret 
in  the  individual,  there  was  no  reason  to  doubt  its  truth.  After  repeating 
his  confession,  he  added  with  affecting  simplicity,  ‘It  was  before  I heard 
you  speak  on  this  subject,  I did  not  know  it  was  wrong ; I would  not  do 
so  now.’  Wishing  to  obtain  the  testimony  of  the  assembled  villagers,  I 
put  the  question  publicly,  ‘ What  number  of  female  infants  in  this  village 
are  destroyed  at  birth?’  The  reply  was,  ‘More  than  one  half.’  As 
there  was  no  discussion  among  them,  which  is  not  the  case  when  they 
differ  in  opinion,  and  as  we  were  fully  convinced  from  our  own  observa- 
tion of  the  numerical  inequality  of  the  sexes,  the  proportion  of  deaths 
they  gave  did  not  strike  us  as  extravagant.” 

The  reasons  assigned  for  committing  the  unnatural  deed  are 
various.  Poverty  is  the  leading  cause  ; the  alternative  being,  as 
the  parents  think,  a life  of  infamy  or  slavery,  since  if  they  can- 
not rear  their  offspring  themselves,  they  must  sell  them.  The 
fact  of  the  great  numbers  of  men  whc  emigrate  to  the  Archipelago 
has  no  doubt  also  had  its  effect  in  inducing  parents  to  destroy 
daughters,  for  whom  they  had  little  expectation  of  finding  hus- 


262 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


bands  if  they  did  rear  them.  Many  who  are  able  to  support  their 
daughters,  prefer  to  destroy  them  rather  than  incur  the  expenses 
of  their  marriage,  which  are  sometimes  great,  but  the  investiga- 
tion  showed  that  the  crime  was  rather  less  among  the  educated 
than  the  ignorant,  and  that  they  had  done  something  to  dissuade 
their  poor  neighbors  from  putting  their  girls  to  death.  In  the 
adjoining  departments  of  Chauchau  and  Kiaying  in  Kwangtung, 
the  people  admit  that  the  practice  is  frequent,  and  as  their  cir- 
cumstances are  similar,  it  is  probable  that  it  is  not  much  less 
than  around  Amoy.  While  one  of  the  worst  features  of  the 
crime  is  the  little  degree  of  detestation  everywhere  expressed  at 
it,  yet  the  actual  proportion  is  an  important  inquiry,  and  taking 
the  whole  nation,  has  been  much  exaggerated,  chiefly  from  ap- 
plying such  facts  and  estimates  as  the  preceding  to  the  whole 
country.  The  lieut. -governor  of  Canton  once  issued  a dissuasive 
exhortation  on  this  subject  to  the  people,  telling  them  that  if  they 
destroyed  all  their  daughters  they  would  soon  have  no  mothers. 
Until  investigations  have  been  made  elsewhere,  it  is  not  fair  to 
charge  all  the  Chinese  with  the  atrocities  of  a small  portion,  nor 
to  disbelieve  the  affirmations  of  the  inhabitants  of  Canton,  Ningpo, 
and  Shanghai,  and  elsewhere,  that  they  do  not  usually  put  their 
daughters  to  death,  until  we  have  overw  helming  testimony  that 
they  deny  and  conceal  what  they  are  ashamed  to  confess.* 

The  ceremonies  practised  on  the  decease  of  a person  vary  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  though  they  are  not  necessarily 
elaborate  or  expensive  anywhere,  and  all  the  important  ones  can 
be  performed  by  the  poorest.  The  inhabitants  of  Fuhkien  put  a 
piece  of  silver  in  the  mouth  of  the  dying  person,  and  carefully 
cover  his  nose  and  ears.  Scarcely  is  he  dead,  when  they  make 
a hole  in  the  roof  to  facilitate  the  exit  of  the  spirits  proceeding 
from  his  body,  of  which  they  imagine  each  person  possesses 
seven  animal  senses  which  die  with  him,  and  three  souls,  one 
of  which  enters  elvsium  and  receives  judgment,  another  abides 
with  the  tablet,  and  a third  dwells  in  the  tomb.  The  popular  ideas 
regarding  their  fate  vary  so  much  that  it  is  difficult  to  describe 
the  national  faith  in  this  respect ; transmigration  is  more  or  less 
believed  in,  but  the  detail  of  the  changes  the  good  or  evil  spirit 
undergoes  before  it  is  absorbed  in  Budha  varies  ad  libitum, 

•Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XII.,  pp.  040-548;  Vol.  XI.,  p.  508;  Vol. 
VJl.,  p.  54.  Smith’s  China,  p.  443. 


FUNERAL  CEREMONIES. 


263 


almost  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  worshipper.  Those  who  are 
sent  to  hell  pass  through  every  form  of  suffering  inflicted  upon 
them  by  hideous  monsters,  and  are  at  last  released  to  wander 
about  as  houseless  demons  to  torment  mankind,  or  vex  themselves 
in  the  body  of  animals  and  reptiles.  When  the  priests  come,  the 
corpse  is  laid  out  upon  the  floor  in  the  principal  room,  and  a tab- 
let  set  up  by  its  side  ; a table  is  near,  on  which  are  placed  meats, 
lamps,  and  incense.  While  the  priests  are  reciting  prayers  to 
deliver  the  soul  from  purgatory  and  hell,  they  occasionally  call 
on  all  present  to  weep  and  lament,  and  on  these  occasions,  the 
females  of  the  household  are  particularly  clamorous  in  their  grief, 
alternately  uttering  the  most  doleful  accents,  and  then  tittering 
with  some  of  the  new  comers.  Papers  having  figures  on  them, 
and  Peter’s  pence  in  the  form  of  paper  money,  are  burned,  white 
lanterns,  instead  of  the  common  red  ones,  and  a slip  of  paper 
containing  the  name  and  titles,  age,  &c.,  of  the  dead  are  hung 
up  at  the  door ; a mat  porch  is  put  up  for  the  musicians  and  the 
priests.  The  soul,  having  crossed  the  bridge  leading  out  of  hell 
with  the  aid  of  the  priests,  gets  a letter  of  recommendation  from 
them  to  be  admitted  into  the  western  heavens. 

Previous  to  burial,  a lucky  place  for  interment,  if  the  family 
have  moved  away  from  its  paternal  sepulchre,  must  be  found. 
The  body  is  coffined  soon  after  death,  arrayed  in  the  most  splen- 
did habiliments  the  family  can  afford  ; a fan  is  put  in  one  hand, 
and  a prayer  on  a piece  of  paper  in  the  other.  The  form  of  a 
Chinese  coffin  resembles  the  trunk  of  a tree ; the  boards  are  three 
or  four  inches  thick,  and  rounded  on  top,  from  whence  a coffin 
is  called  “ longevity  boards,”  making  a very  substantial  case. 
When  the  corpse  is  put  in,  it  is  laid  in  a bed  of  lime  or  cotton, 
or  covered  with  quicklime,  and  the  edges  of  the  lid  are  closed 
with  mortar  in  the  groove,  so  that  no  smell  escapes;  and  the 
coffin  varnished,  if  it  is  to  remain  in  the  house  before  burial. 
The  Chinese  often  expend  large  sums  in  the  purchase  and  pre- 
paration of  a coffin  during  their  lifetime  ; the  cheapest  are  from 
$5  to  $10,  and  upwards  to  five  hundred  dollars,  and  even  one  or 
two  thousand,  according  to  the  materials  and  ornamenting. 

The  bodies  of  deceased  persons  are  sometimes  kept  in  or 
about  the  house  for  many  years,  and  incense  burned  before  them 
morning  and  evening;  they  are  placed  either  on  trestles  near 
the  doorway,  and  protected  by  a covering,  in  the  principal  hall,  or 


264 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


in  the  ancestral  chamber,  where  they  remain  until  the  fortunes 
of  the  family  improve  so  as  to  enable  them  to  bury  the  remains, 
or  a lucky  place  is  found,  or  until  opportunity  and  means  allow 
the  survivors  to  lay  them  in  their  patrimonial  sepulchre. 

The  lineal  relatives  of  the  deceased  are  informed  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  and  as  many  as  can  do  so  repair  to  the  house  to  con- 
dole with  and  assist  the  family.  The  eldest  son  or  the  nearest 
descendant  repairs  to  an  adjoining  river  or  well,  with  a bowl  in 
his  hand,  and  accompanied  by  two  relatives,  to  “ buy  water  ” 
with  money  which  he  carries  and  throws  into  it ; with  this  water 
he  washes  the  corpse  before  it  is  dressed.  After  the  body  is  laid 
in  the  coffin,  and  before  interment,  the  sons  of  the  deceased 
among  the  poor  are  frequently  sent  around  to  the  relatives  and 
friends  of  the  family  to  solicit  subscriptions  to  buy  a grave,  hire 
mourners,  or  provide  a suitable  sacrifice,  and  it  is  considered  a 
good  act  to  assist  in  such  cases ; perhaps  fear  of  the  ill-will  of 
the  displeased  spirit  prompts  to  the  charity.  The  coffin  is  some- 
times seized  or  attached  by  creditors,  to  compel  the  relatives  to 
collect  a sum  to  release  it,  and  instances  of  filial  sons  are  men- 
tioned who  have  sold  themselves  into  temporary  or  perpetual 
slavery  in  order  to  raise  money  to  bury  their  parents.  On  the 
day  of  burial,  a sacrifice  of  cooked  provisions  is  laid  out  and  the 
coffin  placed  near  it.  The  chief  mourners,  clothed  in  coarse 
white  sackcloth,  then  approach  and  kneel  before  it,  knocking  their 
heads  upon  the  ground,  and  going  through  with  the  ftill  ceremo- 
ny ; two  persons  dressed  in  mourning,  hand  them  incense  sticks 
which  are  placed  in  jars.  After  the  male  mourners  have  made 
their  parting  prostrations,  the  females  perform  the  same  cere- 
monies ; and  then  such  friends  and  relations  as  are  present ; 
during  these  observances  a band  of  music  plays.  The  funeral 
procession  is  formed  of  all  these  persons,  the  band,  the  tablets 
priests,  &c. 

Burial-places  are  selected  by  geomancers,  who,  if  the  family 
be  rich,  protract  their  decision  to  a tedious  length.  The  doctrines 
of  th e fung  shivui,  or  “ wind  and  water  rules,”  are  as  ridiculous 
a farrago  of  nonsense,  superstition,  and  craft,  as  have  ever  held 
sway  over  the  human  mind  in  any  country  or  age ; and  it  is  not 
more  surprising  than  melancholy  to  see  a people  like  the  Chinese 
so  completely  befooled  by  them.  The  professors  of  the  art  are 
usually  acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Budhists  and  Ration- 


r0RJI  AND  SITUATION  OF  GRAVES. 


265 


alists,  have  a smattering  of  medicine  and  astronomy,  and  join 
thereto  almost  any'hocuspocus  they  please.  The  propitious  in- 
fluences of  a grave  are  easily  vitiated,  and  calamities  are  referred 
to  this  cause  by  the  geomancers,  who  then  have  the  prospect  of 
another  job.  Mr.  Brown  mentions  the  case  of  one  necromancer, 
who,  after  having  selected  a grave  for  a family,  was  attacked 
with  ophthalmia,  and  in  revenge  for  their  giving  him  poisonous 
food  which  he  supposed  had  caused  the  malady,  hired  men  to 
remove  a large  mass  of  rock  near  the  grave,  whereby  its  efficacy 
was  completely  spoiled.  The  side  of  a hill  in  view  of  water,  a 
copse,  or  a ravine  near  a hill-top,  are  all  lucky  spots. 

Care  is  taken  to  choose  a spot  which  the  water  cannot  reach, 
and  at  the  south,  uncultivated  hills  are  selected  for  burial-places, 
because  they  are  dry,  and  the  white  ants  will  not  attack  the  coffin ; 
but  at  the  north,  where  ants  are  unknown,  the  dead  are  buried 
in  fields  and  cultivated  land.  They  are  nowhere  collected  in 
gravej’ards  in  cities  or  temples,  as  is  the  practice  in  western 
countries,  where  sometimes  the  living  are  jeoparded  to  honor  the 
dead.  The  forms  of  the  grave  vary,  sometimes  consisting  of  a 
simple  tumulus  with  a tombstone  at  the  head,  but  in  the  southern 
provinces  oftener  in  the  shape  of  the  Greek  letter  2.  or  that  of  a 
huge  arm  chair.  The  back  of  the  supposed  chair  is  the  place 
for  the  tombstone,  while  the  body  is  interred  in  the  seat,  the  sides 
of  which  are  built  around  with  masonry,  and  approach  each 
other  in  front.  The  whole  is  occasionally  built  of  stone  in  a 
substantial  manner,  and  carved  pillars  are  placed  at  the  corners. 
The  position  is  thought  to  be  the  better  if  it  command  a good 
view,  as  the  spirit  of  the  defunct  will  be  better  satisfied.  Some 
of  the  graves  occupy  many  hundred  square  feet,  the  lot  being 
defined  by  a low  stone,  bearing  two  characters,  importing  whose 
chih  or  house  it  is ; and  large  sums  are  expended  by  the  rich 
upon  the  sculpture  and  building  of  the  tomb.  The  carving  in 
some  cases  is  very  elaborate,  and  in  others  the  sculptures  are 
arranged  for  effect.  Mr.  Fortune  mentions  one  tomb  near  Sung- 
kiang  fu,  which  was  situated  on  a hill-side,  to  be  reached  by  a 
stone  stairway,  on  each  side  of  which  were  statues  of  goats,  dogs, 
cats,  horses  ready  Saddled  and  bridled,  and  lastly  two  gigantic 
priests,  a pair  of  each ; the  tomb  itself  was  hidden  from  view  by 
trees.  The  shapes  of  graves  vary  more  at  the  north,  some  of 
them  being  conical  ^pounds  planted  with  shrubs  or  flowers,  others 

VOL.  II.  13 


260 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


made  of  masonwork  shaped  like  little  houses,  others  mere  square 
tombs,  or  earthy  tumuli,  and  not  a few  coffins  are  laid  upon  the 
ground.  It  is  seldom  the  Chinese  hew  graves  out  of  the  rock, 
or  dig  large  vaults ; their  care  is  to  make  a showy  grave,  and  at 
the  same  time  a convenient  one  for  performing  the  prescribed 
rites. 

When  the  day  of  interment  arrives,  which  is  usually  the  nearest 
lucky  day  to  the  third  seventh  after  death,  the  friends  assemble 
at  the  house.  A band  of  musicians  accompanies  the  procession, 
in  which  is  also  carried  the  ancestral  tablet  of  the  deceased  in  a 
separate  sedan,  accompanied  sometimes  by  a sacrifice  and  the 
tablets  of  the  offices  and  dignities  of  the  family.  The  mourners 
are  dressed  entirely  in  white,  or  wear  a white  fillet  around  the 
head ; the  sons  of  the  deceased  must  put  on  the  expression  and 
habiliments  of  woe,  and  the  eldest  one  is  at  times  supported  along 
the  street  to  the  grave  in  all  the  eloquence  and  attitude  of  grief, 
although  it  may  have  been  years  since  his  father  went  to  “ wan- 
der among  the  genii.”  The  women  and  children  of  the  family 
follow,  and  at  intervals  cry  and  wail.  A man  goes  ahead  and 
scatters  paper  money  in  the  way  to  purchase  the  goodwill  of  such 
wandering  spirits  as  are  prowling  about.  Different  figures  and 
banners  are  carried  according  to  the  means  and  rank  of  the 
family,  which,  with  the  friends  and  crowd  attracted  by  the  show, 
sometimes  swell  the  train  to  a great  length.  The  grave  is  deep, 
and  lime  is  freely  mixed  with  the  earth  thrown  in  ; a body  is 
never  put  into  an  old  grave,  while  anything  remains  of  the  for- 
mer occupant ; crackers  are  fired,  libations  poured  out,  and 
prayers  recited,  and  afterwards  papers,  folded  into  the  shape  of 
clothes,  horses,  money,  and  everything  he  can  possibly  want  in 
the  land  of  shadows  (which  Davis  calls  a wise  economy ),  are 
burned  for  the  use  of  the  deceased.  The  tablet  and  sacrifice 
are  then  carried  back,  and  the  family  feast  on  the  latter,  or  dis- 
tribute it  among  the  poor  around  the  door,  while  the  former  is 
placed  in  the  ancestral  hall.  The  married  daughters  of  the 
dead  are  not  considered  part  of  the  family,  and  wear  no  mourn- 
ing ; nor  are  they  always  invited  to  their  father’s  funeral. 

The  period  of  mourning  for  a father  is  nominally  three  years, 
but  actually  reduced  to  twenty-seven  months ; the  persons  re- 
quired to  observe  this  are  enumerated  in  the  Code,  and  Secs, 
clxxix — clxxxi,  contain  the  penalties  for  concealing  the  death  of 


COSTUMES  AND  PERIOD  OF  MOURNING. 


267 


a parent,  or  misrepresenting  it,  and  of  omitting  the  proper  for- 
malities. Burning  the  corpse,  or  casting  it  into  the  water,  unfeel- 
ingly exposing  it  in  the  house  longer  than  a year,  and  making  the 
funeral  ceremony  and  feast  an  occasion  of  merrymaking,  and 
indecorous  meeting  of  males  and  females,  are  also  prohibited. 
For  thirty  days  after  the  demise,  the  nearest  kindred  must  not 
shave  their  heads  nor  change  their  dress,  but  rather  exhibit  a 
slovenly,  slipshod  appearance,  as  if  grief  had  taken  away  both 
appetite  and  decorum.  Half  mourning  is  blue,  and  this  is  usually 
exhibited  in  a pair  of  blue  shoes  and  a blue  silken  cord  woven  in 
the  queue,  instead  of  a red  one  ; grass  shoes  neatly  made,  are  now 
and  then  worn.  The  visiting  cards  also  indicate  that  the  time  of 
mourning  has  not  passed.  The  expenses  of  money  and  time  in- 
curred by  the  rich  are  great,  and  in  some  cases  the  priests  receive 
large  sums  for  masses.  Two  funerals,  at  Canton,  are  mentioned 
in  Bridgman’s  Letters  from  China  as  having  cost  more  than  ten 
thousand  dollars  each.* 

When  the  empress  dies,  officers  are  required  to  put  on  mourning, 
take  the  buttons  and  fringes  from  their  caps,  stamp  their  seals 
with  blue,  instead  of  red  ink,  and  go  through  a prescribed  set  of 
ceremonies;  they  must  not  shave  their  heads  fora  hundred  days, 
nor  the  people  for  a month.  Full  details  of  the  ceremonies  or- 
dered on  the  occasion  of  the  decease  of  the  empress,  or  “ interior 
assistant,  who  for  thirteen  years  had  held  the  situation  of  earth  to 
heaven,”  were  published  in  1833,  in  both  Manchu  and  Chinese. 
When  the  emperor  dies,  all  his  subjects  let  their  hair  grow  for  a 
hundred  days,  marriages  are  postponed,  theatres  and  sports  disal- 
lowed, and  a ceremonial  gloom  and  dishabille  pervades  the  empire. 
De  Guignes  says  the  emperor  Shunchi  ordered  thirty  persons  to 
be  immolated  at  the  funeral  of  his  consort ; but  Kanghi,  his  son, 
forbade  four  women  from  sacrificing  themselves  on  the  death  of 
his  empress. 

In  the  drawing  on  ^the  next  page,  the  tablets  are  arranged  on 
the  same  level,  and  the  sacrifice  laid  on  the  altar  before  them ; 
the  character  shau,  “ longevity,”  is  drawn  on  the  wall  behind. 
During  the  ceremonies,  fire-crackers  are  let  off  and  papers 
burned,  and  after  it  the  feast  is  spread. 

* Letters  froru  China,  p.  16.  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  352, 
Vol.  II.,  p.  499. 


268 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM 


Ancestral  Hall,  anil  Mode  of  Worshipping  the  Tablets. 

The  hall  of  ancestors  is  found  in  the  house  of  almost  e’ery 
member  of  the  family,  hut 

rich  families  it  is  a separate  building  , >n  othema^  ^ 

for  the  purpose,  and  in  men)  ' house  of  the  spirit,  about 

consists  of  a board  ca  e s un  , • ^ . ht  in  a block,  and 

twelve  inches  long  and  tine  ’ 5 1 , . j death,  carved  in 

„ ,1?  the  ?£  °cfutb ilh,r:  bach,  'co„,aiumg 

C of  note  bearing  the  names  of  the  higher  ancestors,  or 

p,eces  of  pape.  be. g InooIlse  and  papers  are  daily 
other  members  ot  t a b w or  act  0f  homage, 

burned  before  them,  aoeomp“  1 The  tab|,its  are  ranged 

SS^rX^o^e  Lme  generation  being  placed 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  ANCESTRAL  WORSHIP. 


269 


in  a line  When  the  hall  is  large,  and  the  family  rich,  no  pains 
are  spared  to  adorn  it  with  banners,  and  insignia  of  wealth  and 
rank,  and  on  festival  days  it  serves  as  a convenient  place  for 
friends  to  meet,  or  indeed  for  any  extraordinary  family  occasion. 
A person  residing  near  Macao  spent  about  $1500  in  the  erection 
of  a hall,  and  on  the  dedication  day,  the  female  members  of  his 
family  assembled  with  his  sons  and  descendants,  to  assist  in  the 
ceremonies.  The  portraits  of  the  deceased  are  also  suspended  in 
the  hall,  but  effigies  or  images  are  not  now  made. 

In  the  first  part  of  April,  during  the  term  called  Ising-ming,  a 
general  worship  of  ancestors,  called  pai  slian,  or  “ worshipping 
at  the  hills,”  is  observed.  The  whole  population,  men,  women, 
and  children,  repair  to  their  family  tombs,  carrying  a tray  con- 
taining the  sacrifice,  and  libations  for  offering,  and  the  candles, 
paper,  and  incense,  for  burning,  and  there  go  through  a variety 
of  ceremonies  and  prayers.  The  grave  is  also  carefully  repaired 
and  swept,  and  at  the  close  of  the  service,  three  pieces  of  turf 
are  placed  at  the  back  and  front  of  the  grave,  to  retain  long  strips 
of  red  and  white  paper ; this  indicates  that  the  accustomed  rites 
have  been  performed,  and  these  fugitive  testimonials  remain  flut- 
tering in  the  wind,  long  enough  to  announce  it  to  all  the  friends 
as  well  as  enemies  of  the  family  ; for  when  a grave  has  been 
neglected  three  years,  it  is  sometimes  dug  over,  and  the  land 
resold.  “ Such  are  the  harmless,  if  not  meritorious  forms  of 
respect  for  the  dead,”  says  Davis,  “ which  the  Jesuits  wisely 
tolerated  in  their  converts,  knowing  the  consequences  of  outrag- 
ing their  most  cherished  prejudices  ; but  the  crowds  of  ignorant 
monks,  who  flocked  to  the  breach  which  those  scientific  and  able 
men  had  opened,  jealous,  perhaps,  of  their  success,  brought  this 
as  a charge  against  them,  until  the  point  became  one  of  serious 
controversy,  and  reference  to  the  pope.  His  holiness  espoused 
the  bigoted  and  unwiser  part,  which  led  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
monks  of  all  varieties.”  And  elsewhere,  he  says,  the  worship 
paid  to  ancestors  is  “ not  exactly  idolatrous,  for  they  sacrifice  to 
the  invisible  spirit,  and  not  to  any  representation  of  it  in  the 
figure  of  an  idol.”  This  distinction  is  much  the  same  as  that 
alleged  by  the  Greek  church,  which  disallows  images,  but  per- 
mits gold  and  silver  pictures,  having  the  face  and  hands  only 
painted  ; for  Sir  John  Davis,  himself  being  a Protestant,  probably 
admits,  that  worship  paid  to  any  other  object  besides  the  true 


270 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


God  is  idolatry  ; and  that  the  Chinese  do  worship  their  ancestors, 
and  implore  their  assistance,  is  evident  from  the  prayer  offered 
at  the  tombs,  a translation  of  one  of  which  is  here  introduced. 

“ Taukwang,  12th  year,  3d  moon,  1st  day.  I,  Lin  Kwang,  the  second 
son  of  the  third  generation,  presume  to  come  before  the  grave  of  my 
ancestor,  Lin  Kung.  Revolving  years  have  brought  again  the  season  of 
spring.  Cherishing  sentiments  of  veneration,  I look  up  and  sweep  your 
tomb.  Prostrate  I pray  that  you  will  come  and  be  present ; and  that  you 
will  grant  to  your  posterity  that  they  may  be  prosperous  and  illustrious ; 
at  this  season  of  genial  showers  and  gentle  breezes,  I desire  to  recom- 
pense the  root  of  my  existence,  and  exert  myself  sincerely.  Always 
grant  your  safe  protection.  My  trust  is  in  your  divine  spirit.  Reve- 
rently, I present  the  five-fold  sacrifice  of  a pig,  a fowl,  a duck,  a goose, 
and  a fish;  also,  an  offering  of  five  plates  of  fruit,  with  libations  of 
spirituous  liquors,  earnestly  entreating  that  you  will  come  and  view 
them.  With  the  most  attentive  respect,  this  annunciation  is  presented 
on  high.” 

It  is  not  easy  to  perceive,  perhaps,  why  the  pope  and  the  Domi- 
nicans were  so  much  opposed  to  the  worship  of  ancestral  penates 
among  the  Chinese,  when  they  performed  much  the  same  services 
themselves  before  the  images  of  Mary,  Joseph,  Cecilia,  Ignatius, 
and  hundreds  of  other  deified  mortals;  but  it  is  somewhat  sur- 
prising that  a Protestant  should  describe  this  worship  as  consist- 
ing of  “ harmless,  if  not  meritorious  forms  of  respect  for  the 
dead.”  Mr.  Fortune,  too,  thinks  “a  considerable  portion  of  this 
worship  springs  from  a higher  and  purer  source  than  a mere 
matter  of  form,  and  that  when  the  Chinese  periodically  visit  the 
tombs  of  their  fathers,  to  worship  and  pay  respect  to  their  me- 
mory, they  indulge  in  the  pleasing  reflection,  that  when  they 
theipselves  are  no  more  their  graves  will  not  be  neglected  or  for- 
gotten.” This  feeling  no  doubt  actuates  them,  but  it  is  mingled 
with  idolatry ; and  there  can  be  no  dispute,  one  would  think, 
about  its  idolatrous  character ; and  it  is  an  idolatry,  too,  which  is 
likely  to  form  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  spread  of  the 
gospel.  The  few  Chinese  who  have  embraced  the  doctrines  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  who  may  be  supposed  qualified  to  judge 
of  their  own  acts  and  feelings,  regard  the  rites  as  superstitious 
and  sinful.  It  is  a form  of  worship,  indeed,  which  presents  fewer 
revolting  features  than  most  systems  of  false  religion,  merely  con- 
sisting of  pouring  out  libations,  and  burning  paper  and  candles 


DISPOSAL  OF  THE  DEAD. 


271 


at  the  grave,  and  then  a family  meeting  at  a social  feast,  with  a 
few  simple  prostrations  and  petitions.  No  bacchanalian  compa- 
nies of  men  and  women  run  riot  over  the  hills,  as  in  the  Eleu 
sinian  mysteries,  nor  are  obscene  rites  practised  in  the  house ; all 
is  pleasant,  decorous,  and  harmonious,  the  junior  members  of  the 
family  coming  from  a distance,  sometimes  two  or  three  hundred 
miles,  to  observe  it,  and  the  family  meeting  on  this  occasion  is 
looked  forward  to  by  all  with  much  the  same  feelings  that  Christ- 
mas is  in  Old  England,  or  Thanksgiving  in  New  England. 
Brothers  and  sisters,  cousins  and  friends,  join  in  the  worship  and 
the  feast,  and  it  is  this  intimate  and  pleasant  reunion  of  dear  ones, 
perhaps  the  most  favorable  to  the  cementing  of  family  affection 
to  be  found  in  heathen  society,  which  constitutes  its  power,  and 
will  present  such  an  obstacle  to  the  reception  of  the  gospel,  and 
removal  of  the  “ two  divinities  ” from  the  house. 

The  funeral  ceremonies  here  described  are  performed  by  chil- 
dren for  their  parents,  especially  for  the  father  ; but  there  are  few 
or  no  ceremonies  and  little  expense,  for  infants,  unmarried  chil- 
dren, concubines,  or  slaves.  These  are  coffined  and  buried  with- 
out parade  in  the  family  sepulchre  ; the  poor  sometimes  tie  them 
up  in  mats  and  boards,  and  lay  them  in  the  fields,  to  shock  the 
eyes  and  noses  of  all  who  pass.  The  municipal  authorities  of 
Canton  issued  orders  to  the  people  in  1832,  to  bring  such  bodies 
as  had  no  place  of  burial  to  the  potter’s  field,  where  they  would 
be  interred  at  public  expense  ; and  societies  exist  in  all  the 
large  cities,  whose  object  is  to  bury  poor  people.  In  some  parts 
the  body  is  wrapped  in  cloth  or  coffined,  and  laid  in  graveyards 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground  ; but  a more  common  disposition  of 
the  poor  dead  is  to  erect  buildings  for  receiving  the  coffins,  where 
they  remain  many  years.  Few  acts,  during  the  late  war,  irri- 
tated the  people  about  Canton  against  the  English  more  than 
forcing  open  the  coffins  found  in  these  mausolea,  and  mutilating 
the  corpses.  One  building  near  the  city  walls  contained  hun- 
dreds of  coffins,  from  which,  when  opened,  a pungent  aromatic 
smell  was  perceptible,  and  the  features  presented  a dried  appear- 
ance. One  of  the  Romish  missionaries  tells  a story  of  his  guide, 
when  he  was  conducting  him  over  the  hills  in  Hupeh,  ordering 
him  to  conceal  his  blue  eyes,  by  putting  on  green  spectacles, 
as  they  were  approaching  some  houses,  and  describes  his  surprise 
at  finding  them  all  filled  with  coffins  arranged  in  an  orderly  man- 


272 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


ner.  Graves  are  seldom  inclosed  by  a fence,  cattle  pasture 
among  them,  and  paths  lead  over  and  through  them. 

Epitaphs  are  very  simple,  merely  stating  what  dynasty  reigns, 
where  the  deceased  was  born,  what  generation  of  the  family  he 
belonged  to,  and  his  ancestral  name.  Dr.  Medhurst  describes 
some  square,  dome-covered  tombs  in  Shantung  like  topes,  desti- 
tute of  inscription,  but  very  solidly  built.  He  also  noticed  one 
stone  in  that  province,  bearing  an  epitaph  to  the  memory  of  a 
faithful  wife  by  a sorrowing  husband.  Laudatory  expressions 
are  very  rare  on  Chinese  tombstones,  nor  are  quotations  from  the 
classics,  or  stanzas  of  poetry,  introduced  to  convey  a sentiment. 
The  corpses  of  officers  who  die  at  their  stations  are  carried  to 
their  paternal  tombs,  sometimes  at  the  public  expense,  and  the 
emperor,  in  some  instances,  orders  all  the  funeral  rites  of  distin- 
guished statesmen  to  be  defrayed  out  of  the  treasury  ; this  was 
done  during  the  late  war,  in  the  cases  of  commissioner  Yukien, 
and  General  Hailing,  who  burned  himself  at  Chinkiang  fu. 

Besides  these  funeral  rites  and  religious  ceremonies  to  their 
departed  ancestors,  the  Chinese  have  an  almost  infinite  variety 
of  superstitious  practices,  most  of  which  are  of  a deprecatory 
rather  than  intercessory  character,  growing  out  of  their  belief  in 
demons  and  genii,  who  trouble  or  help  people.  It  may  be  said 
that  most  of  the  religious  acts  of  the  Chinese,  especially  those 
performed  in  temples,  are  intended  to  avert  misfortune  rather 
than  supplicate  blessings.  In  order  to  ward  off  malignant  influ- 
ences, amulets  are  worn  and  charms  hung  up,  by  persons  of  all 
ranks.  Among  the  latter  are  money-swords,  made  of  coins  of 
different  monarchs  strung  together  in  the  form  of  a dagger  ; and 
leaves  of  the  sweet-flag  (Acorns')  and  Artemisia  tied  in  a bundle, 
or  £ sprig  of  peach-blossoms ; the  first  is  placed  near  beds,  the 
latter  over  the  lintel,  to  drive  away  demons. ' A man  also  collects 
a cash  or  two  from  each  of  his  friends,  and  gets  a lock  made, 
which  he  hangs  to  his  son’s  neck  in  order  to  lock  him  to  life,  and 
make  the  subscribers  surety  for  his  safety  ; adult  females  also 
wear  a neck  lock  for  the  same  purpose.  Charms  are  common. 
One  bears  the  inscription,  “ May  you  get  the  three  manys  and  the 
nine  likes;”  another,  “To  obtain  long  eye-browed  longevity.” 
The  three  manys  are,  many  years  of  happiness  and  life,  and 
many  sons.  Old  brass  mirrors  to  cure  mad  people,  are  hung 
up  by  the  rich  in  their  halls,  and  figures  or  representations  of  the 


AMULETS  WORN  TO  WARD  OFF  EVIL. 


273 


unicorn,  of  gourds,  tiger’s  claws,  or  the  eight  diagrams,  are  worn 
to  insure  good  fortune  or  ward  off  sickness,  fire,  or  fright. 
Stones,  or  pieces  of  metal,  with  short  sentences  cut  upon  them, 
are  almost  always  found  suspended  or  tied  about  the  persons  of 
children  and  women,  which  are  supposed  to  have  great  efficacy 
in  preventing  evil.  The  rich  pay  large  sums  for  rare  objects  to 
promote  this  end. 

Besides  their  employment  in  the  worship  and  burial  of  the 
dead,  and  cultivation  of  glebe  lands,  the  priests  of  both  sects 
resort  to  many  expedients  to  increase  their  incomes,  few  of  which 
have  the  improvement  of  their  countrymen  as  a ruling  motive. 
Some  go  around  the  streets  collecting  printed  or  written  paper  in 
baskets,  to  burn  them,  lest  the  venerable  itimes  of  Confucius  or 
Budha  be  defiled  ; others  obtain  a few  pennies  by  w^ting  inscrip, 
tions  and  charms  on  doors  ; and  many  turn  beggars  or  thieves. 


VOL.  II. 


Budhist  priests. 

13|! 


274 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  Budhists  issue  small  books,  called  Girdle  Classics,  con- 
taining prayers  addressed  to  the  deity  under  whose  protection 
the  person  has  placed  himself.  Spells  are  made  in  great  variety, 
some  of  them  to  be  worn  or  pasted  up  in  the  house,  and  others 
are  written  on  leaves,  paper,  or  cloth,  and  burned,  and  their 
ashes  thrown  into  a liquid  for  the  patient  or  child  to  drink. 
These  spells  are  sold  by  Rationalists  to  their  votaries,  and  usu- 
ally consist  of  characters,  like  fuh  (happiness),  or  slum  (longe- 
vity), fancifully  combined.  The  god  of  doors,  of  the  North  Pole, 
Pwanku,  the  heavenly  astronomer,  the  god  of  thunder  and  light- 
ning, of  tyfoons,  the  god  of  medicine,  demigods  and  genii  of 
almost  every  name  and  power,  are  all  invoked,  and  some  of  them 
by  all  persons.  In  shops,  the  mere  word  shin,  seon  or  genius, 
is  put  up  in  a shrine,  and  incense  placed  before  it,  all  objects  of 
fear  and  worship  being  included  under  this  general  term.  The 
threshold  is  peculiarly  sacred,  and  incense-sticks  are  lighted 
morning  and  evening  at  its  side. 

The  Chinese  have  great  dread  of  wandering  and  hungry  de- 
mons and  ghosts  of  departed  wicked  men,  and  the  Budhists  are 
hired  to  celebrate  a mass  called  ta  tsiau,  to  appease  these  disturb- 
ers of  human  happiness,  which,  in  its  general  purport,  corre- 
sponds to  All-Souls’  day  among  the  Romanists,  and  from  its 
splendor  and  the  general  interest  taken  in  its  success,  is  very  po- 
pular. The  priests  and  shopmen  manage  the  preliminaries.  The 
streets  are  covered  with  canvas  awnings,  and  festoons  of  cheap 
silk,  of  brilliant  colors,  are  hung  across  and  along  the  streets. 
Chandeliers  of  glass  are  suspended  at  short  intervals,  alternating 
with  small  trays,  on  which  paper  figures  in  various  attitudes, 
intended  to  illustrate  some  well  known  scene  in  history,  amuse 
the  spectators.  At  night,  the  glare  of  a thousand  lamps  shining 
through  myriads  of  lustres,  lights  up  the  whole  scene  in  a gor- 
geous manner.  The  priests  erect  a staging  somewhere  in  the 
vicinity,  for  the  rehearsal  of  prayers  to  Yen  wang  or  Pluto,  and 
display  tables  covered  with  eatables  for  the  hungry  ghosts  to  feed 
on.  Their  acolytes  mark  the  time  when  the  half-starved  ghosts, 
who  have  no  children  or  friends  to  care  for  them,  rush  in  and 
shoulder  the  viands,  which  they  carry  off  for  their  year’s  supply. 
Bands  of  music  chime  in  from  time  to  time,  to  refresh  these  hun- 
gry sprites  with  the  dulcet  tones  they  once  heard,  for  the  Chinese, 
judging  their  gods  hy  themselves,  provide  what  is  pleasing  to 


FESTIVALS  TO  APPEASE  DEPARTED  GHOSTS. 


275 


those  who  pay  for  the  entertainment,  as  well  as  to  those  who  are 
supposed  to  be  benefited  by  it.  After  the  services  are  performed, 
the  crowd  are  allowed  to  rush  in,  and  carry  off  what  is  left  from 
the  spiritual  feast,  but  when  this  is  permitted,  the  priests  some- 
times cheat  them  with  merely  a cover  of  food  on  the  tops  of  the 
baskets,  the  bottoms  being  filled  with  shavings. 

There  is  another  festival  in  August,  connected  with  this,  called 
shau  x,  or  “ burning  clothes,”  at  which  pieces  of  paper  folded  in 
the  form  of  jackets,  trousers,  gowns,  and  other  garments,  are 
burned  for  the  use  of  the  suffering  ghosts,  besides  a large  quan- 
tity of  paper  money.  Paper  houses  with  proper  furniture,  and 
puppets  to  represent  household  servants,  are  likewise  made ; and 
Medhurst  adds,  “ that  writings  are  drawn  up  and  signed  in  the 
presence  of  witnesses,  to  certify  the  conveyance  of  the  property, 
stipulating  that  on  its  arrival  in  hades  it  shall  be  duly  made  over 
to  the  individuals  specified  in  the  bond  ; the  houses,  servants, 
clothes,  money  and  all,  are  then  burned  with  the  bond,  the  wor- 
shippers feeling  confident  that  their  friends  obtain  the  benefit  of 
what  they  have  sent  them.”  Thus  “ they  make  a covenant  with 
the  grave,  and  with  hell  they  are  at  agreement.”  This  festival, 
like  all  others,  is  attended  with  feasting  and  music.  In  order  still 
further  to  provide  for  childless  ghosts,  their  ancestral  tablets  are 
collected  in  temples,  and  placed  together  in  a room  set  apart  for 
the  purpose,  called  wu  sz ’ tan,  or  “ orbate  temple,”  and  a man 
hired  to  attend  and  burn  incense  before  them.  The  feelings 
which  arise  on  going  into  a room  of  this  sort,  and  seeing  one  or 
two  hundred  small  wooden  tablets  standing  in  regular  array,  and 
knowing  that  each  one,  or  each  pair,  is  like  the  silent  tombstone 
of  an  extinct  family,  are  such  as  no  hall  full  of  staring  idols  can 
ever  inspire.  The  tablets  look  old,  discolored,  and  broken,  co- 
vered with  dust  and  black  with  smoke,  so  that  the  gilded  charac- 
ters are  obscured,  and  one  cannot  behold  them  long  in  their 
silence  and  forgetfulness,  without  almost  feeling  as  if  spirits  still 
hovered  around  them.  All  these  ghosts  are  supposed  to  be  pro- 
pitiated by  the  sacrifices  on  All-Souls’  day. 

The  patronage  given  to  idolatry  and  superstition  is  constant 
and  general  among  all  classes,  and  thousands  of  persons  get  their 
livelihood  by  shrewdly  availing  themselves  of  the  fears  of  their 
countrymen.  Special  efforts  are  made  from  time  to  time  to  build 
or  repair  a temple  or  pagoda,  in  order  to  insure  or  recall  prospe- 


276 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


rity  to  a place,  and  large  sums  are  subscribed  by  the  devout.  A 
case  occurred  in  1843,  which  illustrates  this  spirit.  One  of  the 
English  officers  brought  an  image  of  Wa-kwang,  the  god  of  Fire, 
from  Chinkiang  fu,  which  he  presented  as  a curiosity  to  a lady  in 
Macao.  It  remained  in  her  house  several  months,  and  on  the 
breaking  up  of  the  establishment,  previous  to  a return  to  India, 
it  was  exposed  for  sale  at  auction  with  the  furniture.  A large 
crowd  collected,  and  the  attention  of  the  Chinese  was  attracted 
to  this  image,  which  they  examined  carefully  to  see  if  it  had  the 
genuine  marks  of  its  ordination  upon  it ; for  no  image  is  supposed 
to  be  properly  an  object  of  worship,  until  the  spirit  has  been  in- 
augurated into  it  by  the  prescribed  ceremonies.  Having  satisfied 
themselves,  the  idol  was  purchased  for  thirty  dollars  by  two  or 
three  zealous  persons,  and  carried  off  in  triumph  to  a shop,  and 
respectfully  installed  in  a room  cleared  for  the  purpose.  A pub- 
lic meeting  was  shortly  after  called,  and  resolutions  passed  to 
improve  the  propitious  opportunity  to  obtain  and  preserve  the 
protecting  power  of  so  potent  a deity,  by  erecting  a pavilion, 
where  he  would  have  a respectable  lodgment,  and  receive  due 
worship.  A subscription  was  thereupon  started,  some  of  its  ad- 
vocates putting  down  fifty,  and  others  thirty  dollars,  until  about 
$1200  were  raised,  with  which  a small  lot  was  purchased  on  the 
island  west  of  Macao,  and  a pavilion  or  temple  erected,  where 
Wa  kwang  was  enshrined  with  pompous  parade  amid  theatrical 
exhibitions,  and  a man  hired  to  keep  him  and  his  domicile  in 
good  order. 

No  people  are  more  enslaved  by  fear  of  evil  than  the  Chinese, 
and  none  resort  more  frequently  to  sortilege  to  ascertain  whether 
an  enterprise  will  be  successful,  or  a proposed  remedy  avail  to 
cure.  Confucius  himself  was  not  above  his  countrymen  in  this 
respect,  for  in  the  Due  Medium  he  remarks,  “ The  reason  of 
perfect  ones  enables  them  to  foreknow  things : if  a nation  be 
about  to  flourish  there  will  be  happy  omens,  and  unlucky  ones  if 
it  totter  to  its  fall.  These  will  appear  in  the  divining  herb  sz\ 
in  the  tortoise,  and  in  the  airs  and  motions  of  the  four  members. 
When  either  happiness  or  misery  is  about  to  come,  sages  will 
foreknow  both  the  good  and  the  evil,  so  that  the  supremely  sin- 
cere are  equal  to  the  gods.”  This  desire  actuates  all  classes, 
and  thousands  and  myriads  of  persons  take  advantage  of  it  to 
' heir  own  profit.  The  tables  of  fortune-tellers,  and  the  shops  of 


PREVALENCE  OF  FORTUNE-TELLING. 


277 


geomancers,  are  met  at  the  corner  of  every  street ; and  one  of 
the  principal  inducements  for  persons  to  repair  to  the  temples  is 
to  cast  lots  as  to  the  success  of  the  prayers  offered.  One  com- 
mon way  of  divining  is  to  hold  up  a bamboo  root  cut  in  halves, 
resembling  in  size  and  color  a common  potatoe,  and  let  it  drop 
as  the  petition  is  put  up.  Sometimes  the  worshipper  drops  it 
many  times,  in  order  to  see  if  a majority  of  trials  will  not  be 
favorable,  and  when  disappointed  the  first  time,  not  unfrequently 
tries  again,  if  mayhap  he  can  force  the  gods  to  be  more  propitious. 
The  devotee  may  determine  himself  what  position  of  the  blocks 
shall  be  deemed  auspicious,  but  usually  one  face  up  and  one  down 
is  regarded  as  promising.  The  countenances  of  worshippers  as 
they  leave  the  shrines,  some  beaming  with  hope  and  resolution  to 
succeed,  and  others,  notwithstanding  their  repeated  knockings 
and  divinings,  going  away  with  vexation  and  gloom  written  on 
their  faces  at  the  obduracy  of  the  gods  and  sadness  of  their  pros- 
pects, offer  a study  not  less  melancholy  than  instructive.  “ Such 
is  the  weakness  of  mortals  : they  dread,  even  after  mature  re- 
flection, to  undertake  a project,  and  then  enter  blindly  upon  it  at 
a chance,  after  consulting  chance  itself  as  blind.” 


: 

Man  consulting  a Fortune-teller. 

The  fortune-tellers  also  consult  fate  by  means  of  bamboo  slips 
bearing  certain  characters.  The  applicant  comes  up  to  the  table, 
and  states  his  desire  ; he  wishes  to  know  whether  it  will  be  fair 
weather,  which  of  a dozen  doctors  shall  be  selected  to  cure  his 
child,  what  sex  an  unborn  infant  will  be,  where  his  stolen  pro- 
perty is,  or  any  other  matter.  Selecting  a slip,  the  diviner  dissects 
the  character  upon  it  into  its  radical  and  primitive,  or  in  some 


-ME 


278 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


other  way,  and  wri;es  the  parts  upon  a board  lying  before  him, 
joining  to  them  the  time,  the  names  of  the  person,  five  planets, 
colors,  viscera,  and  other  heterogeneous  things,  and  from  them 
all,  putting  on  a most  cabalistic,  sapient  look,  educes  a sentence 
which  contains  the  required  answer.  The  man  receives  it  as 
confidently  as  if  he  had  entered  the  sybil’s  cave  and  heard  her 
voice,  pays  his  fee,  and  goes  away.  Others,  less  shrewd,  refer 
to  books  in  which  the  required  answer  is  contained  in  a sort  of 
equivocal  delphian  distich. 

The  purchase  of  a lot  for  building  upon,  and  especially  the 
selection  of  a grave,  involve  many  ceremonies ; and  when  a 
succession  of  misfortunes  come  upon  a family,  they  will  some- 
times disinter  all  their  relatives  and  bury  them  in  a new  place  to 
remove  the  ill  luck.  Before  a house  is  built,  a written  prayer  is 
tied  to  a pole  stuck  in  the  ground,  petitioning  for  good  luck,  that 
no  evil  spirits  may  arise  from  beneath ; when  the  ridge  pole  is 
laid,  another  prayer  is  pasted  on,  and  charms  hung  to  it,  to  insure 
the  building  against  fire  ; and  lastly,  when  the  house  is  done,  it 
is  dedicated  to  some  patron,  and  petitions  offered  for  its  safety. 
Prayers  are  sometimes  offered  according  to  forms,  at  others  the 
suppliant  himself  speaks.  Two  middle  aged  women,  attended 
by  a maid-servant,  were  once  met  opposite  Canton  in  the  fields 
among  the  graves.  They  had  placed  a small  paper  shrine  upon 
a tomb  near  the  pathway,  and  one  of  them  was  kneeling  before 
it,  her  lips  moving  in  prayer;  there  was  nothing  in  the  shrine, 
but  over  it  was  written,  “Ask  and  ye  shall  receive.” 

Answers  are  looked  for  in  various  ways.  A man  was  once 
met  at  dusk  repairing  a lonely  grave  before  which  candles  were 
burning,  and  plates  of  rice  and  cups  of  spirits  arranged.  He 
knelt  and  knocking  his  head,  began  to  repeat  some  words  in  a 
half  audible  manner,  when  he  was  asked  if  the  spirits  of  his 
ancestors  heard  his  supplications.  At  the  instant,  a slight  puff 
of  air  blew  the  candles,  when  he  replied,  “Yes,  see  they  have 
come ; don’t  interrupt  me.”  Contingent  vows  are  often  made, 
and  useful  acts  performed  in  case  the  answer  be  favorable.  A 
sick  man  in  Macao  once  made  a vow  that  he  would  repave  a bad 
piece  of  road  if  he  recovered,  which  he  actually  performed, 
aided  a little  by  his  neighbors ; but  it  was  deemed  eminently 
unlucky  that  a man  passing  soon  after,  who  was  somewhat  flus- 
tered, should  fal  into  the  public  well.  Persons  sometimes  insult 


MODES  OF  GETTING  ANSWERS  TO  PRAYERS. 


279 


the  gods,  spit  at  them  or  whip  them,  or  even  break  the  ancestral 
tablets,  in  their  vexation  at  having  been  deluded  into  foolish  deeds, 
or  misled  by  divination,  and  legends  are  told  of  the  vengeance 
which  has  followed  such  impiety. 

The  worship  of  street  divinities  is  common,  and  some  of  the 
shrines  in  Canton  are  resorted  to  so  much  by  women  as  to  obstruct 
the  path.  The  unsocial  character  of  heathenism  is  observable 
at  such  places  and  in  temples ; however  great  the  crowd  may 
be,  each  one  worships  by  himself  as  much  as  if  no  one  else 
were  present.  That  delightful  union  before  a common  God  and 
Savior,  when  the  devotees  alike  feel  their  need  of  his  mercy  from 
a common  sense  of  sinfulness,  is  utterly  unknown  in  pagan 
countries,  and  is  lost,  indeed,  in  Christian  worship  w’hen  saints 
and  virgins  are  allowed  to  stand  between.  Before  a senseless 
idol  of  whatever  name,  one  or  two  persons  may  unite,  but  for  a 
congregation  to  join  in  hearty  prayer  or  pYaise  to  a stupid  block 
is  never  seen  in  China ; hymns  or  paeans  are  also  unheard. 
Altars  are  erected  in  fields,  on  which  a smooth  stone  is  placed, 
where  offerings  are  presented  and  libations  poured  out  to  petition 
for  a good  crop.  Few  farmers  omit  all  worship  in  the  spring  to 
the  gods  of  the  land  and  grain  ; and  some  go  further,  and  present 
a thanksgiving  after  harvest.  Temples  are  open  night  and  day, 
and  in  towns  are  the  resort  of  crowds  of  idle  fellows.  Worship- 
pers go  on  with  their  devotions  amidst  all  the  hubbub,  strike  the 
drum  and  beat  the  bell  to  arouse  the  god,  burn  paper  prayers, 
and  knock  their  heads  upon  the  ground  to  implore  his  blessing, 
and  then  retire ; the  one  chiefly  benefited  being  the  priest  who 
assisted  them.  Village  altars  are  erected  under  trees  to  which 
the  villagers  resort,  especially  the  women,  who  are  the  most 
devout  in  their  worship.  • 

The  Chinese  collectively  spend  enormous  sums  in  their  idola- 
try, though  they  are  more  economical  of  time  and  money  than 
the  Hindus.  Rich  families  give  much  for  the  services  of  priests, 
papers,  candles,  &c.,  at  the  interment  of  their  friends,  but  when 
a large  sacrifice  is  provided,  none  goes  to  the  priests,  who  are 
prohibited  meat.  The  aggregate  outlay  to  the  whole  people  is 
very  large,  made  up  of  repairs  of  temples,  purchasing  idols,  and 
petty  daily  expenses,  such  as  incense-sticks,  candles,  paper,  &c., 
and  charms  and  larger  sacrifices  prepared  from  time  to  time. 
The  sum  cannot  of  course  be  ascertained,  but  if  the  daily  outlay 


280 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  each  person  be  estimated  at  one  third  of  a cent,  or  four  cash, 
the  total  will  exceed  four  hundred  millions  of  dollars  per  annum, 
and  this  estimate  is  more  likely  to  be  under  than  over  the  mark, 
owing  to  the  universality  and  constancy  of  the  daily  service. 
As  an  offset  to  this,  it  may  be  stated  that  it  has  been  estimated 
that  the  total  expenditure  of  all  denominations  in  the  United 
States  for  all  purposes  of  a religious  nature,  including  the  erec- 
tion of  churches,  salaries  of  clergymen  and  support  of  benevo- 
lent societies,  is  only  half  a dollar  per  annum  for  each  man,  wo- 
man, and  child. 

This  brief  sketch  of  Chinese  religious  character  will  be  incom- 
plete without  some  notice  of  the  benevolent  institutions  found 
among  them.  Good  acts  are  considered  proofs  of  sincerity  ; the 
classics  teach  benevolence,  and  the  religious  books  and  tracts  of 
the  Budhists  inculcate  compassion  to  the  poor  and  relief  of  the 
sick.  Private  alms  of  rice  or  clothes  are  frequently  given,  and 
householders  pay  a constant  poor  tax  in  their  donations  to  the 
beggars  quartered  in  their  neighborhood.  There  is  a foundling 
hospital  in  Canton  founded  in  1698,  containing  accommodations 
for  about  300  children ; its  annual  expenses  are  not  far  from 
<83500,  a good  part  of  which  used  to  be  filched  from  foreigners 
by  a tax  on  their  shipping.  A retreat  for  poor  aged  and  infirm 
or  blind  people  is  situated  near  it,  the  expenses  of  w-hich  are 
stated  at  about  87000,  but  the  number  of  persons  relieved  is  not 
mentioned.  The  peculation  and  bad  faith  of  the  managers  viti- 
ate many  of  these  institutions,  and  indispose  the  charitable  to 
patronize  them.  A translation*  of  the  annual  report  of  the 
Foundling  Hospital  at  Shanghai  established  in  1707,  opens  with 
Yungching’s  rescript  of  approbation  accompanying  his  donation, 
and  a tablet  he  sent  to  it  in  1725 ; and  then  follows  a preface, 
succeeded  by  the  regular  report.  In  this  the  people  are  exhorted 
to  subscribe  to  an  institution  conducted  with  so  much  order  and 
energy,  and  which  emperors  and  empresses  have  sanctioned  and 
supported.  The  rules  for  its  management  are  given  under  four- 
teen heads : 

1.  Public  meetings  of  its  friends  are  to  be  held  on  the  1st  and  15th  of 
each  month,  when,  after  worshipping  the  idol  and  burning  incense,  the 
registers  of  the  children  are  to  be  inspected,  and  the  nurses’  food  and 
wages  paid. 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XIV.  pp.  177 — 195. 


CHINESE  BENEVOLENT  INSTITUTIONS. 


291 


2.  Two  of  the  directors  must  reside  in  the  building;  one  of  them 
must  receive  the  infants,  prepare  their  registers,  distribute  them  among 
the  nurses,  and  be  casbkeeper.  The  other  inspects  the  establishment, 
sees  if  the  nurses  do  their  duty,  whether  the  children  be  fat  or  lean,  and 
marks  all  his  observations  in  his  semi-monthly  report.  The  monthly 
salaries  of  these  directors  is  2000  cash  (about  $2). 

3.  Provides  for  an  errand-boy  on  a stipend  of  1400  cash  a month. 

4.  Requires  two  wet-nurses  to  be  engaged,  who  suckle  the  children 
when  first  brought  in ; monthly  wages  2000  cash. 

5.  Directs  the  examination  and  registering  of  the  infants,  “noting  the 
lines  and  fashion  of  the  fingers,  whether  the  five  senses  and  the  four  limbs 
be  perfect  or  not,”  and  then  giving  them  to  the  nurses,  each  of  whom 
receives  760  cash  a month. 

6.  Speaks  of  the  care  to  be  taken  in  hiring  nurses,  and  that  no  collu- 
sion be  allowed  to  the  neglect  and  detriment  of  the  children. 

7.  Directs  as  to  the  items  to  be  entered  in  the  registers,  such  as  the 
subscriptions  and  donations  received,  the  names  of  those  who  adopt  the 
children,  &c. 

8.  Speaks  of  the  four  tickets  to  be  issued  ; one  is  a receipt  to  the  sub- 
scribers, one  for  the  attendant  physician,  one  to  be  sent  to  the  apothecary, 
and  the  other  a kind  of  bond  to  be  entered  into  by  the  persons  who  adopt 
the  children. 

9.  Regulates  the  mode  of  putting  the  children  out  to  nurse,  and  the 
payment  of  those  who  suckle  them. 

10.  Regulates  the  treatment  of  the  children  after  the  age  of  three 
years,  in  case  no  one  has  appeared  to  adopt  them. 

11.  Provides  for  clothing  the  children.  In  April,  a calico  jacket  and 
single  trousers  are  given  ; in  May,  a bib  and  musquito  curtains,  and  in 
September,  a padded  jacket  and  petticoat,  cap,  stockings,  and  cotton 
blanket. 

12.  “ When  a child  has  been  cast  away  as  a foundling,  being  thus  cut 
off  from  the  sympathies  of  father  and  mother,  and  our  institution  having 
received  and  brought  it  up,  and  eventually  transferred  it  by  adoption  to 
other  hands,  if  any  one  should  falsely  claim  to  be  the  said  child’s  father 
and  mother,  presuming  therefrom  to  take  it  away,  the  case  shall  be  laid 
before  the  sub-prefect,  and  the  offender  punished.” 

13.  Requires  that  none  but  foundlings  be  received,  and  directs  con- 
cerning parents  who  endeavor  to  get  their  offspring  surreptitiously 
introduced. 

14.  Contains  regulations  regarding  the  adoption  of  the  children,  and 
directs  the  overseers  to  take  every  precaution  that  the  girls  be  not  taken 
for  vicious  purposes,  or  by  those  who  will  rear  them  for  sale  as  concu- 
bines. 

The  names  of  forty-eight  persons  connected  officially  with  the 


282 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


institution,  and  the  report  from  the  register  for  four  years,  1839— 
1842,  are  given  under  the  following  heads  : 


CLASSES  OF  INMATES. 

1839 

1840 

1841 

1842 

Old  inmates,  .... 

New  ones  admitted  in  the  year, 

35 

23 

23 

35 

79 

70 

114 

91 

New,  received  from  Sungkiang  fu, . 
Transferred  by  adoption, 

54 

50 

34 

— 

75 

53 

50 

25 

Deceased  before  registering,  . 

33 

37 

68 

33 

Deceased  after  registering, 

32 

21 

30 

25 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  deaths  in  these  four  years  were 
nearly  one  half  of  the  children.  The  names  of  distinguished 
benefactors  are  recorded,  and  the  report  concludes  by  an  appeal 
for  funds,  as  the  institution  is  nearly  out  of  money.  Various 
modes  of  raising  supplies  are  proposed,  and  arguments  are  brought 
forward  to  induce  people  to  give  ; the  appeal  ends  with  the  fol- 
lowing, which  would  answer  almost  equally  well  for  the  report 
of  a charitable  institution  in  western  lands. 

“ If,  for  the  extension  of  kindness  to  our  fellow  creatures,  and  to 
those  poor  and  destitute  who  have  no  father  and  mother,  all  the  good  and 
benevolent  would  daily  give  one  cash  (-pAr  a dollar),  it  would  be 
sufficient  for  the  maintenance  of  the  foundlings  one  day.  Let  no  one 
consider  a small  good  unmeritorious,  nor  a small  subscription  as  of  no 
avail.  Either  you  may  induce  others  to  subscribe  by  the  vernal  breeze 
from  your  mouth,  or  you  may  nourish  the  blade  of  benevolence  in  the 
field  of  happiness,  or  cherish  the  already  sprouting  bud.  Thus  by  taking 
advantage  of  opportunities  as  they  present  themselves,  and  using  your 
endeavors  to  accomplish  your  object,  you  may  immeasurably  benefit  and 
extend  the  institution.” 

The  details  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  are  given  at  the 
end  of  the  report  in  a business-like  manner.  The  annual  ex- 
penditure was  about  $1550,  and  the  receipts  from  all  sources 
more  than  that,  so  that  a balance  of  $5000  is  reported  on  hand, 
four  fifths  of  which  was  derived  from  interest  on  subscriptions 
invested,  and  on  wares  from  pawnbrokers. 

Similar  establishments  are  found  in  all  large  towns,  some  of 
them  partly  supported  by  the  government ; all  of  them  seem  to 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS. 


283 


be  of  modem  origin,  less  than  two  centuries  old,  and  may  have 
been  imitated  from,  or  suggested  by,  the  Romanists.  Candida,  a 
distinguished  convert  in  the  days  of  Ricci,  about  1710,  did  much 
to  establish  these  institutions,  and  show  the  excellence  of  the 
religion  she  professed.  Mr.  Milne,  who  visited  one  at  Ningpo, 
says,  after  entering  the  court,  “ A number  of  coarse  looking 
women  were  peeping  through  the  lattice  at  us,  with  squallababies 
at  their  breasts,  and  squalid  boys  and  girls  at  their  heels  ; these 
women  are  the  nurses,  and  these  children  are  the  foundlings, 
each  woman  having  two  or  three  to  look  after.  But  I have 
rarely  beheld  such  a collection  of  filthy,  unwashen,  ragged, 
brats.  There  are  at  present  between  sixty  and  seventy  children, 
the  boys  on  one  side,  the  girls  on  the  other.  Boys  remain  here 
till  the  age  of  fourteen,  when  they  are  hired  out  or  adopted ; 
girls  stay  till  sixteen,  when  they  are  betrothed  as  wives,  or  taken 
as  concubines  or  servanls.  It  is  supported  by  the  rental  of  lands 
and  houses,  and  by  an  annual  tax  of  thirty-six  stone  or  shih 
(about  500  lbs.)  of  rice  from  each  district  in  the  department.” 

Charity  is  a virtue  which  thrives  poorly  in  the  selfish  soil  of 
heathenism,  but  even  badly  managed  establishments  like  these 
are  praiseworthy,  and  promise  something  better  when  higher 
teachings  and  principles  shall  have  been  engrafted  into  the  public 
mind.  The  government  is  obliged  to  expend  large  sums  almost 
every  year,  for  relieving  the  necessities  of  the  starving  and  the 
distressed,  and  strong  calls  are  also  made  on  the  rich  to  give  to 
these  objects.  In  the  drama  of  a History  of  a Lute,  one  of  the 
scenes  represents  the  defalcating  commissary  of  grain  arraigned 
before  the  prefect,  and  ordered  to  supply  a woman  with  rice, 
who  had  complained  against  him  that  the  granary  was  empty. 
He  unwillingly  did  so,  and  afterwards  took  her  bag  away  by 
force,  as  she  was  trying  to  carry  it  home,  upbraiding  her  for  her 
meanness  in  complaining.  The  police  of  cities  find  it  necessary 
to  distribute  food  to  the  poor,  in  order  to  preserve  quiet  in  times 
of  dearth  : a late  Peking  Gazette  mentions,  that  461,129  mouths 
had  been  supplied  in  that  city  with  food  during  ten  days.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  beggars  in  China  soon  end  their  life  and  sufferings 
together,  for  the  number  is  great,  and  the  people  are  callous  to 
their  miseries. 

The  general  condition  of  religion  among  the  Chinese  is  effete ; 
and  the  stately  formalities  of  imperial  worship,  the  doctrines  of 


284 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Confucius,  the  ceremonies  of  the  Budhists,  the  sorceries  of  the 
Rationalists,  alike  fail  to  comfort  and  instruct.  But  superstition 
and  the  worship  of  ancestors,  the  two  beliefs  which  hold  the  Chinese 
of  all  ranks  and  abilities  in  their  thrall,  are  still  strong ; and  the 
principal  sway  the  two  sects  exert  is  owing  to  the  connexion  of 
their  priests  with  the  latter  ceremonies.  All  have  exerted  all 
the  power  over  the  people  they  could,  and  all  have  failed  to  im- 
part present  happiness  or  assure  future  joy  to  their  votaries. 
Confucianism  is  cold  and  unsatisfactory  to  the  affectionate  and 
inquiring  mind  ; and  the  transcendental  dreams  of  Rationalism, 
or  the  nonsensical  vagaries  of  Budhism,  are  a little  worse.  All 
classes  are  the  prey  of  unfounded  fears  and  superstitions,  and 
dwell  in  a mist  of  ignorance  and  error,  which  the  light  of  true 
religion  and  knowledge  alone  can  dissipate.  It  is  a matter  of 
humble  gratitude  that  the  rays  of  Christian  light  are  beginning  to 
enter,  and  beams  from  the  Sun  of  Righteousness  commencing  to 
dawn  upon  the  miscalled  Celestial  Empire. 

Besides  the  two  leading  idolatrous  sects,  there  are  also  many 
societies  and  combinations  existing  among  the  people,  partly  re- 
ligious, and  partly  political,  two  of  which,  the  Pih  Lien  kiau  and 
the  Triad  Society,  have  already  been  mentioned  in  Chapter  VIII. 
The  Wan  kiang,  or  Incense-burning  sect,  is  also  denounced  in  the 
Sacred  Commands,  but  has  not  been  mentioned  in  late  times. 
The  Triad  Society  is  comparatively  peaceful  in  China  itself  in 
overt  acts,  the  members  of  the  various  auxiliary  societies  con- 
tenting themselves  with  keeping  alive  the  spirit  of  resistance  to 
the  Manchus,  getting  new  members,  and  countenancing  one 
another  in  their  opposition ; but  in  the  ultramarine  settlements 
of  the  Chinese  in  Siam,  Singapore,  Malacca,  and  the  Archi- 
pelago, it  has  become  a powerful  body,  and  great  cruelties  are 
committed  on  those  who  refuse  to  join.  The  members  are  ad- 
mitted with  formalities  bearing  great  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
Freemasons,  and  the  professed  objects  of  the  society  are  the  same. 
The  novice  swears  before  an  idol  to  maintain  inviolate  secresy, 
and  stands  under  naked  swords  while  taking  the  oath,  which  is 
then  read  to  him  ; he  afterwards  cuts  off  a cock’s  head,  the  usual 
form  of  swearing  among  all  Chinese,  intimating  that  a like  fate 
awaits  him  if  treacherous.  There  are  countersigns  known  among 
ihe  members,  consisting  of  grips  and  motions  of  the  fingers.  Such 
is  the  secresy  of  their  operations  in  China,  however,  that  very  lit- 


MOHAMMEDANS  IN  CHINA. 


285 


tie  is  known  of  their  numbers,  internal  organization,  or  character ; 
and  the  dislike  the  mass  of  the  people  have  of  their  machinations 
is  the  best  security  against  their  ultimate  success.  Local  delu- 
sions, caused  by  some  sharpwitted  fellow,  now  and  then  arise  in 
one  part  and  another  of  the  country,  but  they  are  speedily  put 
down  or  dissipate  of  themselves.  None  of  them  are  allowed  to 
erect  temples,  or  make  a public  exhibition  or  procession,  and 
exhortations  are  from  time  to  time  issued  by  the  magistrates 
against  them  ; while  the  penalties  annexed  to  the  statute  against 
all  illegal  associations  give  the  rulers  great  power  to  crush 
whatever  they  may  deem  suspicious  or  treasonable. 

The  Mohammedan  sect  has  long  been  known  and  tolerated 
among  the  Chinese,  and  its  adherents  found  their  way  to  the 
Middle  Kingdom  during  the  Tang  dynasty,  or  within  a century 
after  the  hegira.  They  are  found  in  all  the  provinces ; some  of 
them  hold  office  and  pass  through  the  examinations  to  obtain  it, 
but  whether  they  worship  Confucius  and  idols,  or  refuse  on  con- 
scientious scruples,  is  not  known  ; early  in  the  last  century,  the 
whole  number  in  the  country  was  computed  to  be  half  a million. 
There  is  a mosque  in  Canton,  and  the  votaries  “ are  distinguished 
from  the  other  inhabitants  as  persons  who  have  no  idols,  and  who 
will  not  eat  swine’s  flesh.”  There  is  a mosque  at  Fuhchau  and 
one  at  Changchau,  to  which  a few  persons  resort ; about  a hun- 
dred of  the  sect  live  at  Amoy,  but  throughout  the  southern  pro- 
vinces they  are  few  in  number  and  of  inconsiderable  influence. 

Mr.  Milne  visited  the  mosque  in  Ningpo,  and  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  head-priest.  “ He  is  a man  about  forty-five  years  of 
age,  of  a remarkably  benign  and  intelligent  countenance  and  gen- 
tlemanly bearing.  His  native  place  is  Shantung,  but  his  ances- 
tors came  from  Medina.  He  readily  reads  the  Arabic  scriptures, 
and  talks  that  language  fluently,  but  can  neither  read  nor  write 
Chinese,  which  is  somewhat  surprising  considering  he  can  talk  it 
well,  was  born  in  China,  and  is  a minister  of  religion  among  the 
Chinese.  His  supporters  number  between  twenty  and  thirty 
families,  and  one  or  two  of  his  adherents  are  officers.  He  took 
me  into  the  place  of  worship  which  adjoins  his  apartments.  A 
flight  of  steps  leads  into  a room,  covered  with  a plain  roof,  on 
either  side  of  which  lay  a mass  of  dusty  furniture  and  agricul- 
tural implements  ; the  pillars  are  ornamented  with  sentences  out 
of  the  Koran.  Facing  you  is  an  ornamented  pair  of  small  doors 


286 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


hung  upon  the  wall,  within  which  the  sacred  seat  is  supposed  to 
lie  ; and  on  one  side  is  a convenient  bookcase  containing  their 
scriptures.  He  showed  me  his  usual  officiating  dress, — a white 
robe  with  a painted  turban ; but  he  never  wears  this  costume 
except  at  service,  appearing  in  the  Chinese  habit  at  other  times. 
They  have  a weekly  day  of  rest,  which  falls  on  our  Thursday ; 
on  asking  if  I might  be  permitted  to  attend  any  of  their  services, 
he  replied  that  if  their  adherents  had  business  on  that  day,  they 
did  not  trouble  themselves  to  attend.  The  stronghold  of  his  re- 
ligion is  in  Hangchau  fu,  where  are  several  mosques,  but  the  low 
state  of  Mohammedanism  seemed  to  dampen  bis  spirits.  Happen- 
ing to  see  near  the  entrance  a tablet  similar  to  that  found  in  every 
other  temple,  with  the  inscription,  ‘The  emperor,  everliving,  may 
he  live  for  ever!’  I asked  him  how  he  could  allow  such  a blas- 
phemous monument  to  stand  in  a spot  which  he  regarded  as  con- 
secrated to  the  worship  of  Aloha,  as  he  styles  the  true  God.  He 
protested  he  did  not  and  never  could  worship  it,  and  pointed  to  the 
low  place  given  it  as  evidence  of  this  ; and  added,  that  it  was  only 
for  the  sake  of  expediency  it  was  allowed  lodgment  in  the  build- 
ing, for  if  they  were  ever  charged  with  disloyalty  by  the  enemies 
of  their  faith  they  could  appeal  to  it ! His  great  desire  was  to 
make  a pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  he  inquired  particularly  respect- 
ing the  price  of  a passage.”  Instances  occur  now  and  then  of 
Chinese  Mohammedans  going  to  Mecca,  but  they  are  rare. 

De  Guignes  visited  a deserted  mosque  at  Hangchau  fu.  “The 
edifice  resembled  Chinese  buildings  only  in  the  roof ; it  was 
higher  and  more  imposing  ; the  gate,  which  was  large  and  high, 
and  rounded  out  under  the  top  like  a cupola,  was  covered  with 
holes  a foot  apart;  there  were  columns  on  each  side  surmounted 
with  an  entablature,  the  tops  of  which  terminated  in  a kind  of 
crescent.  An  Arabic  inscription  on  the  outside  read,  ‘ Temple 
for  Mussulmans  who  travel  and  wish  to  consult  the  Koran.”’* 
The  Mohammedan  inhabitants  of  Turkestan  and  t li,  along  the 
southern  range  of  the  Celestial  Mts.,  are  tolerated  in  the 
profession  of  their  tenets.  They  are  distinguished  into  three 
classes  by  the  color  and  shape  of  their  turbans  ; one  has  red, 
and  another  white  sugar-loaf  turbans,  and  the  third  wear  the 
common  Arab  turban. 

• Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XIII  , page  .32 ; Vol.  IT.,  page  256.  Voyages 
• Peking,  tome  II.,  page  OS. 


JEWS  FOUND  AT  KAIFUNG  IN  HONAN. 


287 


The  existence  of  Jews  in  China  has  long  been  known,  but  the 
information  possessed  relative  to  their  present  number,  condition, 
and  organization  is  very  imperfect.  Mr.  Finn  has  lately  pub- 
lished a well  digested  account  of  the  data  collected  concerning 
them  by  Gozani  and  other  Jesuits,  in  the  last  century  and  be- 
fore. The  only  city  where  they  are  found  in  a separate  com- 
munity large  enough  to  attract  attention  is  Kaifung  fu  in  Honan, 
where  they  are  known  by  the  designation  Tiau-kin  kiau,  the  sect 
which  pulls  out  the  sinew  ; De  Guignes  says  they  are  also  called 
Lan-mau  Humi-tsz’,  “Mohammedans  with  Blue  Bonnets,”  because 
they  wear  a blue  cap  when  they  assemble  in  the  synagogue.  The 
whole  place  of  worship  occupies  a space  of  between  three  and 
four  hundred  feet  in  length  and  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  in 
breadth,  comprising  four  successive  courts.  The  first  court  has  in 
its  centre  a portal,  bearing  an  inscription  to  the  Creator  and  Pre- 
server of  all  things.  The  second  court,  entered  through  a large 
gate  with  two  side  wickets,  contains  dwellings  for  the  keeper  of 
the  edifice.  The  third  court  contains  a portal  like  that  in  the 
first,  and  tablets  with  inscriptions,  and  two  chapels  commemora- 
tive of  their  benefactors,  with  guest  chambers.  The  fourth  court 
is  divided  by  a row  of  trees,  and  half-way  down  there  is  a brazen 
incense  vase,  and  some  other  vases  and  sculpture.  Adjoining  the 
northern  wall  is  a recess  where  the  sinews  are  extracted  from 
animals  slain  for  food.  A hall  of  ancestors  is  placed  on  the 
north  and  south  sides  of  this  court,  where  the  Old  Testament 
worthies  are  venerated  at  the  equinoxes  in  the  Chinese  manner, 
their  names  being  written  upon  tablets  ; censers  are  in  them 
dedicated  to  Abraham,  Moses,  and  others.  Between  these  two 
halls,  the  booths  used  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles  are  annually 
erected.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  court  is  the  Li-pai  sz’,  or 
synagogue,  a building  about  sixty  by  forty  feet,  having  a portico 
with  a double  row  of  four  columns  before  it.  In  the  centre  of 
the  room,  between  the  rows  of  pillars,  is  the  throne  of  Moses,  a 
magnificent  and  elevated  chair  with  an  embroidered  cushion, 
upon  which  they  place  the  book  of  the  law  while  it  is  read. 
Over  it  is  a dome,  and  near  by  is  the  Wansui  pai  or  Imperial  tab- 
let, but  his  majesty’s  title  is  surmounted  by  a Hebrew  inscrip- 
tion, “ Hear,  O Israel : the  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord.  Blessed 
be  the  name  of  the  glory  of  his  kingdom  for  ever  and  ever.” 
There  is  also  another  inscription  in  Hebrew  in  the  room,  on  a 


288 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


portal : “ Blessed  be  the  Lord  for  ever : The  Lord  is  God  of 
gods,  and  the  Lord  : a great  God,  strong  and  terrible.”  There  is 
a table  on  which  are  placed  six  candelabra,  and  an  incense  vase 
in  the  middle  of  them  ; and  near  it  is  a laver  for  washing  hands. 
Separated  from  the  rest  of  the  room  by  a railing  is  the  beth-el,  or 
house  of  prayer,  square  outside  and  round  within,  where  none  but 
the  rabbi  can  enter  during  the  time  of  prayer.  Rolls  of  the  law 
upon  tables  and  the  Ten  Commandments  in  Hebrew  on  the  wall, 
and  closets  containing  manuscripts,  occupy  the  remainder  of  the 
apartment. 

On  entering,  the  people  take  off  their  shoes;  and  the  minister 
covers  his  face  with  gauze  when  reading,  and  wears  a red  silk 
scarf  across  his  breast ; no  instruments  of  music  are  used  in  the 
services.  They  observe  circumcision,  the  passover,  and  feast  of 
tabernacles,  the  rejoicing  of  the  law,  Sabbath,  and  perhaps  the 
day  of  atonement ; make  no  proselytes,  and  never  marry  with  the 
gentiles.  They  use  their  sacred  books  in  casting  lots,  and  pay 
homage  to  Confucius  as  the  Chinese  do.  They  say  Adonai  for 
the  ineffable  name,  and  render  it  in  Chinese  by  tien,  and  not  by 
shangti.  They  have  no  creed,  but  hold  to  the  unity  of  God,  and 
the  doctrines  of  heaven,  hell,  and  a sort  of  purgatory,  resurrec- 
tion, final  judgment,  and  angels.  Of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  they 
had  never  heard,  nor  had  they  any  prejudices  against  the  cruci- 
fix. They  worship  no  idols,  and  refuse  to  take  an  oath  in  a 
heathen  temple  ; and  pray  westward  towards  Jerusalem.  It  is 
quite  likely  that  they  have  all  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  but  the  Romish  fathers  were  not  allowed  to  copy 
them,  and  those  who  saw  them  were  not  able  to  read  when  they 
had  the  permission  ; these  books  are  preserved  with  rigid  care. 
Many  of  the  books  they  once  had  have  been  destroyed  by  inun- 
dations, to  which  the  city  of  Kaifung  fu  is  subject  from  its  near- 
ness to  the  Yellow  river.  Comparisons  were  made  between 
portions  of  their  manuscripts  and  the  Hebrew  text,  the  result  of 
which  showed  a complete  conformity  in  sense,  with  a few  verbal 
differences  only.  The  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Jews  in  China 
is  involved  in  great  uncertainty,  but  Mr.  Finn  sums  up  the 
evidences  to  show  that  they  are  Jews  of  the  restoration  from 
Chaldea,  adducing  the  fact  of  their  having  portions  of  Malachi 
and  Zechariah,  adopting  the  era  of  Seleucus,  and  having  many 
rabbinical  titles  and  rules  for  slaughtering  animals.  He  thinks 


JEWISH  RITES  OF  WORSHIP. 


289 


too  they  belong  to  the  two  tribes,  and  quotes  some  authorities  to 
show  that  they  came  through  Central  Asia — a different  route 
from  the  Mohammedans,  who  seem  for  the  most  part  to  have 
reached  China  by  sea.  Members  of  this  community  are  said  to 
have  once  lived  at  Hangchau  fu  and  Nanking;  but  the  man 
whom  Mr.  Milne  asked  concerning  them  at  Ningpo  knew  of  none 
except  at  Kaifung,  and  of  them  not  much  beyond  their  existence. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


Christian  Missions  among  the  Chinese. 

The  earliest  recorded  attempt  to  impart  the  knowledge  of  the 
true  God  to  the  Chinese  ascribes  it  to  the  Nestorian  church  in  the 
seventh  century,  though  the  voice  of  tradition,  and  many  detached 
notices  in  ecclesiastical  writers  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  lead  to 
the  belief,  that  not  many  years  elapsed  after  the  times  of  the 
apostles  before  the  sound  of  the  gospel  was  heard  in  China  and 
Chin-India,  even  if  the  Syriac  tradition,  that  Thomas  himself 
travelled  as  far  as  China,  be  not  received.  Mosheirn,  who  does 
not  credit  the  Apostle’s  journey  thus  far,  remarks,  “ notwithstand- 
ing, we  may  believe  that  at  an  early  period  the  Christian  religion 
extended  to  the  Chinese,  Seres,  and  Tartars.  There  are  various 
arguments  collected  from  learned  men  to  show  that  the  Christian 
faith  was  carried  to  China,  if  not  by  the  apostle  Thomas,  by  the 
first  teachers  of  Christianity.”  Arnobius,  a.  d.  300,  speaks  of 
the  Christian  deeds  done  in  India,  and  among  the  Seres,  Persians, 
and  Medes.  The  monks  who  brought  the  eggs  of  the  silkworm 
to  Constantinople,  in  the  year  552,  had  resided  long  in  China, 
where  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  they  were  not  the  first  nor  the 
only  ones  who  went  thither  to  preach  the  gospel.  The  extent  of 
their  success  must  be  left  to  conjecture,  but  “ if  such  beams  have 
travelled  down  to  us  through  the  darkness  of  so  many  ages,  it  is 
reasonable  to  believe  they  emanated  from  a brighter  source.” 
No  traces  of  their  efforts  have  ever  been  found  in  Chinese  litera- 
ture, whether  it  was  that  they  wrote  no  books,  or  that  they  have 
been  lost ; it  is  hard  to  conclude,  however,  that  they  made  no 
use  of  the  press  to  diffuse  and  perpetuate  their  doctrines. 

The  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Nestorians  in  China  cannot  be 
specified  certainly,  but  there  are  grounds  for  placing  it  as  early 
as  a.  d.  505.  Ebedjesus  Sobiensis  remarks,  that  “ Salibazacha 
the  Catholic,  i.  e.  the  Nestorian  patriarch,  created  the  metropo- 


ARRIVAL  OF  NESTORIANS  IN  CIIIXA. 


291 


litan  sees  of  Sina  and  Samarcand,  though  some  say  they  were 
constituted  by  Achaeus  and  Silas.”  This  Silas  was  patriarch  of 
the  Nestorians  from  a.  d.  505  to  520,  and  it  is  highly  probable 
the  two  monks  who  brought  the  silkworm’s  eggs  were  also  Nes- 
torians. The  metropolitan  bishop  of  Sina  is  also  mentioned  in  a 
list  of  those  subject  to  this  patriarch,  published  by  Amro,  and 
it  is  placed  in  the  list  after  that  of  India,  according  to  the  priority 
of  foundation. 

The  only  record  yet  found  in  China  itself  of  the  labors  of  the 
Nestorians  is  the  celebrated  monument,  which  was  discovered  at 
Singan  fu  in  Shensi,  in  1625  ; and  though  the  discussion  regarding 
its  authenticity  has  been  rather  warm  between  the  Jesuits  and 
their  opponents,  the  weight  of  evidence,  both  internal  and  exter- 
nal, regarding  its  verity,  leaves  no  doubt.  It  has  been  recently 
carefully  translated  from  the  original  by  Dr.  Bridgman,  and  pub- 
lished in  parallel  columns  with  the  original,  and  a Latin  and 
French  version  ; the  three  versions  differ  among  themselves, 
and  Dr.  Bridgman  remarks  in  relation  to  this  discrepancy,  “ that 
were  a hundred  Chinese  students  employed  on  the  document, 
they  would  probably  each  give  a different  view  of  the  meaning 
in  some  parts  of  the  inscription.”  This  remarkable  inscription 
is  here  inserted,  with  a few  of  the  translator’s  notes. 

A TABLET  [COMMEMORATING]  THE  DIFFUSION  OF  THE  ILLUSTRIOUS 
RELIGION  OF  TA-TSIN  IN  CHINA. 

A stone  tablet  commemorating  the  diffusion  of  the  illustrious  religion  in 
China,  with  a preface,  written  by  King  Tsing,  a priest  from  the  Church 
in  Ta-Tsin  [or  Judea]. 

Now.  verily,  the  unchangeably  true  and  recondite,  the  eternal  Cause 
of  causes,  the  far-seeing  and  purely  spiritual,  the  never  ending  and  in- 
comprehensible Being,  who  grasping  the  poles  created  the  universe,  and 
being  more  excellent  than  the  holy  ones,  is  the  supremely  honorable. 
This  is  our  mysterious  Trinity,  the  true  eternal  Lord  Jehovah ! He, 
determining,  in  the  form  of  the  cross ,*  to  establish  the  four  quarters  of 
the  earth,  moved  the  primeval  Spirit,  and  produced  all  things  visible  and 
invisible.  The  dark  expanse  was  changed,  and  heaven  and  earth  were 
unfolded.  The  sun  and  moon  revolved,  and  day  and  night  began. 

As  an  architect,  having  finished  the  universe,  he  created  the  first 
man ; endowed  him  with  goodness  and  benignity ; and  commanded  him 

* That  is,  he  determined  to  spread  out  the  earth  r the  shape  of  a cross. 


292 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM 


to  rule  the  world.  His  original  nature  was  entirely  pure  and  unsullied ; 
and  his  simple  and  uncorrupted  heart  was  wholly  free  from  inordinate 
desires.  But  at  length  Satan,  by  exercising  dissimulation,  and  by  throw- 
ing a gilded  covering  over  that  pure  and  uncorrupted  nature,  took  away 
equity  and  greatness  from  the  centre  of  good,  and  insinuated  evil  and 
darkness  in  their  stead. 

Hence  arose  a multiplicity  of  sects,  following  each  other  in  close  suc- 
cession, striving  to  weave  their  legal  nets  : some  substituted  the  creature 
for  the  Creator  ; some  considered  being  as  nothing,  sinking  all  things  in 
oblivion ; and  some,  in  order  to  gain  felicity,  made  prayers  and  offered 
sacrifices.  Others  deceived  mankind  with  a show  of  goodness.  With 
wisdom  and  solicitude  they  labored  hard  ; and  their  anxieties  and  cares 
were  unceasing.  They  were  bewildered  and  obtained  nothing.  Heated 
and  scorched,  they  writhed  in  anguish.  They  accumulated  darkness, 
and  lost  their  way  ; and,  being  misguided,  they  were  irrecoverably  lost. 

Thereupon  our  Trinity  set  apart  the  illustrious  and  adorable  Messiah  ; 
who,  laying  aside  his  true  dignity,  came  into  the  world  as  man.  Angels 
proclaimed  the  joyful  tidings.  A virgin  gave  birth  to  the  holy  child  in 
Judea.  A bright  star  proclaimed  the  happy  event.  Persians,  seeing  its 
brightness,  came  with  presents.  He  fulfilled  the  ancient  laws,  given  by 
the  twenty-four  holy  ones.*  He  ruled  families  and  nations  with  great 
virtue.  He  instituted  the  new  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  pure,  spiritual, 
and  inexplicable.  Like  a potter  he  formed  good  usages  by  the  true  faith. 
He  established  the  measure  of  the  eight  boundaries. f He  purged  aw-ay 
the  dross,  and  perfected  the  truth.  He  opened  the  gate  of  the  three  con- 
stant virtues, | revealing  life  and  destroying  death.  He  suspended  the 
bright  sun  to  break  open  the  abodes  of  darkness,  and  thereby  the  wiles 
of  the  devil  were  frustrated.  He  put  in  motion  the  ship  of  mercy,  to 
ascend  to  the  mansions  of  light,  and  thereby  succor  was  brought  to  con- 
fined spirits. 

His  mighty  work  thus  finished,  at  mid-day  he  ascended  to  his  true 
estate.  Twenty-seven  books  remained.  He  set  forth  original  conversion 
for  the  soul’s  deliverance ; and  he  instituted  the  baptism  of  water  and  of 
the  Spirit,  to  wash  away  the  vanity  of  life  and  to  cleanse  and  purify  [the 
heart]. 

Taking  the  cross  as  a sign,  [his  disciples]  unite  together  the  people  of 
all  regions  without  distinction.  They  beat  the  wood,  sounding  out  the 
voice  of  benevolence  and  mercy.  In  evangelizing  the  east,  they  take  the 
way  of  life  and  glory.  They  preserve  their  beard  .for  outward  effect. 

* The  “ holy  ones  ” denote  the  writers  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

f The  “ eight  boundaries”  are  inexplicable;  some  refer  them  to  the 
beatitudes. 

J The  “three  constant  virtues”  may  perhaps  mean  faith,  hope,  and 
charity. 


NESTORIAN  INSCRIPTION. 


293 


They  shave  the  crown  of  the  head,  to  indicate  the  absence  of  passion. 
They  keep  no  slaves,  but  place  upon  an  equality  the  high  and  low. 
They  do  not  hoard  goods  and  riches,  but  bestow  them  on  the  destitute. 
They  practise  abstinence  in  order  to  increase  their  knowledge.  They 
watch,  in  order  to  maintain  quiet  and  circumspection.  Seven  times  a 
day  they  offer  praises  to  the  great  advantage  of  both  the  living  and  the 
dead.  Once  in  seven  days  they  have  divine  service,  in  order  to  cleanse 
their  hearts,  and  to  regain  their  purity. 

The  true  and  constant  doctrine  is  mysterious,  and  difficult  to  be  cha- 
racterized. Anxious  to  make  it  clear  and  manifest,  we  can  only  name  it 
the  ILLUSTRIOUS  INSTRUCTION.  Now  without  holy  ones,  reli- 
gion cannot  be  propagated ; nor  without  religion,  can  holy  ones  become 
great.  But  when  the  two  are  united,  the  whole  world  will  be  civilized 
and  enlightened. 

In  the  reign  of  the  civil  emperor  Taitsung,  the  illustrious  and  holy 
enlarger  [of  the  Tang  dynasty],  there  was  in  Judea  a man  of  superior 
virtue,  called  Olopun,  who,  guided  by  the  azure  clouds,  bearing  the  true 
Scriptures,  and  observing  the  laws  of  the  winds,  made  his  way  through 
dangers  and  difficulties.  In  the  year  a.  d.  636  he  arrived  at  Chang-ngan. 
The  emperor  instructed  his  minister,  duke  Tang  Hiuenling,  to  take  the 
imperial  sceptre  and  go  out  to  the  western  suburbs,  receive  the  guest,  and 
conduct  him  into  the  palace.  The  Scriptures  were  translated  in  the 
ibrary  of  the  palace.  The  emperor,  in  his  private  apartments,  made 
inquiry  regardingthe  religion  ; and  fully  satisfied  that  it  was  correct  and 
true,  he  gave  special  commands  for  its  promulgation. 

The  document,  bearing  date,  Chingkwan  (the  reigning  style  of  Tai- 
tsung), 12th  year,  7th  month  (August,  a.  d.  639),  runs  thus  : 

“ Religion  is  without  an  invariable  name.  Saints  are  without  any  per- 
manent body.  In  whatever  region  they  are,  they  give  instruction,  and  pri- 
vately succor  the  living  multitudes.  Olopun,  a man  of  great  virtue, 
belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Judea,  bringing  the  Scriptures  and  images 
from  afar,  has  come  and  presented  them  at  our  capital.  On  examining  the 
meaning  of  his  instruction,  it  is  found  to  be  pure,  mysterious,  and  separate 
from  the  world.  On  observing  its  origin,  it  is  seen  to  have  been  instituted 
as  that  which  is  essential  to  mankind.  Its  language  is  simple,  its  reason- 
ings are  attractive,  and  to  the  human  race  it  is  beneficial.  As  is  right,  let 
it  be  promulgated  throughout  the  empire.  Let  the  appropriate  Board  build 
a Judean  church  in  the  Righteous  and  . Holy  street  of  the  capital,  and 
appoint  thereto  twenty-one  priests .” 

The  power  of  the  illustrious  Chau  dynasty  having  fallen,  the  green 
car  having  ascended  westward,  the  religion  of  the  great  Tang  family 
became  resplendent,  and  the  illustrious  spirit  found  its  way  eastward. 
The  appropriate  officers  were  instructed  to  take  a faithful  likeness  of  the 
emperor,  and  place  it  on  the  wail  of  the  temple.  The  celestial  figure 


294 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


shone  in  its  bright  colors,  and  its  lustre  irradiated  the  illustrious  portals. 
The  sacred  lineaments  spread  felicity  all  around,  and  perpetually  illumi- 
nated the  indoctrinated  regions. 

According  to  the  maps  and  records  of  the  western  nations,  and  the 
histories  of  the  Han  and  Wei  dynasties,  Judea  is  bounded  on  the  south 
by  the  Coral  sea ; on  the  north  by  the  Shu-pau  hills ; on  the  west  it 
stretches  towards  the  flowery  forests,  and  the  regions  of  the  immortals ; 
and  on  the  east  it  is  conterminous  with  the  Dead  sea  of  perpetual  winds. 
The  country  produces  cloth  that  is  proof  against  fire,  a balm  that  restores 
life,  bright  lunar  pearls,  and  night-shining  gems.  Theft  and  robbery  do 
not  exist.  The  people  have  joy  and  peace.  None  but  illustrious  laws 
prevail.  None  but  the  virtuous  are  placed  in  the  magistracy.  The 
country  is  extensive,  and  its  literature  and  productions  are  flourishing. 

The  emperor  Kautsung  honored  and  perpetuated  [the  memory  of]  his 
ancestors.  He  supported  the  truth  they  inculcated,  and  built  churches 
in  all  the  departments  of  the  empire.  He  raised  Olopun  to  the  rank  of 
high  priest  and  national  protector.  The  law  spread  in  every  direction. 
The  wealth  of  the  state  was  boundless.  Churches  filled  all  the  cities ; 
and  the  families  were  rich,  illustrious,  and  happy. 

In  the  year  a.  d.  699,  the  followers  of  Budha  raised  a persecution,  and 
argued  against  the  eastern  Chau  family. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  a.  d.  713,  some  base  scholars  raised  ridicule, 
and  in  Sikau  spread  abroad  slanderous  reports.  But  there  were  chief 
priests,  Lohan,  Tai-teh,  Lieh.  and  others,  honorable  descendants  of  those 
from  the  west,  distinguished  and  elevated  in  character,  who  unitedly 
maintained  the  original  doctrines,  and  prevented  their  subversion. 

Hiuentsung,  the  most  righteous  emperor,  commanded  five  kings, 
Ningkwoh  and  others,  to  go  in  person  to  the  church  of  Felicity,  build 
up  the  altars,  restore  the  fallen  timbers,  and  replace  the  dilapidated 
stones. 

Tienpau,  in  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  a.  d.  742,  commanded 
his  general  Kau-lih-sz’  to  take  the  portraits  of  the  five  sacred  ones,  and 
place  them  in  the  church,  and  also  to  present  one  hundred  pieces  of  silk, 
to  give  eclat  to  the  same.  Though  their  august  persons  are  remote, 
their  bows  and  their  swords  can  be  handled.  The  horns  of  the  sun  send 
forth  their  light ; and  the  celestial  visages  seem  to  be  present.* 

In  the  third  year  of  Tienpau’s  reign,  there  was  a priest,  Kihhoh  from 
Judea,  who,  observing  the  star,  sought  renovation : and,  seeking  the  sun, 
came  to  the  honored  one.  His  majesty  commanded  the  priests,  Lohan, 
Pu-lun,  and  others,  seven  in  ail,  with  the  eminently  virtuous  Kihhoh,  to 

* These  personages  are  the  first  five  emperors  of  the  Tang  dynasty, 
Hiuen-tsung’s  predecessors.  Their  portraits  were  so  admirably  painted 
that  they  seemed  to  be  present,  their  arms  could  almost  be  handled,  and 
their  foreheads,  or  “ horns  of  the  sun,”  radiated  their  intelligence. 


NESTORIAN  INSCRIPTION. 


295 


perform  divine  service  in  the  church  of  Rising  Felicity.  Then  the 
celestial  writing  appeared  on  the  walls  of  the  church,  and  the  imperial 
inscriptions  upon  the  tablets.  The  precious  ornaments  shone  brightly. 
The  refulgent  clouds  were  dazzling.  The  intelligent  edicts  filled  the 
wide  expanse,  and  their  glory  rose  above  the  light  of  the  sun.  The 
bounteous  gifts  are  comparable  to  the  lofty  mountains  of  the  south ; the 
rich  benevolences  deeper  than  the  eastern  seas.  The  righteous  do  only 
what  is  right,  and  that  which  is  fit  to  be  named.  The  holy  ones  can  do 
all  things,  and  that  which  they  do  is  fit  to  be  commemorated  ! 

The  emperor  Suhtsung,  learned  and  illustrious,  in  five  departments  of 
the  empire,  Lingwu,  &c.,  rebuilt  the  churches  of  the  illustrious  religion. 
The  original  benefits  were  increased,  and  joyous  fortune  began.  Great 
felicity  descended,  and  the  imperial  patrimony  was  established. 

The  civil  and  martial  emperor  Taitsung  enlarged  the  sacred  domains, 
and  ruled  without  effort.  On  the  return  of  his  natal  day,  he  gave  celes- 
tial incense  to  celebrate  the  meritorious  deeds  of  his  government ; and 
he  distributed  provisions  from  the  imperial  table,  in  order  to  give  honor  to 
those  in  the  churches.  As  heaven  confers  its  gifts,  and  sheds  bounties 
on  the  living;  so  the  sovereign,  comprehending  right  principles,  rules  the 
world  in  equity. 

Our  emperor  Kienchung,  holy,  divine,  civil,  and  martial,  arranged  his 
form  of  government  so  as  to  abase  the  wicked  and  exalt  the  good.  He 
unfolded  the  dual  system  so  as  to  give  great  lustre  to  the  imperial 
decrees.  In  the  work  of  renovation,  he  made  known  the  mysteries  of 
reason.  In  his  adorations,  he  felt  no  shame  of  heart.  In  all  his  duties, 
he  was  great  and  good.  He  was  pure,  and  unbiassed,  and  forgiving.  He 
extended  abroad  his  kindness,  and  rescued  all  from  calamities.  Living 
multitudes  enjoyed  his  favors.  [The  emperor  says],  “ We  strive  to  cul- 
tivate the  great  virtues,  and  to  advance  step  by  step.” 

If  the  winds  and  the  rains  come  in  their  season,  the  world  will  be  at 
rest ; men  will  act  rightly  ; things  will  keep  in  their  order ; the  living 
will  have  affluence,  and  the  dead  joy.  Considering  life’s  responses,  and 
prompted  by  sincere  feelings  of  regard,  I,  King,  have  endeavored  to  effect 
these  worthy  ends, — the  great  benefactors,  their  excellencies  of  the 
Kwangluh  Kintsz’,  the  tsieh-tu  fu-shi  of  the  north,  and  the  Shi-tien 
chungkien  having  conferred  on  me  rich  robes.* 

The  kind  and  courteous  priest  Isaac  having  thoroughly  studied  this 
religion,  came  to  China  from  the  city  of  the  king’s  palace.  His  science 
surpassed  that  of  the  three  dynasties  (i.  e.  the  Hia,  Shang,  and  Chau)  ; 
and  he  was  perfect  in  the  arts.  From  the  first  he  labored  at  court,  and  his 
name  was  enrolled  in  the  royal  pavilion. 

The  secretary,  duke  Kwoh  Tsz’-i,  raised  to  royalty  from  the  magistracy 

* These  officers  are  qot  now  known,  but  all  of  them  seem  to  be  chamber- 
lains, and  other  palatial  dignitaries. 


296 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  Fanyang,  first  held  military  command  in  the  north.  Suhtsung  made 
him  his  attendant ; and  though  a chamberlain,  always  kept  him  in  the 
military  service.  He  %vas  the  tooth  and  nail  of  the  palace,  and  the  ears 
and  eyes  of  the  army.  He  distributed  his  emoluments,  not  laying  them 
up  at  home.  Western  gems  he  offered  to  his  majesty.  He  dispersed, 
and  dispensed  with,  golden  nets.  Now  he  repaired  the  churches,  and 
now  he  enlarged  the  schools  of  the  law.  He  adorned  all  the  sacred 
edifices,  making  them  like  the  flying  hwui.  Imitating  the  scholars  of 
the  illustrious  religion  he  distributed  alms.  Annually  he  held  a general 
assembly  of  the  young  clergy  from  all  the  churches,  and  for  fifty  days 
exercised  them  in  pure  and  elevating  services.  To  the  hungry,  who 
came  to  him,  he  gave  food  ; to  those  suffering  from  cold,  he  gave  clothes  ; 
he  cured  the  sick  and  raised  them  up  ; and  the  dead,  he  buried  and  laid 
down  to  rest. 

The  refined  and  circumspect  Tahsha  never  heard  of  such  noble  deeds. 
The  white  robed  and  illustrious  students,  having  seen  those  men,  desired 
to  erect  a monument  to  commemorate  their  good  and  illustrious  acts. 
The  inscription  reads  thus : 

“ The  true  Lord  is  without  beginning,  silent,  serene,  and  unchangeable. 
Possessed  of  creative  power,  he  raised  the  earth  and  set  up  the  heavens. 
The  divided  Person  came  into  the  world.  The  bark  of  salvation  was 
boundless.  The  sun  arose  and  darkness  was  annihilated.  All  bore  wit- 
ness to  the  truth.  The  glorious  civil  emperor,  in  reason  joining  all  that 
was  possessed  by  former  kings,  seized  on  the  occasion  to  restore  order. 
Heaven  and  earth  were  enlarged.  The  bright  and  illustrious  religion 
visited  our  Tang  dynasty,  which  translated  the  scriptures,  and  built 
churches.  The  ship  [of  mercy]  was  prepared  for  the  living  and  the 
dead.  All  blessings  sprung  into  existence ; and  all  nations  were  at 
peace. 

“ Kautsung  continued  the  work  of  his  ancestors,  and  repaired  the 
temples.  The  palace  of  Concord  was  greatly  enlarged.  Churches 
filled  the  land,  and  the  true  doctrine  was  clearly  preached.  Masters  of 
the  law  were  then  appointed  ; the  people  had  joy  and  tranquillity,  and  all 
things  were  free  from  calamities  and  troubles. 

“ Hiuentsung  displayed  divine  intelligence,  and  cultivated  truth  and 
rectitude.  The  imperial  tablets  spread  abroad  their  lustre.  The  celes- 
tial writings  were  glorious.  The  august  domains  were  clearly  defined. 
The  inhabitants  paid  high  respect  to  their  sovereign.  All  things  were 
glorious  and  tranquil,  and  under  his  auspices  the  people  were  prosperous. 

“ Suhtsung  restored  celestial  reason.  Great  was  his  dignity  as  he 
rode  in  state.  His  splendor  shone  above  the  brightness  of  the  moon. 
Happy  winds  swept  the  night.  Felicity  visited  the  august  mansions. 
The  autumnal  vapors  ceased  for  ever.  Tranquillity  reigned,  and  the 
empire  increased. 


LABORS  OF  NESTORIAN  MISSIONARIES. 


297 


“ Taitsung  was  dutiful  and  just,  in  virtue  according  with  heaven  and 
earth.  By  his  bestowments  life  was  sustained,  and  great  advantage 
accrued  to  all.  With  incense  he  made  thank-offerings,  and  dispensed 
charity  in  his  benevolence.  Brightness  came  from  the  valley  of  the  sun, 
and  the  veiled  moon  appeared  in  azure  hues.* 

“ Kienchung  was  eminent  in  all  things,  and  cultivated  bright  virtues. 
His  martial  dignity  spread  over  all  seas,  and  his  mild  serenity  over  all 
lands.  His  light  came  to  human  darkness ; and  in  his  mirror  the  color 
of  things  (i.  e.  their  moral  quality)  was  reflected.  Throughout  the 
universe,  light  of  life  was  diffused.  All  nations  took  example  [from  the 
emperor]. 

“ The  true  doctrine  is  great,  and  all-prevalent  and  pervading.  Hard  it 
is  to  name  the  Word,  to  unfold  the  Three-One.  The  sovereign  can  act, 
his  ministers  commemorate.  Erect  the  splendid  monument ! Praise  the 
great  and  the  happy !” 

Erected  (a.  d.  781)  the  second  year  of  Kienchung,  [the  ninth  emperor] 
of  the  great  Tang  dynasty,  in  the  first  month,  and  the  seventh  day.  The 
priest  Ningshu  (King  Tsing  ?)  being  special  law  lord,  and  preacher  to 
those  of  the  illustrious  religion  throughout  the  regions  of  the  east. 

Written  by  Lu  Siu-yen,  court  councillor,  formerly  holding  high  mili- 
tary command  in  Taichau. — Chi.  Rep.,  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  202. 

This  truly  oriental  performance  is  the  most  ancient  Christian 
inscription  yet  found  in  Asia,  and  shows  plainly  that  Christianity 
had  made  great  progress  among  the  Chinese.  Both  Kircher  and 
Le  Comte  claimed  it  as  a record  of  the  success  of  the  Romish 
church  in  China,  but  later  writers  have  had  the  candor  to  allow, 
that  it  commemorates  the  exertions  of  the  Nestorians. 

Timothy,  a patriarch,  sent  Subchal-Jesus  in  780,  who  labored 
in  Tartary  and  China  for  many  years,  and  lost  his  life  on  his 
return,  when  his  place  was  supplied  by  llavidis,  who  was  conse- 
crated metropolitan.  In  the  year  845,  an  edict  of  Wu-tsung 
commanded  the  priests  that  belonged  to  the  sect  that  came  from 
Ta  Tsin,  amounting  to  no  less  than  three  thousand  persons,  to 
retire  to  private  life.  The  two  Arabian  travellers  speak  of  Chris- 
tians, many  of  whom  perished  at  the  siege  of  Canfu.  Marco 
Polo  often  speaks  of  the  Nestorians,  and  his  mode  of  referring 
to  them  leads  us  to  conclude  that  they  were  both  numerous 
and  respected  as  well  as  long  established,  though  there  is  reason 

* The  “valley  of  the  sun”  is  China,  where  the  sun,  the  vicegerent  of 
heaven,  holds  his  court,  and  sends  forth  light  like  the  rising  sun  to  illu- 
mine the  world.  The  “ veiled  moon”  is  his  majesty’s  residence. 

VOL.  II.  14* 


298 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


to  suppose  they  had  lost  their  first  energy  and  purity  of  doctrine, 
and  had  assimilated  in  practice  to  the  heathen  around  them.  He 
mentions  the  existence  of  two  churches  at  Chinkiang  fu,  near 
Nanking,  built  by  the  prefect  Marsarchis,  who  was  himself  a 
member  of  that  church,  and  alludes  to  their  residence  in  most  of 
the  towns  and  countries  of  Central  Asia. 

The  existence  of  a Christian  prince  called  Prester  John,  in 
Central  Asia,  is  spoken  of  by  Marco  Polo  and  Corvino,  but  of 
the  exact  position  of  his  dominions,  and  the  extent  of  his  influence 
in  favor  of  that  faith,  little  that  can  be  depended  upon  is  known. 
AVhen  the  conquests  of  Gengis  khan  and  his  descendants  threw 
all  Asia  into  commotion,  the  Nestorians  suffered  much,  but  still 
maintained  a precarious  footing  in  China  during  the  time  of  the 
Yuen  dynasty.  Mohammedanism  was  strong  during  that  period, 
and  controversies  with  Romish  priests  still  further  aided  to  under- 
mine their  churches,  which  were,  moreover,  nearly  cut  off  from 
receiving  assistance,  and  communicating  w'ith  the  mother  church 
in  Mesopotamia.  Their  proselyting  efforts  ceased  on  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Mongols  in  1369,  and  the  Nestorian  churches  and 
efforts  gradually  fell  away  and  were  suspended,  until  no  trace  of 
either  remained.  At  the  present  time,  no  works  composed  by 
their  priests,  or  notices  of  any  churches  belonging  to  them,  or 
buildings  erected  by  them,  are  known  to  exist  in  the  empire, 
though  perhaps  some  books  may  yet  be  found  in  monastic  and 
other  libraries.  The  Chinese  historians  seldom  narrate  anything 
except  what  tends  to  exalt  their  state  and  nation,  and  therefore 
we  need  look  for  nothing  in  their  annals  concerning  a faith  they 
despised.  The  buildings  erected  by  the  Nestorians  for  churches 
and  dwellings  were,  of  course,  no  better  built  than  other  Chinese 
edifices,  and  w'ould  not  long  remain  when  deserted  ; while,  to 
account  still  further  for  the  absence  of  books,  the  Budhists  and 
other  opposers  may  have  sought  out  and  destroyed  such  as  existed, 
which  even  if  carefully  kept  would  not  last  many  generations. 
The  records  of  futurity  alone  will  disclose  to  us  the  names  and 
labors  of  the  devoted  disciples  and  teachers  of  true  Christianity 
in  the  Nestorian  church,  who  lived  and  died  for  the  gospel  among 
the  Chinese,  and  the  number  of  converts,  who,  through  their  in- 
strumentality, believed  on  Him  to  salvation.  The  recent  revival 
of  pure  Christianity  among  that  ancient  people,  affords  encou- 
ragement to  hope  that  Nestorian  missionaries  may  again  find 


ARRIVAL  OF  ROMAN  CATHOLICS  IN  CHINA. 


299 


their  way  over  the  Hindu-kush  to  the  Middle  Kingdom,  carrying 
the  Spirit  and  power  of  God  with  them. 

The  efforts  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  China  have  been  great ; 
but  not  greater  than  the  extent  and  importance  of  the  field  de- 
manded. They  have  met  with  varied  success,  and  their  prudence 
in  the  choice  of  measures,  and  zeal  in  the  work  of  evangelizing, 
have  reflected  the  highest  credit  upon  them  ; and  would  probably, 
if  their  object  had  simply  been  that  of  preaching  the  gospel,  have 
gradually  made  the  entire  mass  of  the  population  acquainted  with 
the  leading  doctrines  of  Christianity.  The  history  of  their  mis- 
sions is  voluminous,  and  the  principles  on  which  they  have  been 
conducted  can  be  learned  from  their  own  writings,  especially  the 
Lettres  Edifiantes,  and  their  continuation  in  the  Annales  de  la 
Foi.  There  has  been  much  written  about  their  labors  by  them- 
selves and  others,  and  the  present  sketch  need  embrace  only  the 
principal  points,  for  which  we  shall  depend  chiefly  upon  those 
writers  who  have  already  examined  these  sources. 

The  first  epoch  of  Romish  missions  in  China  is  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  only  name  of  note  which  has  come  down  to  us 
from  that  period  is  John  de  Monte  Corvino,  who  was  born  in  1247 
in  Apulia,  and  was  sent  in  1288  to  Tartary  by  pope  Nicholas 
IV.  Before  this  period,  it  would  seem,  from  Marco  Polo’s  silence, 
that  the  Nestorian  was  the  only  Christian  sect  in  the  dominions 
of  Kublai,  though  the  Romish  priests  had  previously  passed  into 
Persia.  Corvino  arrived  in  India  in  1291,  and  after  preaching 
there  a twelvemonth,  during  which  time  he  baptized  a hundred 
persons,  he  joined  a caravan  going  to  Cathay,  and  was  kindly 
received  by  the  khan.  The  Nestorians  opposed  his  progress,  and 
for  eleven  years  he  carried  on  the  work  alone,  and  not  till  the  lat- 
ter part  of  this  period  with  much  success.  He  built  a church  at 
Cambalu,  “ which  had  a steeple  and  belfry  with  three  bells,  that 
were  rung  every  hour  to  summon  the  new  converts  to  prayer.” 
He  baptized  nearly  6,000  persons  during  that  time,  “ and  bought 
150  children,  whom  he  instructed  in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  com- 
posed for  them  several  devotional  books.”  * 

Clement  V.,  hearing  of  Corvino’s  success,  appointed  him  arch- 
bishop in  1307,  and  sent  him  seven  suffragan  bishops  as  assistants. 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  III.,  p.  112.  Vol.  XIII.,  from  which 

most  of  this  sketch  is  derived,  especially  from  the  series  of  articles  enti- 
tled Land  of  Sinim. 


300 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Two  letters  of  his  are  extant,  in  which  he  gives  a pleasing  account 
of  his  efforts  to  preach  the  gospel ; but  of  the  subsequent  success 
of  the  endeavors  made  by  him  and  his  coadjutors  to  propagate 
the  faith,  there  are  only  imperfect  records.  Corvino  was  ordered 
to  have  the  mysteries  of  the  Bible  represented  by  pictures  in  all 
his  churches,  for  the  purpose  of  captivating  the  eyes  of  the  bar- 
barians.  He  died  in  1330,  and  the  hierarchy  which  he  had  esta- 
blished gradually  fell  into  weakness  under  Nicholas  de  Bentra, 
who  was  constituted  his  successor  in  the  see  in  1336,  and  twenty- 
six  additional  laborers  sent  to  assist  him.  The  short  record  pre- 
served of  Corvino  speaks  well  of  his  character,  and  favorably  of 
the  toleration  granted  by  the  Mongols  to  his  efforts  to  instruct 
them.  It  is  affecting  to  hear  him  say,  “ It  is  now  twelve  years 
since  I have  heard  any  news  from  the  west.  I am  become  old 
and  greyheaded,  but  it  is  rather  through  labors  and  tribulations 
than  through  age,  for  I am  only  fifty-eight  years  old.  I have 
learned  the  Tartar  language  and  literature,  into  which  I have 
translated  the  whole  New  Testament,  and  the  Psalms  of  David, 
and  have  caused  them  to  be  transcribed  with  the  utmost  care.  I 
write  and  read,  and  preach  openly  and  freely  the  testimony  of 
the  law  of  Christ.”  It  would  seem  that  during  the  sway  of  the 
Mongol  princes,  these  missionaries  carried  on  their  work  chiefly 
among  their  tribes,  and  did  not  labor  much  among  the  Chinese  ; 
it  is,  if  such  was  the  case,  less  surprising  therefore,  that  we  hear 
nothing  of  them  and  their  converts,  after  the  Chinese  troops  had 
expelled  Kublai’s  weak  descendants  from  the  country,  since 
they  would  naturally  follow  them  into  Central  Asia.  After  the 
final  establishment  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  almost  nothing  is  known 
concerning  either  them  or  the  Nestorians,  and  it  is  probable  that 
during  the  wanderings  of  the  defeated  Mongols,  the  adherents  of 
both  sects  gradually  lapsed  into  ignorance,  and  thence  easily  into 
Mohammedanism  and  Budhism. 

The  second  period  in  the  history  of  Romish  missions  in  China 
includes  a space  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  extending  from 
the  time  Matteo  Ricci  first  established  himself  at  Canton  in  1581 
to  the  death  of  Yungching  in  1736.  Before  Ricci  entered  the 
country,  there  had  been  some  efforts  made -to  revive  the  long  de- 
ferred work  among  the  Chinese,  but  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish 
merchants  were  opposed  to  the  extension  of  a faith  which  their 
flagitious  conduct  so  outrageously  belied.  The  Chinese  govern 


C0RVIN0  AND  RICCI  S LABORS. 


301 


ment  was  still  more  strongly  opposed  to  the  residence  of  the  fo- 
reign missionaries.  Francis  Xavier  started  from  Goa  in  1552  in 
company  with  an  ambassador  to  China,  but  the  embassy  was  hin- 
dered by  the  governor  of  Malacca,  who  detained  Pereyra  and  his 
ship,  and  Xavier  was  obliged  to  go  alone.  He  died,  however,  at 
Sanchuen,  Sancian,  or  St.  John’s,  an  island  about  thirty  miles 
south-west  of  the  present  site  of  Macao,  disappointed  in  his  expecta- 
tions and  thwarted  in  his  plans  by  the  untoward  opposition  of  his 
countrymen  living  there.  Other  attempts  were  made  by  priests 
to  accomplish  this  design,  but  it  was  reserved  for  the  Jesuits  to 
carry  it  into  effect.  Yalignano,  the  superior  of  all  Romish  mis- 
sions in  the  East,  selected  Paccio,  Ruggiero  or  Roger,  and  Ricci, 
for  this  enterprise.  Ruggiero  arrived  first  in  China  in  1579,  and 
commenced  the  study  of  the  language  ; after  two  years  he  went  to 
Canton,  and  “gave  vent  to  his  vocation,  and  began  converting  the 
people.”  According  to  one  author  cited  in  the  Repository,  he 
and  Ricci,  by  whom  he  had  been  lately  joined,  “to  conceal  their 
real  intention,  recurred  unblushingly  to  a falsehood,  affirming 
that  their  only  wishes  were  to  make  themselves  masters  of  the 
Chinese  language,  and  to  become  acquainted  with  the  arts  and 
sciences  of  the  country.”* 

By  persevering  efforts  Ricci  obtained  permission  to  reside  at 
Shauchau  fu,  where  he  remained  some  years,  wearing  the  cos- 
' tume  of  a Budhist  priest,  and  winning  the  good  opinions  of  all 
classes  by  his  courtesy,  presents,  and  scientific  attainments, 
though  his  teachings  were  opposed  by  learned  Confueiar.ists  and 
suspicious  magistrates.  In  1594,  Valignano  advised  him  and  his 
associates  to  exchange  their  garb  for  the  more  respected  dress  of 
the  literati ; and  soon  after  he  set  out  for  Nanchang  fu,  the  capi- 
tal of  Kiangsi,  and  thence  made  his  way  to  Nanking,  still  a place 
of  great  importance,  although  not  the  capital  of  the  empire.  He 
was  directed  to  depart,  and  returned  to  Nanchang,  where  he  was 
permitted  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a religious  institution,  and 
establish  his  associates.  He  then  left  again  for  Nanking,  but 
finding  many  obstacles,  proceeded  to  Suchau,  the  capital  of  Kiang- 
nan,  and  there,  too,  established  a school.  The  times  becom- 
ing favorable,  he  appeared  a third  time  at  Nanking,  where  he 
was  received  with  amity,  frankness,  and  good  breeding,  and  hi3 


Sir  Andrew  Ljungstedt’s  Macao.  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  I.,  p.  430 


302 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


lectures  on  the  exact  sciences  listened  to  with  rapture.  He  was 
also  furnished  with  letters  of  recommendation  to  men  high  in 
rank  and  favor  at  court,  and  with  letters  from  a high  magistrate 
granting  him  liberty  to  carry  a few  European  curiosities  to  the 
presence  of  the  emperor ; but  being  delayed  six  months  on  his 
journey  at  Lintsing  chau,  he  did  not  reach  the  capital  till  Janu- 
ary, 1601.  The  pleasing  manners  and  extensive  acquirements 
of  Ricci,  joined  to  a liberal  distribution  of  presents,  gained  him 
the  favor  of  men  in  authority,  and  he  soon  numbered  some  of 
them  among  his  adherents,  among  whom  Siu,  baptized  Paul,  a 
native  of  Shanghai,  was  one  of  his  earliest  and  most  efficient 
co-operators,  and  assisted  him  in  translating  Euclid  into  Chinese. 

The  emperor  Wanleih  received  him  with  kindness,  and  al- 
lowed him  and  Diego  Pantoja,  his  companion,  to  be  accommo- 
dated at  the  place  where  foreign  envoys  usually  remained  ; he 
subsequently  permitted  them  to  hire  a house,  and  assigned  them 
a stipend.  In  the  meantime,  other  Jesuits  joined  him  at  Peking, 
and  were  also  settled  in  all  the  intermediate  stations,  where  they 
carried  on  the  work  of  their  missions  under  his  direction  with 
success  and  favor.  Paul  Siu  and  his  daughter,  who  took  the 
baptismal  name  of  Candida,  proved  efficient  supporters  of  the  new 
faith.  The  new  religion  encountered  many  obstacles,  and  the 
officers  who  saw  its  progress,  felt  the  necessity  of  checking  its 
growth  before  it  got  strength  to  set  at  naught  the  commands  of 
government.  A decree  in  1617  ordered  the  missionaries  to  de- 
part from' court  to  Canton,  there  to  embark  for  Europe,  but  like 
many  others  of  the  same  import  subsequently  issued,  it  received 
just  as  much  obedience  as  the  missionaries  thought  expedient  to 
give  it ; — and  properly  too ; for  if  they  were  not  disturbers  of  the 
peace  or  seditious,  they  ought  not  to  have  been  sent  out  of  the 
country.  This  edict  hindered  their  work  only  partially,  and 
such  was  their  diligence,  that  by  the  year  1636,  they  had  pub- 
lished no  fewer  than  340  treatises,  some  of  them  religious,  but 
mostly  on  natural  philosophy  and  mathematics.  Ricci,  who  had 
been  appointed  superior  of  all  the  missions  by  the  general  of  the 
order,  published  a set  of  rules  for  their  guidance,  in  which  he 
allowed  the  converts  to  practise  the  rites  of  ancestral  worship, 
because  he  considered  them  purely  civil  in  their  nature.  This 
matter  subsequently  became  a bone  of  contention  between  the 
Jesuits  and  Franciscans,  and  their  disputes  as  to  the  nature  of 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  ROMAN  MISSIONS. 


303 


these  rites  alarmed  the  Chinese  to  such  a degree  that  they  seized 
the  Jesuit  Martinez,  and  punished  him  so  severely  that  he  died 

The  talented  founder  of  these  missions  died  in  1610,  at  the  age 
of  80.  He  has  been  extolled  by  the  Jesuits  as  a man  possessed 
of  every  virtue ; but  another  writer  of  the  same  church  gives 
him  the  following  character.  “ Ricci  was  active,  skilful,  full  of 
schemes,  and  endowed  with  all  the  talents  necessary  to  render 
him  agreeable  to  the  great,  or  to  gain  the  favor  of  princes ; but 
at  the  same  time  so  little  versed  in  matters  of  faith,  that  as  the 
bishop  of  Conon  said,  it  was  sufficient  to  read  his  work  on  the 
true  religion,  to  be  satisfied  that  he  was  ignorant  of  the  first 
principles  of  theology.  Being  more  a politician  than  a theolo- 
gian, he  found  the  secret  of  remaining  peacefully  in  China.  The 
kings  found  in  him  a man  full  of  complaisance  ; the  pagans  a 
minister  who  accommodated  himself  to  their  superstitions;  the 
mandarins  a polite  courtier  skilled  in  all  the  trickery  of  courts ; 
and  the  devil  a faithful  servant,  who,  far  from  destroying,  estab- 
lished his  reign  among  the  heathen,  and  even  extended  it  to  the 
Christians.  He  preached  in  China  the  religion  of  Christ  accord- 
ing to  his  own  fancy  ; that  is  to  say,  he  disfigured  it  by  a faithful 
mixture  of  pagan  superstitions,  adopting  the  sacrifices  offered  to 
Confucius  and  ancestors,  and  teaching  the  Christians  to  assist 
and  co-operate  at  the  worship  of  idols,  provided  they  only  ad- 
dressed their  devotions  to  a cross  covered  with  flowers,  or  secretly 
attached  to  one  of  the  candles  which  were  lighted  in  the  temples 
of  the  false  gods.”*  These  conflicting  accounts  must  be  taken 
for  what  they  are  worth,  but  in  giving  these  instructions  Ricci  did 
not  violate  the  rules  of  his  order,  or  give  his  neophytes  greater 
latitude  than  was  allowed  himself. 

After  his  death,  the  work  continued  to  prosper  under  the  pa- 
tronage of  Siu,  who  in  1622  obtained  the  reversal  of  the  edict  of 
expulsion,  and  thereby  caused  the  persecution  to  cease  which 
had  raged  nearly  four  years.  The  talents  and  learning  of  Schaal, 
a German  Jesuit,  who  was  recommended  by  Siu  to  the  emperor’s 
regard  in  1628,  soon  placed  him  at  the  head  of  all  his  bre- 
thren, and  ranked  him  among  the  most  distinguished  men  in  the 
empire.  The  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  also  flocked  to  the 
land  which  had  thus  been  opened  by  the  Jesuits,  but  they  were 


Anecdotes  de  la  Chine,  tome  I,  pref.  vi.  vii 


304 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


not  welcomed  by  those  who  wished  to  build  up  their  own  power, 
and  the  Jesuits  had  the  advantage  over  their  rivals  in  the  impe- 
rial favor,  and  in  the  number  of  their  missions  already  established. 
During  the  troublous  times  which  followed  the  decay  of  the  Ming 
dynasty,  and  the  establishment  of  the  present  family  on  the 
throne  (1630-1660),  the  missions  throughout  the  country  suffered 
much,  their  spiritual  guides  retired  to  places  of  safety  from  the 
molestations  of  soldiers  and  banditti,  and  the  converts  were  ne- 
cessarily left  without  instruction.  The  missionaries  in  the  north 
sided  with  the  Manchus,  and  Schaal  became  a great  favorite  with 
the  new  monarch  and  his  advisers,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  to 
reform  the  calendar.  He  succeeded  in  showing  the  incompetency 
of  the  persons  who  had  the  supervision  of  it,  and  after  its  revision 
was  appointed  president  of  the  Kin  Tien  Kien,  an  astronomical 
board  established  for  this  object,  and  invested  with  the  insignia 
and  emoluments  of  a grandee  of  the  first  class.  He  employed 
his  influence  and  means  in  securing  the  admission  of  other  mis- 
sionaries, and  to  build  two  churches  in  the  capital,  and  repair 
many  of  those  which  had  fallen  to  decay  in  the  provinces. 

The  exertions  of  the  native  converts  did  much  to  advance  the 
cause  of  religion,  and  none  more  than  Siu  and  his  daughter  Can- 
dida. He  gave  his  influence  in  favor  of  the  missionaries,  and 
his  property  to  assist  in  building  churches,  while  his  revision  of 
their  writings  made  them  acceptable  to  fastidious  scholars.  His 
daughter  also  spent  her  life  in  good  works.  According  to  Du 
Halde,  she  exhibited  the  sincerity  of  her  profession  in  consecrat- 
ing her  property  to  the  cause  of  religion,  by  building  39  churches 
in  different  provinces,  and  printing  130  Christian  books  for  the 
instruction  of  the  surrounding  heathen.  Having  heard  that  the 
pagans  in  several  of  the  provinces  were  accustomed  to  abandon 
' their  children  as  soon  as  born,  she  established  a foundling  hospi- 
tal for  infants ; and  seeing  many  blind  people  telling  idle  stories 
in  the  streets  for  the  sake  of  gain,  she  got  them  instructed  and 
sent  forth  to  relate  the  different  events  of  the  Gospel  history.  A 
few  years  before  her  death,  the  emperor  conferred  on  her  the 
title  of  shojin,  or  virtuous  woman,  and  sent  her  a magnificent  habit 
and  head-dress  adorned  with  pearls,  which  it  is  said  she  gradu- 
ally sold  and  expended  the  proceeds  in  benevolent  works.  She 
received  the  last  sacrament  writh  a lively  faith  of  being  united  to 
that  God  whom  she  had  so  zealously  loved  and  served.  She  and 


PAUL  SIU  AND  HIS  DAUGHTER  CANDIDA. 


305 


her  father  have  since  been  deified  by  the  people,  and  are  wor- 
shipped now  at  Shanghai  for  their  good  deeds.  Her  example 
was  emulated  by  another  lady  of  high  connexions,  named  Agatha, 
who  was  zealous  in  carrying  on  the  same  works.  We  can  but 
hope  that  although  the  worship  of  these  converts  was  mixed  with 
much  error,  and  Mai-y,  Ignatius,  and  others  received  their  homage 
as  well  as  Christ,  their  faith  was  genuine,  and  their  works  done 
by  an  actuating  spirit  of  humble  love.* 

The  Romish  missionaries  had  friends  among  the  high  families 
in  the  land  during  the  first  hundred  years  of  their  labors,  besides 
converts  of  both  sexes.  Few  missions  in  pagan  countries  have 
been  more  favored  with  zealous  converts,  or  their  missionaries 
more  aided  and  countenanced  by  rich  and  noble  supporters,  than 
the  early  papal  missions  to  China.  Le  Comte  speaks  of  the  high 
favor  enjoyed  by  all  the  laborers  in  this  work  through  the  reputa- 
tion and  influence  of  Schaal  at  court.  One  of  those  who  obtained 
celebrity  was  Faber,  whose  efforts  in  Shensi  were  attended 
with  great  success,  and  who  wrought  many  miracles  during  his 
ministry  in  that  province.  Among  others,  he  mentions  that  the 
“ town  of  Hang  ching  was  at  a certain  time  overrun  with  a pro- 
digious multitude  of  locusts,  which  ate  up  all  the  leaves  of  the 
trees,  and  gnawed  the  grass  to  the  very  roots.  The  inhabitants, 
after  exhausting  all  the  resources  of  their  own  superstitions  and 
charms,  applied  to  Faber,  who  promised  to  deliver  them  from  the 
plague,  provided  they  would  become  Christians.  When  they 
consented,  he  marched  in  ceremony  into  the  highways  in  his 
stole  and  surplice,  and  sprinkled  up  and  down  the  holy  water, 
accompanying  this  action  with  the  prayers  of  the  church,  but 
especially  with  a lively  faith.  God  heard  the  voice  of  his  ser- 
vant, and  the  next  day  all  the  insects  disappeared.  But  the  peo- 
ple refused  to  perform  their  promise,  and  the  plague  grew  worse 
than  before.  With  much  contrition  they  came  to  the  father,  con- 
fessing their  fault  and  entreating  his  renewed  interposition  ; again 
he  sprinkled  the  holy  water,  and  the  insects  a second  time  disap- 
peared. Then  the  whole  borough  was  converted,  and  many 
years  afterwards  was  reckoned  one  of  the  devoutest  missions  in 
China.  His  biographer  mentions  that  Faber  was  carried  over 
rivers  through  the  air ; he  foretold  his  own  death,  and  did  several 


Medhurst’s  China,  p.  1SS;  Du  Halde’s  China,  Vol.  II.,  p.  8. 


S06 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


other  such  wonders ; but  the  greatest  miracle  of  all  was  his  life 
which  he  spent  in  the  continual  exercise  of  all  the  apostolical 
virtues,  and  a tender  devotion  to  the  mother  of  God.” 

The  increase  of  churches  and  converts  in  the  northern  pro- 
vinces, was  rapid  during  the  reign  of  Shunchi,  but  the  southern 
parts  of  the  empire  not  being  completely  subdued,  the  claimant 
to  the  throne  of  Ming  was  favored  by  the  missionaries  there, 
and  his  troops  led  on  by  two  Christian  Chinese  officers,  called 
Thomas  Kiu  and  Luke  Chin.  His  mother,  wife,  and  son  were 
baptized  with  the  names  of  Helena,  Maria,  and  Constantine,  and 
the  former  wrote  a letter  to  pope  Alexander  VII.,  expressing  her 
attachment  to  the  cause  of  Christianity,  and  wishing  to  put  the 
country  through  him  under  the  protection  of  God.  This  was 
kindly  answered  by  the  pontiff,  but  the  expectations  of  the  Ro- 
manists were  disappointed  by  the  death  of  Tunglieh,  the  emperor, 
the  defeat  and  dispersion  of  his  troops,  and  the  entire  conquest 
of  the  country.  There  seems  to  have  been  little  search  for  their 
foreign  assistants  by  the  conquerors,  as  nothing  is  recorded  of 
their  arrest  or  punishment. 

During  the  reign  of  Shunchi,  Schaal  and  his  coadjutors  stood 
high  at  Peking,  and  their  cause  prospered  in  the  provinces ; but 
on  the  emperor's  death,  the  administration  fell  into  the  hands 
of  four  regents,  and  as  they  were  known  to  be  opposed  to  the 
new  sect,  a memorial  was  sent  to  court,  setting  forth  the  evils 
likely  to  arise  if  it  was  not  repressed.  “ The  strifes  between  the 
Jesuits  and  the  other  orders  about  the  meaning  and  worship  of 
tien  and  sliangli  (words  used  for  the  Supreme  Being),  revealed 
the  important  secret  that  the  principles  of  the  new  doctrine  were 
made  to  subserve  the  purposes  of  those  who  were  aspiring  to  in- 
fluence. It  was  remembered  also,  that  while  the  Catholics  con- 
tinued in  Japan,  nothing  but  intrigue,  schism,  and  civil  war  was 
heard  of,  calamities  that  might  sooner  or  later  befal  China  if  the 
criminal  eagerness  of  the  missionaries  in  enlisting  people  of  all 
classes  was  not  checked.  The  members  of  the  different  orders 
wore  distinctive  badges  of  medals,  rosaries,  crosses,  &c.,  and 
were  always  ready  to  obey  the  calls  of  their  chiefs,  who  could 
have  no  scruple  to  lead  them  on  to  action  the  moment  a probabi- 
lity of  success  in  subverting  the  existing  political  order  and 
the  ancient  worship  of  China  should  offer.”  The  regents  took 
the  memorial  into  consideration,  and  in  1665,  the  tribunals  under 


REVERSES  AT  THE  DEATH  OF  SHUNCHI. 


307 


their  direction  decreed  “ that  Schaal  and  his  associates  merited 
the  punishment  of  seducers,  who  announce  to  the  people  a false 
and  pernicious  doctrine.” 

Notwithstanding  the  honorable  position  Schaal  held  as  tutor 
of  the  young  emperor  Kanghi,  he  was  proscribed  and  degraded 
with  the  rest,  and  died  of  grief  the  next  year,  aged  78.  Ver- 
biest  and  others  were  imprisoned,  one  of  whom  died ; and  twenty- 
one  Jesuits  with  some  of  other  sects  were  sent  out  of  the  country. 
Magaillans  says  he  himself  was  “ loaden  for  four  whole  months 
together  with  nine  chains,  three  about  his  neck,  his  arms,  and  his 
legs ; he  was  also  condemned  to  have  forty  lashes,  and  to  be 
banished  out  of  Tartary  as  long  as  he  lived.  But  a great  earth- 
quake that  happened  at  that  time  at  Peking  delivered  both  him 
and  the  rest  of  his  companions.”*  Their  relief,  however,  was 
probably  owing  more  to  the  favor  of  Kanghi  on  taking  the  reins 
of  government  in  1671  than  to  the  earthquake  ; he  soon  released 
Yerbiest  to  appoint  him  astronomer  in  place  of  Schaal,  and  al- 
lowed the  missionaries  to  return  to  their  stations,  though  he  for- 
bade his  subjects  embracing  Christianity.  This  favorable  change 
is  partly  ascribed,  too,  to  the  errors  Yerbiest  pointed  out  in  the 
calendar,  which  showed  an  utter  ignorance  of  the  commonest 
principles  of  astronomy  on  the  part  of  those  who  prepared  it ; 
an  intercalary  month  had  been  erroneously  introduced,  and  the 
unfortunate  astronomers  were  made  to  exchange  places  with  the 
imprisoned  missionaries,  while  their  intercalary  month  was  dis- 
carded, and  the  year  shortened  to  the  great  amazement  of  the 
common  people.  It  may  reasonably  be  doubted  whether  Ver- 
biest  acted  with  the  usual  sagacity  and  prudence  of  his  order  in 
thus  exasperating  those  in  high  places,  by  this  public  ridicule  of 
their  incompetency.  Verbiest  also  prepared  an  astronomical 
work  entitled  “ The  Perpetual  Astronomy  of  the  emperor  Kang- 
hi,” which  the  emperor  graciously  received,  and  conferred  the 
title  of  tajin,  or  magnate,  on  him,  and  ennobled  all  his  kindred. 
“ He  had  no  relatives  in  China,  but  as  the  Jesuits  called  each 
other  brother,  they  did  not  hesitate  to  use  the  same  title.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  religious  caused  it  to  be  inscribed  on  the 
doors  of  their  houses.” 

The  favor  of  the  emperor  continued,  and  the  missionaries  requited 

* Magaillans’  China,  page  147.  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  I , p.  434. 


308 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


his  kindness  with  many  signal  services,  besides  those  of  a literary 
and  astronomical  nature,  among  which  was  casting  cannon  for 
his  army.  In  1636,  Schaal  cast  a number  for  Shunchi,  and 
Verbiest  at  one  time  cast  one  hundred  and  thirty  pieces  for 
Kanghi  with  wonderful  success  ; he  afterwards  cast  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty  more,  which  he  blessed  in  a solemn  manner,  and 
gave  the  name  of  a saint  to  every  piece.  Some  of  the  high  officers 
were  still  opposed  to  the  toleration  of  foreign  priests,  and  the 
governor  of  Chehkiang  undertook  to  carry  into  effect  the  laws 
against  their  admission  into  the  country,  and  their  proselyting 
labors,  but  Yerbiest,  on  informing  the  emperor  of  their  character 
as  excellent  mathematicians  and  scholars,  obtained  their  libera- 
tion from  confinement  and  reception  at  the  capital. 

During  all  this  time,  or  at  least  since  the  other  sects  came  to 
assist  in  the  work,  there  had  been  constant  disputes  between  the 
disciples  of  Loyola,  Dominic,  and  Francis,  excited  probably  by 
rivalry,  but  ostensibly  relating  to  the  rites  paid  to  deceased  ances- 
tors and  to  Confucius.  Ricci  had  drawn  up  rules  for  the  regula- 
tion of  the  Jesuits,  in  which  he  considered  these  customs  to  be 
merely  civil  and  secular,  and  such  as  might  be  tolerated  in  their 
converts.  Morales,  a Spanish  Dominican,  however,  opposed  this 
view,  declaring  them  to  be  idolatrous  and  sinful,  and  they  were 
condemned  as  such  by  the  Propaganda,  which  sentence  was  con- 
firmed by  Innocent  X.,  in  1645.  This  decree  of  the  see  at  Rome 
gave  the  Jesuits  some  annoyance,  and  they  set  themselves  at  work 
to  procure  its  revision.  Martinez  was  the  principal  agent  in  this, 
and  by  many  explanations  and  testimonials  proved  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  tribunal  of  inquisitors  their  civil  nature,  and  Alexander 
VII.,  in  1656,  approved  this  opinion.  There  were  thus  two  infal- 
lible decrees  nearly  opposed  to  each  other,  for  Alexander  took 
care  not  to  directly  contradict  the  bull  of  Innocent,  and  worded 
his  decision  so  that  both  claimed  it.  When  Shunchi  died,  and 
all  the  missionaries  were  imprisoned  or  sent  to  Canton,  a good 
opportunity  offered  for  mutual  consultation  and  decision  upon 
these  and  other  points.  Twenty-three  priests  then  “ involun- 
tarily ” met  in  the  Jesuit  seminary  at  Canton  in  1665,  and  drew 
up  forty-two  articles  to  serve  hereafter  for  rules  of  conduct,  all 
of  which  were  unanimously  adopted.  The  one  relating  to  the 
ceremonies  was  as  follows : 


DISPUTES  REGARDING  ANCESTRAL  WORSHIP. 


309 


“ In  respect  to  the  customs  by  which  the  Chinese  worship  Confucius 
and  the  deceased,  the  answer  of  the  congregation  of  the  universal 
Inquisition,  sanctioned  in  1656  by  his  holiness  Alexander  VII.,  shall 
be  invariably  followed ; for  it  is  founded  upon  the  most  probable  opinion, 
without  any  evident  proof  to  the  contrary ; and  this  probability  being 
admitted,  the  door  of  salvation  must  not  be  shut  against  innumerable 
Chinese,  who  would  abandon  our  Christian  religion  were  they  forbidden 
to  attend  to  those  things  that  they  may  lawfully  and  without  injury  to 
their  faith  attend  to,  and  forced  to  give  up  what  cannot  be  abandoned 
without  serious  consequences.” — CM.  Rep.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  437. 

One  member  of  this  meeting,  Navarette,  soon  expressed  his  dis- 
sent, and  the  dispute  was  renewed  as  virulently  as  ever.  The 
opponents  of  the  Jesuits  complained  that  they  taught  their  converts 
that  there  was  but  little  difference  generally  between  Christianity 
and  their  own  belief ; and  allowed  them  to  retain  their  old  super- 
stitions ; they  were  charged,  moreover,  with  luxury  and  ambition, 
and  neglecting  the  duties  of  their  ministry  that  they  might  meddle 
in  the  affairs  of  state.  These  allegations  were  rebutted  by  the 
Jesuits,  though  it  appears  from  Mosheiin  that  some  of  them  par- 
tially acknowledged  their  truth.  In  1693,  Maigrot,  a bishop  and 
apostolic  vicar  living  in  China,  issued  a mandate  on  his  own 
authority  diametrically  opposed  to  the  decision  of  the  Inquisition 
and  the  pope,  in  which  he  declared  that  lien  signified  nothing 
more  than  the  material  heavens,  and  that  the  Chinese  customs 
and  rites  were  idolatrous.  In  1699,  the  Jesuits  brought  the  mat- 
ter before  the  emperor  in  the  following  memorial : 

“ We,  your  faithful  subjects,  although  originally  from  distant  countries, 
respectfully  supplicate  your  majesty  to  give  us  clear  instructions  on  the 
following  points.  The  scholars  of  Europe  have  understood  that  the 
Chinese  practise  certain  ceremonies  in  honor  of  Confucius,  that  they 
offer  sacrifices  to  heaven,  and  that  they  observe  peculiar  rites  towards 
their  ancestors ; but  persuaded  that  these  ceremonies,  sacrifices,  and 
rites,  are  founded  in  reason,  though  ignorant  of  their  true  intention, 
earnestly  desire  us  to  inform  them.  We  have  always  supposed  that 
Confucius  was  honored  in  China  as  a legislator,  and  that  it  was  in  this 
character  alone,  and  with  this  view  solely,  that  the  ceremonies  established 
in  his  honor  were  practised.  We  believe  that  the  ancestral  rites  are  only 
observed  in  order  to  exhibit  the  love  felt  for  them,  and  to  hallow  the  re- 
membrance of  the  good  received  from  them  during  their  life.  We  believe 
that  the  sacrifices  offered  to  heaven  are  not  tendered  to  the  visible  heavens 
which  are  seen  above  us,  but  to  the  supreme  Master,  Author,  and  Pre- 


310 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


server  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  of  all  they  contain.  Such  are  the  inter- 
pretation and  the  sense  which  we  have  always  given  to  these  Chinese 
ceremonies ; but  as  strangers  cannot  be  considered  competent  to  pro- 
nounce on  these  important  points  with  the  same  certainty  as  the  Chinese 
themselves,  we  presume  to  request  your  majesty  not  to  refuse  to  give  us 
the  explanations  which  we  desire  concerning  them.  We  wait  for  them 
with  respect  and  submission.’5* 

The  emperor’s  reply  in  1700  to  this  petition,  and  another  one 
presented  to  him,  was  sent  to  the  pope ; in  it  he  declared  that 
“ ti.en  means  the  true  God,  and  that  the  customs  of  China  are 
political.”  The  enemies  of  the  Jesuits  say  that  they  “ confirmed 
the  sentiments  expressed  in  the  imperial  rescript  by  the  oaths 
which  they  exacted  from  a multitude  of  Chinese,  among  whom 
were  many  from  the  lowest  classes,  not  only  entirely  ignorant  of 
the  meaning  of  many  characters  in  their  own  language,  but  even 
of  Christian  doctrine.”  The  strongest  efforts  were  made  by  both 
parties  to  influence  the  decision  of  the  pope,  but  the  Jesuits  failed  ; 
in  1704,  a decree  of  Clement  XI.  confirmed  the  decision  of  bishop 
Maigrot.  The  court  of  the  Vatican  had  already  despatched  a 
legate  d latere  and  apostolic  visitor  to  China  in  the  person  of 
Tournon,  who  was  consecrated  patriarch  of  Antioch,  in  order  to 
give  him  a title  of  sufficient  dignity  in  the  distant  regions  to  which 
he  was  bound.  Tournon  was  a great  admirer  of  the  Jesuits,  but 
he  indiscreetly  excited  the  opposition  of  the  king  of  Portugal  by 
omitting  to  embark  at  Lisbon,  and  the  bishop  of  Macao  was  directed 
to  publish  an  order  forbidding  the  Catholics  in  China  (in  his  dio- 
cese probably)  to  acknowledge  Tournon  as  an  apostolic  visitor. 
After  escaping  the  perils  of  the  sea,  Tournon  arrived  at  Pondi- 
cherry, where  he  lodged  with  the  Jesuits.  But  on  becoming  some- 
what better  acquainted  with  their  mode  of  proselyting,  and  their 
connivance  at  the  superstitious  practices  of  the  natives,  among 
which  was  one  blessing  the  cow’s  dung  used  by  their  converts  in 
worship,  he  turned  against  them,  and  solemnly  forbade  such  prac- 
tices. When  he  reached  Manila,  he  also  deposed  the  procureur 
of  the  Jesuits  there  on  account  of  his  avarice  and  confiscated  his 
treasures,  a proceeding  which  still  more  deeply  incensed  the  order 
against  him. 

The  legate  landed  at  Macao  in  April,  1705,  and  was  received 


Life  of  fit.  Martin,  page  292. 


OPPOSITION  BETWEEN  THE  POPE  AND  KANGHI. 


311 


with  a show  of  honor  by  the  governor  and  bishop.  He  arrived 
at  Peking  in  December,  but  the  Jesuits  had  already  prejudiced 
the  emperor  against  him,  and  he  never  succeeded  in  obtaining  an 
audience,  though  he  was  on  the  point  of  having  one  when  he  was 
suddenly  seized  with  a violent  illness.  He  issued  the  mandate 
of  Clement,  “ ordering  that  no  Chinese  Christian  should  ever 
practise  the  customs  and  usages  which  had  been  interdicted  by 
the  pope.  But  Kanghi  was  not  the  man  who  would  transfer  to  a 
pope  the  right  of  legislating  over  his  own  subjects,  and  in  Dec., 
1706,  decreed  that  he  would  countenance  those  missionaries  who 
preached  the  doctrines  of  Ricci,  but  persecute  those  who  followed 
the  opinion  of  Maigrot.”  Examiners  were  appointed  for  ascer- 
taining their  sentiments,  but  Tournon,  who  had  been  banished  to 
Macao,  forbade  the  missionaries,  under  pain  of  excommunication, 
holding  any  discussion  on  these  points  with  the  examiners.  The 
bishop  of  Macao  confined  the  legate  in  a private  house,  and  when 
he  used  his  ecclesiastical  authority  and  powers  against  his  enemies, 
stuck  up  a monitory  on  the  very  door  of  his  residence,  exhort- 
ing him  to  revoke  his  censures  within  three  days  under  pain  of 
excommunication,  and  exhibit  proofs  of  his  legation  to  his  dio- 
cesan. This  was  reechoed  from  Tournon  by  a still  severer  sen- 
tence against  the  bishop.  Three  new  missionaries  reached  Macao 
at  this  juncture  in  January,  1710,  and  one  of  them,  P.  Ripa, 
gives  an  account  of  a nocturnal  visit  they  paid  the  legate  in  his 
prison  after  eluding  the  vigilance  of  his  guards.  Ripa  remarks 
that  about  forty  missionaries  of  different  religious  orders  were 
confined  with  Tournon,  who  had  lately  been  made  a cardinal,  but 
he  himself  and  his  companions  were  left  at  liberty.  His  emi- 
nence sent  a remonstrance  to  the  governor  at  Canton,  against  his 
imprisonment,  and  also  a memorial  to  the  emperor,  stating  that  six 
missionaries  had  arrived  from  Europe,  three  of  whom  were  ac- 
quainted with  mathematics,  music,  and  painting.  Ripa,  who  was 
to  be  the  painter,  says  that  he  knew  only  the  rudiments  of  the  art, 
and  records  his  dissatisfaction  at  this  change  in  his  vocation,  but 
soon  resigned  himself  to  obedience.  Tournon  died  in  his  con- 
finement in  July  of  the  same  year. 

The  proceedings  of  Tournon  were  mainly  confirmed  by  the 
pope,  and  in  1715,  he  dispatched  Mezzabarba,  another  legate,  by 
way  of  Lisbon,  who  was  favorably  received  at  Peking.  He 
“ was  instructed  to  express  the  pope’s  sincere  gratitude  to  Kanghi 


312 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


for  his  magnanimous  kindness  towards  the  missionaries,  to  beg 
leave  to  remain  in  China  as  their  head,  or  as  superior  of  the 
whole  mission,  and  to  obtain  from  Kanghi  his  consent  that  the 
Christians  in  China  might  submit  to  the  decision  of  his  holiness 
concerning  the  rites.”  The  emperor  evaded  all  reference  to  the 
rites,  and  the  legate,  soon  perceiving  that  his  majesty  would  not 
surrender  any  part  of  his  inherent  authority,  solicited  and  ob- 
tained permission  to  return  to  Europe.  The  first  fifteen  years 
of  the  eighteenth  century  was  the  period  of  the  greatest  pros- 
perity to  the  Romish  missions  in  China.  It  is  stated  that  in  the 
governor-generalship  of  the  Two  Kiang  alone,  there  were  one 
hundred  churches  and  a hundred  thousand  converts.  The  sur- 
vey of  the  empire  was  commenced  by  the  emperor’s  command 
in  1708,  under  the  direction  of  ten  Jesuits,  of  whom  Regis, 
Bouvet,  and  Jartoux,  were  the  most  prominent. 

The  disputes  between  the  various  orders  of  missionaries,  and 
the  resistance  of  some  converts  to  the  emperor’s  commands  re- 
specting the  ancestral  rites,  together  with  the  representations  of 
his  own  officers  upon  the  tendency  of  the  new  religion  to  under- 
mine his  own  authority,  gradually  opened  his  eyes  to  the  true 
character  of  the  propagandists.  In  1718,  he  forbade  any  mis- 
sionary remaining  in  the  country  without  permission  from  him- 
self, given  only  after  their  promise  to  follow  the  rules  of  Ricci. 
Yet  no  European  missionary  could  repair  to  China  without  sub- 
scribing a formula,  in  which  he  promised  fully  and  entirely  to 
obey  the  orders  of  Clement  XI.  upon  these  ceremonies,  and  ob- 
serve those  injunctions  without  any  tergiversation.  Kanghf  was 
made  acquainted  with  all  these  matters,  and  took  his  measures, 
gradually  restraining  the  missionaries  in  their  work,  and  keeping 
them  about  him  at  court,  while  he  allowed  persecuting  measures 
to  be  carried  on  in  the  provinces.  The  work  of  Ripa  affords 
evidence  of  this  plan,  and  it  was  characteristic  of  Chinese  policy. 

After  the  death  of  Kanghi  in  1723,  the  designs  of  the  govern- 
ment and  the  new  emperor,  Yungching,  were  still  more  evident. 
In  1724,  an  order  was  promulgated  by  his  majesty,  in  which 
every  effort  to  propagate  the  Tien  Chu  Iciau,  or  religion  of  the 
Lord  of  Heaven,  as  it  was  then  and  has  ever  since  been  called, 
was  strictly  prohibited.  All  missionaries  not  required  at  Peking 
for  scientific  purposes,  were  ordered  to  leave  the  country,  by 
which  more  than  three  hundred  thousand  converts  were  deprived 


YUNGCHING  PERSECUTES  THE  CHRISTIANS. 


313 


of  teachers.  Many  of  the  missionaries  secreted  themselves,  and 
the  converts  exhibited  the  greatest  fidelity  in  adhering  to  them, 
even  at  the  risk  of  death.  When  the  missionaries  reached  Can- 
ton, where  they  were  allowed  to  remain,  they  devised  measures 
to  return  to  their  flocks,  and  frequently  succeeded.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  priests  at  Peking  was  exerted  to  regain  their  former 
toleration,  but  with  partial  success  ; their  enemies  in  the  pro- 
vinces harassed  the  converts  in  order  to  extort  money,  and  found 
plenty  of  assistants  who  knew  the  names  and  condition  of  all  the 
leading  adherents  of  the  proscribed  faith,  and  aided  in  compelling 
them  to  violate  their  consciences  or  lose  their  property. 

The  edict  of  Yungching,  in  1724,  forms  an  epoch  in  the  Ro- 
mish missions  in  China.  Since  that  time  they  have  experienced 
various  degrees  of  quiet  and  storm,  but  on  the  whole  decreasing 
in  number  and  influence.  The  troubles  in  France  and  Europe, 
towards  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  withdrew  the 
attention  of  the  supporters  of  missions  from  those  in  China,  while 
in  the  country  itself,  the  maintenance  of  the  laws  against  the 
propagation  of  Christianity,  and  an  occasional  seizure  of  priests 
and  converts,  by  a zealous  officer,  caused  a still  further  diminu- 
tion. The  edicts  of  Kienlung,  soon  after  his  accession  in  1736, 
showed  that  no  countenance  was  to  be  expected  from  court ; the 
rulers  were  thoroughly  dissatisfied  with  the  foreigners,  and  ready 
to  take  almost  any  measures  to  relieve  the  country  of  them. 
Perhaps  their  personal  conduct  had  something  to  do  with  this 
course  of  procedure,  for  Ripa,  who  cannot  be  accused  of  par- 
tiality,  says,  when  speaking  of  the  number  of  converts,  “that  if 
our  European  missionaries  in  China  would  conduct  themselves 
with  less  ostentation,  and  accommodate  their  manners  to  persons 
of  all  ranks  and  conditions,  the  number  of  converts  would  be 
immensely  increased.  Their  garments  are  made  of  the  rich- 
est materials ; they  go  nowhere  on  foot,  but  always  in  sedans, 
on  horseback,  or  in  boats,  and  with  numerous  attendants  follow-  \" 
ing  them.  With  a few  honorable  exceptions,  all  the  missionaries 
live  in  this  manner  ; and  thus,  as  they  never  mix  with  the  peo- 
ple, they  make  but  few  converts.  The  diffusion  of  our  holy 
religion  in  these  parts  has  been  almost  entirely  owing  to  the 
catechists  who  are  in  their  service,  to  other  Christians,  or  to 
the  distribution  of  Christian  books  in  the  Chinese  language. 
Thus  there  is  scarcely  a single  missionary  who  can  boast  of  hav- 

VOL.  II.  15 


314 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


ing  made  a convert  by  his  own  preaching,  for  they  merely  hap- 
tize  those  who  have  been  already  converted  by  others.” — Page 
43.  But  this  missionary  himself  afterwards  assigns  a much 
better  reason  for  their  not  preaching,  when  he  adds,  that  up  to 
his  time  in  1714,  “none  of  the  missionaries  had  been  able  to 
surmount  the  language  so  as  to  make  himself  understood  by  the 
people  at  large.”  There  had  been  about  500  missionaries  sent 
from  Europe  between  1580  and  1724,  which  was  not  on  an 
average  four  individuals  per  annum  during  a century  and  a half. 

When  the  intentions  of  the  new  emperor  were  known,  there 
would  not  long  be  wanting  occasions  to  harass  the  Christians. 
In  1747,  a persecution  extended  over  all  the  provinces,  and 
bishop  Sanz  and  five  Dominican  priests  in  Fuhkien  lost  their 
lives ; all  the  foreign  priests  who  could  be  found  elsewhere  were 
sent  away — a mark  of  leniency  the  more  striking,  when  it  was 
supposed  by  the  Chinese  that  some  of  them  had  already  once 
returned  from  banishment.  The  missions  in  Sz’chuen  and 
Shansi  suffered  most,  but  through  the  zeal  of  their  pastors  main- 
tained themselves  better  than  elsewhere  ; their  bishops,  Mullener, 
and  after  him  Pottier,  contrived  to  remain  in  the  country  most 
of  the  time  between  1712  and  1792.  The  missions  in  Yunnan 
and  Kweichau  were  not  so  flourishing  as  that  in  Sz’chuen,  with 
which  they  a. e connected.  During  a severe  search  after  foreign 
priests  in  1767,  M.  Gleyo  was  apprehended  in  Sz’chuen,  and 
endured  much  suffering  and  torture  for  the  faith  he  came  to 
preach  ; he  remained  in  prison  ten  years,  when  he  was  liberated 
through  the  efforts  of  a Jesuit  in  the  employ  of  government.  For 
several  years  after  this  they  enjoyed  comparative  quiet,  but  in 
1784  greater  efforts  than  ever  were  made  to  discover  and  appre- 
hend all  foreign  priests  and  their  abettors,  owing  to  the  detection 
of  four  Europeans  in  Hukwang,  while  they  were  going  to  their 
mission.  M.  de  la  Tour,  the  procureur  of  the  mission  at  Can- 
ton, through  whose  instrumentality  they  were  sent  through  the 
country,  was  apprehended  and  carried  to  Peking  ; and  the  hong- 
inerchant  who  had  been  his  security  was  glad  to  purchase  his 
own  safety  by  the  sacrifice  of  120,000  taels  of  silver. 

Didier  Saint-Martin,  who  was  then  in  Sz’chuen,  gives  a long 
account  of  his  own  capture,  trial,  and  imprisonment,  and  many 
particulars  of  the  sufferings  of  his  fellow  missionaries.  He  says 
that  eighteen  Europeans  were  taken  away  from  the  missions  by 


PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  ROMISH  MISSIONS. 


315 


it,  but  none  of  them  were  actually  executed ; twelve  were  sen- 
tenced to  perpetual  imprisonment,  six  having  died,  but  for  some 
reason,  the  emperor  revoked  the  decree  soon  after  it  was  made, 
and  gave  them  all  the  choice  to  enter  his  service  or  leave  the 
country  ; nine  of  the  twelve  preferred  to  depart,  the  other  three 
joining  the  priests  at  the  capital.  This  searcli  was  so  close  that 
few  of  the  foreigners  escaped.  Pottier  was  not  taken,  though 
he  was  obliged  at  one  time  to  conceal  himself  for  a month  in  a 
small  house,  and  in  so  confined  a place,  that  he  hardly  dared 
either  to  cough  or  to  spit,  for  fear  of  being  discovered.  St.  Mar- 
tin and  Dufresse  retired  to  Manila,  where  they  were  received 
with  great  honors,  and  were  enabled  to  return  after  a time  to 
Sz’chuen.  The  former  died  in  1801  in  peace,  but  Dufresse  was 
executed  in  1814  by  beheading,  and  in  1816,  M.  Triora  was 
strangled  in  Hupeh,  and  M.  Clet,  three  years  after.  These  three 
are  the  only  recorded  executions  of  foreigners  during  the  present 
century,  but  no  data  are  available  to  show  the  number  of  native 
priests  and  converts  who  suffered  death,  torture,  imprisonment, 
and  banishment  in  these  storms.  Probably  the  number  may 
reasonably  be  estimated  by  hundreds. 

The  condition  and  number  of  the  Romish  missions  in  China 
since  their  first  establishment,  cannot  be  very  satisfactorily 
learned  from  their  own  reports.  Vague  estimates  of  hundreds 
of  churches,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  converts,  scores  of  mission- 
aries and  numerous  catechists,  are  all  the  data  given  even  in  the 
flourishing  days  of  Verbiest  and  Grimaldi ; and  since  then  their 
accessible  publications  seldom  contain  a satisfactory  account  of 
the  labors  performed  by  the  missionaries,  or  the  number  of  con- 
verts, churches,  schools,  &c.  Sir  A.  Ljungstedt  gives  a table 
obtained  from  Marchini  in  1820,  wherein  he  states  that  there 
were  then  six  bishops  and  two  coadjutors,  twenty-three  foreign 
missionaries,  eighty  native  priests,  and  215,000  converts,  includ- 
ing seven  thousand  at  Macao  and  vicinity.  The  Annales  de  la 
Foi  for  June,  1839,  states  the  amount  then  at  eight  bishops,  fifty- 
seven  foreigners,  114  native  priests,  and  303,000  converts. 

The  whole  country  is  divided  into  the  bishoprics  of  Peking, 
Nanking,  and  Macao,  and  the  apostolic  vicariates  of  Sz’chuen, 
Yunnan,  Chehkiang,  Hukwang,  Shantung,  Shansi,  Fuhkien,  and 
three  extra  provincial  ones  of  Mongolia,  Liautung,  and  Corea. 
The  first  bishopric  is  under  the  care  of  Lazarists,  whose  principal 


316 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


station  is  Siwan  beyond  the  Great  Wall,  where  is  a college.  The 
bishopric  of  Nanking  includes  three  provinces;  and  the  third, 
those  of  Kwangtung  and  Kwangsi ; all  of  them  committed  to  the 
administration  of  the  Portuguese.  The  vicariates  of  Sz’chuen, 
Yunnan,  Chehkiang,  and  the  three  extra-provincial  ones,  are 
under  the  care  of  the  French  society,  most  of  whose  missionaries 
are  Jesuits ; those  of  Shantung,  Hukwang,  and  Shansi  are  served 
by  Italians  sent  out  by  the  Propaganda ; and  that  of  Fuhkien  is 
under  the  care  of  Spanish  Dominicans,  whose  bishop  Carpena  has 
superintended  the  mission  for  nearly  fifty  years.  The  summary 
for  the  year  1846  gives  twelve  bishops,  seven  or  eight  coadjutors, 
about  eighty  foreign  missionaries,  and  ninety  native  priests.  The 
number  of  converts  in  the  whole  is  now  not  far  from  400,000  ; the 
number  of  schools  is  not  given  ; in  Sz’chuen  alone,  there  are  54 
for  boys,  and  114  for  girls.  There  are  six  colleges  for  educating 
native  priests,  including  that  at  Naples ; but  we  cannot  learn  the 
total  number  of  pupils.  The  amount  of  funds  received  from 
Europe  for  them  all  in  1846  was  about  $59,000.* 

The  valuable  and  clever  works  which  have  been  written  by  the 
Romish  missionaries  from  time  to  time,  together  form  a small 
library,  and  many  of  their  details  relate  to  the  missions.  Among 
these  authors,  Trigault,  Martinez,  Semedo,  Magaillans,  Ripa, 
Avril,  Le  Comte,  Du  Halde,  Amiot,  Mailla,  Grosier,  and  others, 
besides  the  official  reports  of  letters  in  missionary  serial  works, 
all  afford  minute  details  on  every  point. 

It  is  noticeable  at  the  outset,  and  worthy  of  much  considera- 
tion. “that  the  constant  experience  of  the  Romish  missionaries 
has  shown  that,  however  numerous  and  zealous  their  converts, 
the  presence  of  European  pastors  and  overseers  is  indispensable 
to  their  spiritual  prosperity.”  Whether  this  is  owing  to  the  cha- 
racter of  the  Chinese  mind,  or  to  the  little  Christian  principle 
these  converts  really  have,  cannot  easily  be  decided  ; but  it  can 
hardly  be  expected  that  pagans  should  perceive  much  difference 
between  their  old  superstitions  and  the  ceremonies  of  the  new 
faith,  when  too  the  foreign  priest  regarded  their  reception  of  the 
rites  of  the  church,  as  baptism,  communion,  and  confession,  as 
sufficient  evidences  of  their  fitness  for  heaven,  and  left  all  further 
instruction  to  native  catechists. 


Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XIV.,  29S. 


MISSIONARY  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


317 


When  a new  missionary  arrives,  he  is  lodged  with  his  bre  hren, 
until  a trusty  guide  comes  from  the  country  to  conduct  him  to 
his  appointed  place.  He  adopts  the  Chinese  garb,  and  with  little 
or  no  knowledge  of  the  language,  commits  himself  to  the  care  of 
the  courier.  “ Sometimes  on  foot,  sometimes  in  boats,  sometimes 
like  a rich  man  in  his  sedan,  and  sometimes  under  the  guise  of 
an  officer  in  his  chariot,  he  pursues  his  course.  If  suspected, 
which  is  often  the  case,  from  the  blue  color  of  his  eyes,  the  length 
or  turn  of  his  nose,  or  the  fairness  of  his  skin,  he  turns  his  face 
to  the  wall ; if  addressed  with  impertinent  questions,  he  either 
feigns  deafness,  or  professes  not  to  understand  the  dialect  of  the 
questioner.  If  the  case  become  an  extreme  one,  and  his  con- 
ductor cannot  browbeat  or  evade  the  challenger,  he  declares  him 
an  idiot,  whom  he  is  conducting  to  his  friends  in  another  part  of 
the  empire ; or  the  party  seek  safety  in  sudden  flight,  and  come 
together  again  under  cover  of  darkness.”  When  they  reach 
their  field  of  labor,  the  new  missionaries  are  placed  under  the 
direction  of  their  associates,  spending  some  of  their  time  in  learn- 
ing the  language,  and  in  hearing  confessions  with  the  aid  of  a 
manual  prepared  for  that  purpose.  As  they  advance  in  know- 
ledge of  the  language  and  of  their  charge,  they  go  from  one  Chris- 
tianity (as  the  separate  circles  of  converts  are  called)  to  another, 
hearing  confessions  and  masses,  administering  baptism  and  ex- 
treme unction,  and  performing  the  various  duties  belonging  to  a 
pastor’s  office.  They  are  constantly  changing  their  residence, 
which  both  diminishes  the  chances  of  their  detection,  and  tends 
to  the  preservation  of  their  health. 

In  former  times  they  had  few  schools,  and  such  as  they  had 
were,  apparently,  not  much  thought  of ; since  greater  toleration 
has  been  allowed,  they  have  multiplied  the  schools  both  male  and 
female.  The  institutions  for  training  young  men  for  the  minis- 
try, of  which  there  are  four  in  China  and  one  at  Penang,  each 
receive  the  constant  care  of  one  or  more  of  the  missionaries ; the 
one  at  Penang  receives  students  from  Siam  and  Cochinchina  as 
well  as  China.  There  was  one  established  at  Loyang  kiu  in 
Yunnan  in  1780,  before  which  time  none  appear  to  have  been 
started,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  Chinese  officers  in  1814,  so 
suddenly  that  M.  Florens,  the  bishop  of  Zela,  barely  had  time  to 
escape  to  Tungking ; but  it  has  been  revived,  and  another  one  es- 
tablished in  Shensi,  which  was  for  many  years  under  the  chaqge 


318 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  M.  Imbert.  The  procureur  has  the  oversight  of  one  at  Macao, 
and  the  Portuguese  priests  educate  about  fifteen  in  the  college  of 
St.  Joseph  in  that  city.  The  number  of  students  in  these  insti- 
tutions  at  any  one  time  seldom  exceeds  ten  or  fifteen,  and  of  these 
only  a small  portion  actually  enter  the  ministry.  M.  Hamel,  who 
spent  more  than  thirty  years  as  principal  of  the  seminary  at  La- 
yang,  educated  only  27  for  the  sacred  office  ; and  during  twenty 
years,  while  the  converts  were  numbered  in  Sz’chuen  by  thou- 
sands, the  missionaries  found  but  nine  whom  they  were  willing 
to  consecrate,  and  their  principal  dependence  for  native  assistants 
at  this  period  was  from  this  source.  That  there  should  not  be 
more  persons  deemed  fit  for  ministers  will  not  much  surprise  those 
who  are  acquainted  with  the  native  mind,  and  know  the  necessity 
of  early  education  in  science  and  religion,  in  order  to  infuse 
more  self-dependence  and  fibre  than  can  be  done  by  a few  years’ 
tuition  in  Latin  and  religious  ceremonies.  What  degree  of  in- 
struction is  given  these  pupils  in  general  science,  geography,  his- 
tory, astronomy,  mechanics,  &c.,  does  not  appear,  but  it  probably 
is  not  very  deep. 

Common  schools  for  children  of  both  sexes  taught  by  expe- 
rienced converts,  have  usually  formed  a part  of  their  system  of 
labors  when  the  times  were  sufficiently  quiet  to  allow  them  to  be 
gathered,  but  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  instruction  given  by 
such  teachers  seldom  extended  further  than  the  catechism.  In 
1839,  “ there  were  fifty  schools  for  boys  and  eighty  for  girls,  and 
about  500  persons  had  devoted  themselves  to  a life  of  celibacy 
and  prayer this  was  in  the  Sz’chuen  mission.  Books  are 
printed  for  the  edification  of  converts  and  instruction  of  the  chil- 
dren, but  this  branch  of  labor  has  not  received  nearly  so  much 
attention  as  among  Protestants.  The  efforts  of  the  foreign  priests 
are  principally  directed  to  the  converts,  and  those  of  the  cate- 
chists and  native  priests  are  turned  towards  the  pagans,  to  whom 
in  general  assemblies  the  missionary  seldom  shows  himself  or  at- 
tempts to  instruct  them.  The  catechumens  and  inquirers  are 
collected  by  their  countrymen,  and  after  they  are  sufficiently 
instructed,  are  brought  to  the  bishop  or  missionary  to  be  con- 
firmed. 

The  baptism  of  children  and  adults  has  ever  been  a very 
important  work  with  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  and  especi- 
ally (if  its  frequent  mention  is  an  evidence)  the  baptism  of  mori- 


BAPTISM  OF  DYING  INFANTS. 


319 


bunds,  or  dying  children  of  heathens.  The  agents  in  this  work 
are  usually  elderly  women,  says  Verolles,  “ who  have  experience 
in  the  treatment  of  infantile  diseases.  Furnished  with  innocent 
pills  and  a bottle  of  holy  water  whose  virtues  they  extol,  they  in- 
troduce  themselves  into  the  houses  where  there  are  sick  infants, 
and  discover  whether  they  are  in  danger  of  death  ; in  this  case, 
they  inform  the  parents,  and  tell  them  that  before  administering 
other  remedies,  they  must  wash  their  hands  with  the  purifying 
waters  of  their  bottle.  The  parents,  not  suspecting  this  pieuse 
ruse,  readily  consent,  and  by  these  innocent  frauds  we  procure  in 
our  mission  the  baptism  of  seven  or  eight  thousand  infants  every 
year.”  Another  missionary,  Dufresse,  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  late  years,  says,  “ the  women  who  baptize  the  infants 
of  heathen  parents  announce  themselves  as  consecrated  to  the 
healing  of  infants,  and  to  give  remedies  gratis  that  they  may 
satisfy  the  vow  of  their  father  who  has  commanded  this  as  an  act 
of  charity.”  The  number  of  baptized  children  thus  saved  from 
perdition,  is  carefully  detailed  in  the  annual  reports,  and  calcu- 
lations are  made  by  the  missionaries  for  the  consideration  of  their 
patrons  in  France  and  elsewhere  as  to  the  expense  incurred  for 
this  branch  of  labor,  and  the  cost  of  each  soul  thus  saved  ; and 
appeals  for  aid  in  sending  out  these  female  baptists  are  based  upon 
the  tabular  reports.  It  may,  however,  be  a question,  even  with 
a candid  Romanist,  who  believes  that  unbaptized  infants  perish 
eternally,  whether  baptism  performed  by  women  and  unconse- 
crated laymen  is  valid  ; and  still  more  so,  whether  it  is  ritual 
when  done  by  stealth  and  under  false  pretences.  The  number 
thus  annually  baptized  in  all  the  missions  cannot  be  placed  much 
under  fifty  thousand,  and  some  years  it  exceeds  a hundred  thou- 
sand. No  attention  seems  to  be  given  to  the  child  in  ordinary 
cases  if  it  happen  to  live  after  this  surreptitious  baptism. 

The  degree  of  instruction  given  to  their  converts  is  trifling, 
partly  owing  to  the  great  extent  of  a single  diocese,  and  the  care 
the  missionary  must  take  not  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  officers 
by  publicly  collecting  audiences,  and  partly  to  his  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  language.  The  vexations  constantly  expe- 
rienced by  the  adherents  of  the  proscribed  faith  from  one  cause 
and  another,  urge  them  to  be  cautious  ; and  truly,  if  a missionary 
believes  that  baptism,  confirmation,  confession,  and  absolution,  are 
all  the  evidences  of  faith  that  are  required  in  a convert  to  entitle 


320 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


him  to  salvation,  it  cannot  be  supposed  he  will  deem  it  advisable 
to  run  much  risk  in  giving  them  further  instruction.  The  causes 
which  usually  bring  upon  the  converts  the  persecuting  or  trouble- 
some notice  of  enemies  and  magistrates  are  thus  summed  up  in 
the  life  of  the  bishop  of  Caradre. 

1st.  Christians  are  frequently  confounded  with  the  members  of 
the  Triad  society,  or  of  the  White  Lily  sect,  both  by  their  ene- 
mies and  by  persons  belonging  to  those  associations.  2d.  The 
Christians  refuse  to  contribute  to  the  erection  or  repair  of  tem- 
ples, or  subscribe  to  idolatrous  feasts  and  superstitious  rites ; 
though,  according  to  the  Annales,  they  sometimes  defray  the 
charges  of  the  theatrical  exhibitions  which  follow,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  malice  of  their  adversaries.  3d.  “ Espousals  are 
almost  indissoluble  in  China,  and  whenever  the  Christians  refuse 
to  ratify  them  by  proceeding  to  a marriage  already  commenced, 
they  are  regarded  as  law-breakers,  and  treated  as  such.”  This 
is  the  most  common  source  of  trouble,  especially  when  the  pa- 
rents of  the  girl  have  become  converts  since  the  betrothment,  and 
the  other  party  is  anxious  to  fulfil  the  contract.  These  engage- 
ments are  sometimes  broken  in  a sufficiently  unscrupulous  man- 
ner, and  nothing  draws  so  much  odium  upon  Christians  as  their 
refusal  to  adhere  to  these  contracts.  On  one  occasion  this  bishop 
assisted  in  breaking  up  such  an  engagement,  when  the  parents, 
on  the  death  of  a sister  of  the  girl,  asserted  that  the  deceased  was 
the  one  who  had  been  betrothed.  He  adds,  “ I think  the  faith  of 
the  parents,  and  the  purity  of  their  motives,  will  readily  excuse 
them  before  God  for  the  sin  of  lying.”  On  other  occasions  the 
missionaries  endeavor  to  dissolve  these  engagements  by  exhorting 
the  believing  party  to  take  vows  of  celibacy. 

4th.  All  communication  with  Europeans  being  interdicted,  the 
magistrates  seek  diligently  for  everyr  evidence  of  their  existence 
in  the  country,  by  searching  for  the  objects  used  in  worship,  as 
crosses,  breviaries,  &c.  5th.  The  little  respect  the  converts 
have  for  their  ancestors,  is  always  an  offence  in  the  eyes  of  the 
pagans,  and  leads  to  recrimination  and  vexatious  annoyances. 
6th.  As  the  converts  are  obliged  to  take  down  the  ancestral 
tablets  in  order  to  put  up  those  of  their  own  religion,  they  are 
seldom  forgiven  in  this  change,  and  occasion  is  taken  therefrom 
to  persecute.  7th.  The  indiscreet  zeal  of  the  neophytes  leading 
them  to  break  the  idols,  or  insult  the  objects  of  public  worship, 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  CONVERTS. 


321 


is  one  of  the  most  common  causes  of  persecution.  8th.  The 
disputes  between  the  missionaries  themselves,  regarding  the  cere- 
monies, have  frequently  excited  troubles. 

To  these  causes,  may  be  added  the  refusal  of  Christians  to 
have  their  deceased  friends  buried  with  the  idolatrous  ceremonies 
required  by  their  relatives,  upon  which  the  latter  occasionally 
carry  the  matter  before  the  officers,  or  resort  to  petty  annoy, 
ances.  On  one  occasion,  the  Christians  threatened  to  carry  the 
corpse  into  the  house  of  the  pagan  relatives  for  them  to  do  as 
they  pleased  with  it,  which  silenced  them,  as  it  is  deemed  very 
unlucky  to  have  a dead  body  brought  into  the  house.  The  trans- 
portation of  crucifixes,  medals,  and  other  religious  images,  wine 
for  communion,  books  and  pontifical  garments,  through  the  coun- 
try, when  detected,  brought  trouble  upon  the  bearers.  These 
were  needed  in  the  missions,  and  the  bishop  of  Caradre  often 
mentions  his  desire  to  his  brother  for  a piece  of  the  true  cross, 
and  his  gratitude  at  its  reception.  These  things  keep  up  the 
spirit  of  devotion  among  the  neophytes,  and  “ God  wrought 
several  miracles  among  them  to  authorize  the  practice.”  These 
articles,  in  the  estimation  of  both  priest  and  people,  probably 
have  no  little  influence  over  the  demons  which  vex  and  harass 
the  pagans,  but  which  never  trouble  the  Christians.  St.  Martin, 
writing  to  his  father  from  Chingtu  fu,  the  capital  of  Sz’ohuen,  in 
1774,  says : “ The  most  sensible  proof  for  the  pagans,  and  one 
always  in  force,  is  the  power  the  Christians  have  over-demons. 
It  is  astonishing  how  these  poor  infidels  are  tormented,  and  they 
can  find  remedy  only  in  the  prayers,  of  Christians,  by  whose 
help  they  are  delivered  and  then  converted.  Seven  or  eight 
leagues  from  this  spot  is  a house  which  has  been  infested  with 
demons  for  a month  ; they  maltreat  all  who  come  near  them, 
and  have  set  the  dwelling  on  fire  at  different  times.  They  have 
bad  recourse  to  all  kinds  of  superstitions  ceremonies,  calling  in 
the  native  priests,  but  all  to  no  effect ; and  the  master  of  the 
family  where  I am  staying  has  now  gone  to  assist  them.  He  is 
a man  of  lively  faith,  and  has  already  performed  many  miracu- 
lous cures.”* 

M.  Gleyo,  writing  from  the  same  region,  speaks  in  the  same 
strain.  “It  is  but  four  months  since  a man  was  converted  in 


VOL.  II. 


* Life  of  Didier  St  Martin,  p.  35. 
15* 


322 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


this  neighborhood.  He  declared  in  presence  of  an  assembly  of 
Christians  weeping  with  joy  and  gratitude  on  his  behalf,  that 
when  he  was  on  the  point  of  giving  himself  to  God,  seven  devils 
appeared  in  his  chamber  to  intimidate  him,  and  made  many  re- 
proaches and  menaces  for  his  hardihood  in  wishing  to  abandon 
their  services.  Remembering  the  sign  of  the  cross  he  made  it. 
Immediately  the  devils  fled  away,  and  with  so  much  precipita- 
tion that  they  broke  down  the  door  of  the  house  in  their  haste  to 
escape.”  When  persons  educated  in  a country  like  France 
allow  their  converts  to  entertain  such  ideas,  even  if  they  do  not 
favor  them  themselves,  and  countenance  their  endeavors  to  exor- 
cise the  possessed,  we  cannot  look  for  a very  high  degree  of 
knowledge  or  piety.  If  they  are  brought  out  of  pagan  darkness, 
it  is  but  little  if  any  better  than  into  light  hardly  bright  enough 
to  enable  them  even  to  distinguish  trees  from  men. 


SIMILARITY  BETWEEN  BUDHISM  AND  ROMANISM. 


323 


The  points  of  similarity  between  Budhism  and  Romanism  have 
already  been  noticed,  and  the  converts  from  one  to  the  other  see 
but  little  more  change  than  they  do  when  going  from  Budhism  to 
the  metaphysical  speculations  of  the  learned  ju  kiau.  If  Romish 
priests  have  allowed  their  converts  to  worship  before  pagan 
images,  provided  a cross  is  put  into  the  candles,  it  would  not  be 
difficult  for  the  latter  to  put  the  names  of  their  departed  parents 
behind  the  “ tablets  of  religion,”  and  worship  them  together. 
Similar  to  such  a permission  is  the  combination  of  the  cross  and 
dragon  carved  on  a Romish  altar  near  Shanghai,  given  on  the 
opposite  page,  and  at  which  both  pagans  and  Christians  could 
alike  worship. 

Agnuses,  crosses,  &c.,  are  easily  substituted  for  coins  and 
charms,  and  it  does  not  surely  require  much  faith  to  believe  the 
former  as  effectual  as  the  latter.  The  neophyte  takes  away  the 
tablet  in  his  house  or  shop  having  shin,  aeon  or  spirit,  written  on 
it,  and  puts  up  another,  on  which  is  written  shin,  chin  chu,  isau 
tien  tt  jin-wtih,  or  “ God,  true  Lord,  Creator  of  heaven,  earth, 
man,  and  all  things,”  and  burns  the  same  incense  before  this  as 
before  that.  Chinese  demigods  are  changed  for  foreign  saints, 
with  this  difference,  that  now  they  worship  they  know  not  what, 
while  before  they  knew  something  of  the  name  and  character  of 
the  ancient  hero  from  popular  accounts  and  historical  legends. 
They  cease  indeed  to  venerate  the  queen  of  Heaven,  holy 
mother  Ma  tsupo,  but  what  advance  in  true  religion  has  been 
made  by  falling  down  before  the  Queen  of  Heaven,  holy  mother 
Mary  ? The  people  call  the  Budhist  idols  and  the  Romish  ima- 
ges by  the  same  name,  and  apply  much  the  same  terms  to  their 
ceremonies.  Such  converts  can  easily  be  numbered  by  thou- 
sands ; and  it  is  a wonder,  indeed,  when  one  considers  the  nature 
of  the  case,  that  the  whole  population  of  China  has  not  long 
since  become  “devout  confessors”  of  this  faith.  Conversions  de- 
pend, in  such  cases,  on  almost  every  other  kind  of  influence  than 
that  of  the  Holy  Spirit  blessing  his  own  word  in  an  intelligent 
mind  and  a quickened  conscience.  The  missionaries  write, 
“ that  being  forced  in  three  or  four  months  after  their  arrival  to 
preach  when  they  do  not  know  the  language  sufficiently  either  to 
be  understood,  or  to  understand  themselves,  they  have  seen  their 
auditors  immediately  embrace  Christianity.” 


324 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


We  pass  no  decision  upon  these  converts,  except  what  is 
given  or  drawn  from  the  writings  of  their  teachers.  Human  na- 
ture is  everywhere  the  same  in  its  great  lineaments,  and  the  ef- 
fect of  living  godly  lives  in  Christ  Jesus  will  everywhere  excite 
opposition,  calumny,  persecution,  and  death,  according  to  the  li- 
berty granted  the  enemies  of  the  truth.  That  there  may  have 
been  true  converts  among  the  myriads  of  adherents  to  Romanism 
is  probable;  but  what  salutary  effects  has  this  large  body  of 
Christians  wrought  in  the  vast  population  of  China  during  the  250 
years  since  Ricci  established  himself  at  Nanking  ? None,  abso- 
lutely none,  that  attract  attention.  The  five  or  six  thousand  na- 
tive Romanists  at  Macao  are  as  a whole  less  enterprising  and  in- 
dustrious than  their  pagan  countrymen  ; and  they  are  no  more 
charitable  or  cleanly.  What  they  are  in  the  interior  is  not  known 
except  by  hearsay  from  a few  natives.  The  letters  of  some  of 
the  missionaries  written  to  their  own  friends,  breathe  a spirit  of 
pious  ardor  and  true  Christian  principle  worthy  of  all  imitation. 
Among  the  best  letters  contained  in  the  Annales  is  one  from  Du- 
fresse  to  his  pupils  then  at  Penang.  It  is  a long  epistle,  and  con- 
tains nothing,  with  one  exception,  which  the  most  scrupulous 
Protestant  would  not  approve.  The  same  may  be  said  of  most 
of  the  letters  contained  in  the  same  collection  written  in  prison 
by  Gagelin,  a missionary,  who  was  strangled  in  Annam  in  1833. 
It  is  hardly  possible  to  doubt,  when  reading  the  letters  of  these 
two  men  (Dufresse  and  Gagelin),  both  of  whom  were  martyred 
for  the  faith  they  preached,  that  they  sincerely  loved  and  trusted 
in  the  Savior  they  proclaimed.  Many  of  their  converts  also  ex- 
hibit the  greatest  constancy  in  their  profession,  suffering  persecu- 
tion, torture,  imprisonment,  banishment,  and  death,  rather  than 
deny  their  faith,  though  every  inducement  of  prevarication  and 
mental  reservation  was  held  out  to  them  by  the  magistrates  in 
order  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  proceeding  to  extreme  measures. 
If  suffering  the  loss  of  all  things  is  an  evidence  of  piety,  many 
of  them  have  proved  their  title  to  it  in  many  ways.  But  until 
there  shall  be  a complete  separation  from  idolatry  and  supersti- 
tion ; until  the  confessional  shall  be  abolished,  and  the  worship 
of  the  Virgin,  wearing  crosses  and  rosaries,  and  reliance  on  cere- 
monies and  penances,  be  stopped  ; until  the  entire  Scriptures  and 
Decalogue  be  given  to  the  converts  ; and  until,  in  short,  the  great 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  be  substituted  for  the  many 


PROTESTANT  MISSIONS  TO  THE  CHINESE. 


325 


forms  of  justification  by  works,  the  mass  of  converts  to  Roman- 
ism in  China  can  hardly  be  considered  as  much  better  than  bap- 
tized pagans.  Their  works  and  influence  upon  their  pagan 
countrymen  show  how  little  leaven  of  godliness  there  has  been 
in  the  lump,  and  both  priest  and  people  cannot  well  refuse  to  be 
judged  by  evidence  furnished  by  themselves. 

Turn  we  now  to  a brief  survey  of  the  efforts  of  Protestants 
among  the  Chinese,  and  the  results  which  have  attended  their 
labors,  although  their  number  has  been  too  few,  and  their  mis- 
sions too  recent,  to  lead  any  one  acquainted  with  such  labors  to 
expect  great  results.  The  details  furnished  by  Dr.  Medhurst  in 
his  work  upon  China  of  missionary  efforts  at  Canton,  Batavia, 
Malacca,  and  elsewhere,  are  so  ample  and  minute  as  to  obviate 
the  necessity  of  repeating  them  in  this  shorter  sketch,  seeing  too 
that  his  book  is  easily  procured.  The  first  Protestant  missionary 
to  China  was  the  Rev.  Robert  Morrison,  of  Morpeth,  England, 
who  was  appointed  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1807, 
and  proceeded  to  Canton  by  way  of  New  York,  for  the  East  In- 
dia Company  refused  all  missionaries  passages  in  their  ships  either 
to  China  or  India.  He  arrived  at  Macao  in  September,  1807,  and 
proceeded  to  Canton  almost  immediately  ; here  he  lived  in  a quiet 
and  unobtrusive  manner,  in  a room  in  the  factory  of  Messrs.  Mil- 
ner and  Bull  of  New  York,  mixed  but  little  either  with  foreign- 
ers or  natives,  adopted  the  Chinese  costume,  and  endeavored  to 
make  the  acquaintance  of  the  people.  His  time  was  mostly  oc- 
cupied in  study,  and  his  confinement  to  his  room  and  diligence  in 
acquiring  the  language  erelong  began  seriously  to  affect  his 
health  ; but  better  judgment  induced  him  soon  to  resume  his  own 
dress,  and  associate  with  his  countrymen  and  other  foreigners  in 
China  more  than  he  had  done.  He  early  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Sir  George  T.  Staunton,  whose  friendship  he  retained  till  his 
death  ; Mr.  Robarts,  the  chief  of  the  British  factory  in  China, 
also  furthered  his  views,  and  advised  him  to  avow  his  intention  to 
the  Chinese  of  translating  the  Scriptures  into  their  language,  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  a divine  book  which  Christians  highly  es- 
teemed, and  which  the  Chinese  should  have  the  opportunity  of 
examining.  In  consequence  of  difficulties  connected  with  the 
trade,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  Canton  in  1808  with  all  British 
subjects,  and  repair  to  Macao,  where  he  deemed  it  prudent  to 
maintain  a careful  retireiflent  in  order  not  to  attract  undue  notice 


326 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


from  the  Portuguese  priests.  His  associate  Dr.  Milne  after 
wards  observed,  with  reference  to  these  traits  in  his  character, 
that  “the  patience  that  refuses  to  be  conquered,  the  diligence  that 
never  tires,  the  caution  that  always  trembles,  and  the  studious 
habit  that  spontaneously  seeks  retirement,  were  best  adapted  for 
the  first  Protestant  missionary  to  China.” 

He  was  married  in  February,  1609,  to  Miss  Mary  Morton,  and 
the  same  day  accepted  the  appointment  of  translator  under  the 
East  India  Company,  in  whose  service  lie  continued  until  its 
dissolution  in  1834.  His  position  was  now  a well  understood 
one,  and  his  official  connexion  obtained  for  him  all  necessary  se- 
curity, so  that  he  could  prosecute  his  work  with  diligence  and 
confidence.  He  maintained  the  esteem  of  the  Directors,  and 
through  his  life  gave  satisfaction  to  his  employers ; his  salary, 
also,  was  sufficient  to  provide  for  his  family,  and  enabled  him  to 
carry  on  his  studies  without  much  expense  to  the  Society.  He 
no  doubt  did  wisely  in  the  circumstances  in  which  he  was  placed, 
for  his  dictionary  could  hardly  have  been  printed,  or  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  and  other  works  been  so  successfully  car- 
ried on,  without  the  countenance  and  assistance  of  that  powerful 
and  wealthy  body.  In  1810,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  print- 
ed, and  the  gospel  of  Luke  in  1812,  on  each  of  which  occasions, 
the  Bible  Society  granted  j£500  to  assist  in  the  prosecution  of  the 
work.  The  entire  New  Testament  was  published  in  1814,  about 
half  of  it  having  been  translated  entirely  by  Morrison,  the  re- 
mainder he  revised  from  a manuscript  which  he  found  in  the 
British  Museum. 

An  associate,  the  Rev.  W.  Milne,  arrived  in  Jul\r,  1813,  but 
the  Romish  clergy  ordered  him  to  quit  Macao  immediately, 
whereupon  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Canton,  leaving  his  wife 
at  Macao,  and  remain'ed  there  till  winter  engaged  in  study.  In 
1814,  he  took  passage  in  a ship  for  the  Indian  Archipelago,  pro- 
vided with  about  17,000  copies  of  Testaments  and  tracts,  for  dis- 
tribution among  the  Chinese  settlers  in  the  islands.  He  stopped 
at  Banca  on  his  route,  where  many  of  the  Chinese  were  engaged 
in  the  tin  mines,  and  then  proceeded  to  Java,  where  he  was 
kindly  received  by  the  governor,  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  a man  far 
in  advance  of  the  times  in  his  support  and  patronage  of  missions. 
Through  his  liberality,  Mr.  Milne  was  enabled  to  travel  over  the 
island,  and  visit  all  the  principal  settlements,  and  distribute  such 


MORRISON  SENT  FROM  ENGLAND. 


327 


books  as  he  had,  for  his  limited  knowledge  of  their  languages  did 
not  permit  him  to  hold  much  oral  intercourse  with  either  Chinese, 
Malays,  or  Javanese.  From  Java,  he  went  to  Malacca,  then  a 
Dutch  settlement,  and  returned  to  Canton  in  September,  where  he 
remained  unknown  to  and  consequently  undisturbed  by  the  Chi- 
nese, though  a severe  persecution  in  which  Dufresse  lost  his  life, 
was  raging  against  the  Christians  throughout  the  empire.  Mr. 
Milne,  finding  it  very  difficult  to  prosecute  his  labors  in  China,  for 
ihe  East  India  Company’s  Committee  would  not  countenance  him 
in  any  way,  turned  his  attention  to  the  Archipelago,  and  em- 
barked for  Malacca  with  his  family  in  1815,  accompanied  by  a 
teacher  and  workmen  for  printing  Chinese  books,  where  he  re- 
sided  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

The  leading  objects  in  sending  Mr.  Morrison  to  Canton,  namely, 
the  translation  of  the  Bible,  preparation  of  a dictionary,  together 
with  such  additional  labors  in  preaching,  teaching,  and  writing 
of  tracts  as  leisure  allowed,  occupied  the  greater  portion  of  his 
time.  As  soon  as  he  had  acquired  a moderate  command  of  the 
language,  he  commenced  a private  Sabbath  service  with  his  do- 
mestics and  acquaintances  in  his  own  apartments,  which  he  never 
relinquished,  though  it  did  not  expand  into  a regular  public  con- 
gregation during  his  lifetime.  He  always  considered  this  as  one  of 
the  most  important  parts  of  his  work,  and  was  much  encouraged 
when  in  1814  one  of  bis  audience,  Tsai  Ako,  made  a profession  {' 
of  his  faith  and  was  baptized.  He  was  the  first  convert,  and  it 
is  reasonably  to  be  hoped,  judging  from  his  after  life,  that  he  sin- 
cerely believed  to  salvation.  The  circumstances  of  his  death  in 
1818  were  such,  however,  as  to  prevent  his  teacher  from  visiting 
him  during  his  illness,  and  ascertaining  his  feelings  on  the  ap- 
proach of  death  ; but  a generally  consistent  life  afforded  evidence 
of  the  reality  of  his  profession. 

The  compilation  of  the  dictionary  progressed  so  well,  that  in 
1814,  a few  members  of  the  Company’s  establishment  in  China, 
among  whom  Mr.  Elphinstone  and  Sir  George  Staunton  were 
prominent,  interested  themselves  in  getting  it  printed.  The  Court 
of  Directors  in  London,  sensible  of  the  good  results  of  such  an 
undertaking,  responded  to  the  application  on  the  most  liberal 
scale,  and  sent  out  a printer  and  a printing  office.  Considerable 
delay  was  experienced  in  commencing  the  printing  of  the  work, 
yet  the  first  volume  of  nine  hundred  and  thirty  pages,  was  issued 


828 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


in  1817,  and  the  whole  was  completed  in  six  quarto  volumes,  in 
1823,  at  an  expense  of  about  £12,000.  It  consisted  of  three 
parts,  viz.  the  characters  arranged  according  to  the  radicals,  ac- 
cording to  their  pronunciation,  and  an  English  and  Chinese  part. 
This  work  has  contributed  much  to  the  advancement  of  a know- 
ledge of  Chinese  literature,  while  its  aid  in  missions  has  been 
manifold  greater.  The  syllabic  part  still  remains  the  best  dic- 
tionary of  the  language,  though  if  the  author  had  devoted  more 
attention  to  this  portion,  and  to  the  English  and  Chinese  part,  and 
not  added  the  arrangement  according  to  the  radicals,  the  work 
would  have  been  more  available  and  less  expensive  ; the  plan 
was  rather  too  comprehensive  for  one  man  to  fill  up,  and  also 
involved  considerable  repetition. 

While  the  dictionary  was  going  through  the  press,  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  was  progressing  by  the  joint  labors  of 
Dr.  Morrison  and  Mr.  Milne,  and  in  Nov.,  1818,  the  entire  Bible 
was  published.  Another  version  had  been  carrying  on  simul- 
taneously with  this  by  Dr.  Marshman  at  Serampore,  which  was 
completed  and  printed  with  movable  types  in  1822.  A second 
edition  of  the  Baptist  version  has  never  been  struck  off,  and  com- 
paratively few  copies  have  ever  been  circulated  among  the 
Chinese,  its  foreign  costume  rendering  it  a suspicious  book  in 
their  estimation.  The  expenses  of  printing  these  two  versions 
were  to  a great  degree  defrayed  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  the  total  grants  to  the  Independent  missionaries  being 
£6600,  and  to  the  Baptists,  several  thousands  of  pounds.  Both 
these  versions  are  such  that  a sincere  inquirer  after  the  truth  can- 
not fail  to  learn  it ; though  both  of  them  are  open  to  criticisms, 
and  contain  mistakes,  incident  to  first  translations,  which  subse- 
quent acquaintance  with  the  language  has  corrected.  The  prin- 
ciples which  guided  Dr.  Morrison  and  his  colleague  in  this  work, 
were  fidelity,  perspicuity,  and  simplicity,  and  the  earnest  endeavor 
to  render  the  sacred  text  into  idiomatic  Chinese,  intelligible  to  com- 
mon readers.* 

During  the  years  he  was  engaged  upon  the  dictionary  and 
translation,  Dr.  Morrison  published  some  other  works,  both  in 
Chinese  and  English.  A tract  on  Redemption,  a translation  of 
the  Assembly’s  Catechism,  and  liturgy  of  the  church  of  England, 


Medhurst’s  China,  p.  217.  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  249. 


LITERARY  LABORS  OF  MORRISON. 


32S- 

a synopsis  of  Old  Testament  history,  a hymn  book,  a Tour  of  th< 
World,  and  a few  miscellaneous  essays  on  religious  subjects  ; ol 
all  these  several  publications,  nearly  thirty  thousand  copies  were 
printed  and  distributed.  He  early  prepared  a Chinese  grammai 
on  the  model  of  a common  English  grammar,  which  was  printec 
at  Serampore  in  1815  ; and  also  completed  a small  volume  of 
dialogues  in  English  and  Chinese,  and  a volume  of  miscellaneous 
information  in  1817,  on  the  chronology,  festivals,  geography,  and 
other  subjects  relating  to  China,  under  the  title  of  View  of  China 
for  Philological  purposes.  The  principal  part  of  the  edition  of 
the  former  work  was  lost  in  H.  B.  M.  frigate  Alceste  on  her  re- 
turn to  England  ; the  entire  expense  of  printing  both  of  them  was 
defrayed  by  the  E.  I.  Company.  Mr.  Morrison  accompanied 
Lord  Amherst  to  Peking  in  1818  as  interpreter  to  the  embassy, 
and  the  return  journey  through  the  country  afforded  opportunity 
of  collecting  some  information  respecting  the  dialects  and  inhabit- 
ants of  the  different  provinces  through  which  the  route  lay. 

In  1821,  Mrs.  Morrison  died,  and  about  eight  months  after,  the 
Dictionary  having  been  published,  he  visited  Malacca  and  Singa- 
pore, where  he  was  mucli  encouraged  by  what  he  saw.  The 
Anglo-Chinese  college  was  then  under  the  care  of  Mr.  Collie,  and 
this  visit  from  its  founder  encouraged  both  principal  and  students. 
In  1824,  Dr.  Morrison  returned  to  England,  and  was  honorably 
received  by  the  great  and  good  in  that  Christian  land,  being  pre- 
sented to  his  majesty  George  IV.,  and  received  the  approbation 
of  all  w’ho  took  an  interest  in  the  promotion  of  religion  and  learn- 
ing. While  in  England,  he  endeavored  to  form  a Language 
Institution  for  assisting  missionaries  in  learning  the  languages  of 
the  countries  w’here  they  were  to  labor,  but  the  scheme  was-found 
to  be  expensive  and  impracticable,  and  the  projected  institution 
did  not  long  continue.  He  published  a volume  of  sermons,  and 
a miscellany  called  Horae  Sinicae  while  in  England  ; and  having 
formed  a second  matrimonial  connexion,  left  his  native  land  the 
second  time  in  May,  1826,  under  different  circumstances  from  the 
first.  During  his  absence,  the  mission  at  Canton  w'as  not  left 
altogether  destitute,  for  before  his  departure  he  had  ordained  a 
native  convert,  Liang  Afah,  to  the  work  of  an  evangelist,  who  still 
continues  steadfast  in  his  profession  and  love  for  preaching  the 
Gospel,  notwithstanding  his  sufferings  for  the  faith.  On  his  re- 


330 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


turn  in  1826,  Dr.  Morrison  immediately  revived  the  Sabbath 
services,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  this  evangelist. 

During  the  years  which  elapsed  between  his  return  and 
death,  he  was  principally  occupied  by  his  duties  as  translator  to 
the  Company,  and  in  literary  labors.  In  1828,  he  published  a 
Vocabulary  of  the  Canton  Dialect  in  two  volumes,  for  the  usq  of 
the  foreign  residents  and  seamen  in  their  intercourse  with  the 


Chinese.  Three  or  four  works  were  written  in  Chinese,  among 
which  a miscellany  in  four  volumes  of  useful  information  on  the 
plan  of  Chinese  compends,  called  the  Family  Instructor,  was  the 
largest.  A selection  of  Scripture  Lessons  on  the  same  plan  as  that 
of  the  Tract  Society,  and  a second  edition  of  the  Psalter  and 
Liturgy,  and  a volume  of  hymns  and  prayers,  were  also  issued. 
His  last  years  were  cheered  by  the  arrival  of  five  fellow-laborers 
from  the  United  States,  the  first  who  had  come  to  his  assistance 
since  Milne  left  him  in  1814.  The  health  of  Mrs.  Morrison 
being  impaired,  and  her  children  requiring  better  opportunities 
for  education  than  the  country  afforded,  she  left  for  England  in 
December,  1833,  with  six  children,  Dr.  Morrison  and  his  eldest 
son  remaining  in  China.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  East  India 
Company’s  establishment,  in  April,  1834,  he  was  appointed  inter- 
preter to  the  new  commission,  but  almost  before  he  had  entered 
on  the  duties  of  his  office,  he  was  called  away  to  higher  service 
by  death,  August  1st,  at  the  age  of  fifty-two,  having  spent  almost 
twenty-seven  years  in  the  missionary  work  in  China,  and  most 
of  that  time  alone. 

Perhaps  no  two  persons  were  ever  less  alike  than  the  founders 
of  the  Romish  and  Protestant  missions  to  China,  but  no  plans  of 
operations  could  be  more  dissimilar  than  those  adopted  by  Ricci 
and  Morrison.  The  former  desired  to  build  up  a sect,  and  there- 
fore did  all  he  could  to  attract  the  notice  and  win  the  favor  of  the 
powerful,  the  learned,  and  the  rich ; he  made  the  entrance  to  his 
church  easy  for  all,  but  endeavored  to  attract  those  ranks  of 
society  to  come  in,  and  bring  as  many  of  the  poor  as  they  could. 
When  he  died,  thirty  years  after  his  arrival,  churches  of  such 
converts  were  established  in  most  of  the  capitals  and  large  cities 
in  the  eastern  provinces,  and  converts  were  numbered  by  thou- 
sands. When  Morrison  was  sent  out,  the  directors  thus  expressed 
their  views  of  his  labors,  “ We  trust  that  no  objection  will  be  made 
to  your  continuing  in  Canton,  till  you  have  accomplished  your  great 


CHARACTER  OF  MORRISON’S  MISSION. 


331 


object  of  acquiring  the  language ; when  this  is  done,  you  may 
probably  soon  afterwards  begin  to  turn  this  attainment  into  a 
direction  which  may  be  of  extensive  use  to  the  world  : perhaps 
you  may  have  the  honor  of  forming  a Chinese  dictionary,  more 
comprehensive  and  correct  than  any  preceding  one  ; or  the  still 
greater  honor  of  translating  the  sacred  Scriptures  into  a language 
spoken  by  a third  part  of  the  human  race.”  The  enterprise  thus 
committed  to  the  hands  of  a single  individual  was  only  part  of  a 
system,  which  neither  the  projectors  nor  their  collaborator  supposed 
would  end  there.  They  knew  that  the  great  work  of  evangeliz- 
ing and  elevating  a mass  of  mind  like  that  using  the  Chinese 
language,  required  large  preparatory  labors,  of  which  those  here 
mentioned  were  among  the  most  important.  Moreover,  China 
was  a sealed  country  when  Morrison  landed  on  its  shores,  and  he 
could  not  have  forced  his  way  into  it  if  he  had  tried,  with  any 
prospect  of  ultimate  success,  even  by  adopting  the  same  plans 
which  Ricci  did.  It  is  doubtful  if  he  could  have  lived  there  at 
all  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  protection  of  the  East  India  Company. 
After  all  his  toil,  and  faith,  and  prayer,  he  only  saw  three  or  four 
converts,  no  churches,  schools,  or  congregations  publicly  assem- 
bled ; but  his  last  letter  breathes  the  same  desires  as  when  he 
first  went  out.  “ I wait  patiently  the  events  to  be  developed  in 
the  course  of  Divine  Providence.  The  Lord  reigneth.  If  the 
kingdom  of  God  our  Savior  prosper  in  China,  all  will  be  well: 
other  matters  are  comparatively  of  small  importance.”  These 
events  have  begun  to  be  rapidly  developed  since  his  death,  and 
his  labors  and  influence  in  the  furtherance  of  this  kingdom  by  no 
means  ceased  with  his  death. 

Protestant  missions  among  the  Chinese  {migrants  in  Malacca, 
Penang,  Singapore,  Rhio,  Borneo,  and  Batavia,  have  never  taken 
much  hold  upon  them,  and  they  are  at  present  all  suspended  or 
abandoned.  The  first  was  established  at  Malacca,  in  1815,  by 
Mr.  Milne,  and  was  conducted  with  the  most  efficiency  and  for  the 
longest  period,  though  the  labors  at  the  other  points  have  been 
carried  on  with  zeal  and  a degree  of  success,  but  the  number  of 
converts  is  not  definitely  known.  The  comparatively  small  re- 
sults which  have  attended  all  these  missions  may  be  ascribed  to 
two  or  three  reasons,  which  have  been  found  to  operate  with  more 
or  less  effect  in  all  of  them.  The  Chinese  residing  in  these 
settlements  consist  chiefly  of  emigrants  who  have  fled  or  left  their 


332 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


native  countries,  in  all  cases  without  their  families,  to  avoid  the 
justice  or  oppression  of  their  rulers,  or  to  gain  a livelihood  they 
cannot  find  at  home.  Consequently  they  lead  a roving  life ; few 
of  them  marry  or  settle  down  in  the  countries  where  they  stop 
and  become  valuable  citizens ; and  fewer  still  are  sufficiently 
educated  to  relish  or  care  for  instruction  or  books.  These  com- 
munities are  much  troubled  by  branches  of  the  Triad  Society, 
and  the  unsettled  habits  of  the  Malays  are  congenial  to  most  of 
the  emigrants  who  come  among  them.  The  Chinese,  coming  as 
they  do  from  different  parts  of  their  own  land,  speak  different  dia- 
lects, and  soon  learn  the  Malay  language  as  a lingua  franca ; 
their  children  also  learn  it  still  more  thoroughly  from  their 
mothers,  notwithstanding  the  education  their  fathers  give  them  in 
Chinese.  The  great  want  of  fixedness  in  the  Chinese  population 
in  these  settlements,  therefore,  partly  accounts  for  the  little  per 
manent  impression  made  on  it  by  missionary  efforts. 

Great  preparations  were  made  at  Malacca  for  printing  books 
and  teaching  schools ; the  printing  office  was  well  supplied  with 
type  and  block-cutters,  and  large  editions  of  Bibles  and  tracts 
issued  from  it  during  most  of  the  years  it  was  in  operation.  A 
school  was  commenced  immediately  on  Mr.  Milne’s  settlement, 
and  every  branch  of  labor  rendered  as  efficient  as  his  means 
enabled  him.  A higher  institution,  called  the  Anglo-Chinese 
College,  was  founded  in  1818  by  Dr.  Morrison,  assisted  by  other 
friends  of  religion,  the  objects  of  which  were  to  afford  Euro- 
peans the  means  of  acquiring  the  Chinese  language,  and  enable 
Chinese  to  become  acquainted  with  the  religion  and  science  of 
the  west.  Dr.  Morrison  gave  in  all  more  than  £2,000  to  this  en. 
terprise  from  his  own  resources,  and  the  East  India  Company’s 
factory  in  China  assisted  it  with  an  annual  grant  of  $1,000  for 
many  years  ; the  English  authorities  on  the  spot  gave  the  land, 
and  all  those  in  the  region  who  felt  an  interest  in  the  progress  of 
missions  assisted.  Dr.  Milne  was  the  first  principal,  and  after 
his  death  was  succeeded  by  Rev.  David  Collie,  on  whose  death  in 
1827,  Mr.  Kidd  took  charge  of  the  institution,  until  his  return  to 
England  in  1832.  Mr.  Tomlin  then  conducted  it  until  Mr. 
Evans  arrived  in  1833  ; and  he  dying  of  cholera  in  1841,  was 
succeeded  by  James  Legge,  D.  D.,  under  whose  superintendence 
both  it  and  the  mission  were  removed  to  China  in  1844,  and  the 
buildings  sold.  The  Anglo-Chinese  College  was  productive  of 


MISSIONS  IN  PENANG  AND  SINGAPORE. 


333 


good  during  its  existence,  and  about  seventy  persons  were  bap- 
tized  in  Malacca  while  the  mission  remained  there,  most  of  whom 
gave  good  evidence  of  a change  of  heart;  and  about  fifty  stu- 
dents finished  their  education,  part  of  whom  were  sincere  Chris- 
tians, and  all  of  them  respectable  members  of  society.  Three 
or  four  of  the  converts  have  become  preachers.  It  ma3r  be 
questioned,  however,  whether  the  name  and  array  of  a college 
was  not  too  far  in  advance  of  the  people  among  whom  it  was 
situated,  and  whether  the  efforts  made  in  it  would  not  have  been 
better  expended  in  establishing  common  schools  among  the  peo- 
ple, in  which  Christianity  and  knowledge  went  hand  in  hand.  It 
is  far  better  among  an  ignorant  pagan  people  that  a hundred  per- 
sons should  know  one  thing,  than  that  one  man  should  know  a 
hundred;  the  widest  diffusion  of  the  first  elements  of  religion 
and  science  is  most  desirable.  The  mission  at  Malacca  was  not, 
however,  large  enough  at  any  one  time  for  its  members  to  super- 
intend many  common  schools.  Among  the  books  issued  from 
the  press  there,  besides  Bibles  and  tracts,  were  a periodical, 
called  the  Indo-Chinese  Gleaner,  edited  by  Dr.  Milne,  a transla- 
tion of  the  Four  Books  by  Mr.  Collie,  an  edition  of  Premare’s 
Notitia  Linguae  Sinicae,  a life  of  Milne,  and  a volume  of  sermons 
by  Dr.  Morrison.  The  number  of  volumes  printed  in  Chinese 
was  about  half  a million. 

The  mission  at  Georgetown  in  the  island  of  Penang,  like  that  at 
Malacca,  was  under  the  care  of  the  London  Missionary  Society 
during  the  whole  of  its  existence.  It  was  established  in  1819  by 
Mr.  Medhurst,  but  he  did  little  more  than  distribute  tracts  and 
preach  for  a short  time,  and  make  some  arrangements  for  the  es 
tablishment  of  schools,  while  Messrs.  Beighton  and  Ince,  who 
arrived  in  the  same  year  to  reinforce  the  Malay  and  Chinese  mis- 
sions, made  a beginning.  The  mission  continued  from  that  time 
till  1843  to  be  supplied  with  missionaries,  at  which  time  it  was 
suspended.  Two  or  three  Chinese,  and  six  Malay  schools  were 
kept  up  during  most  of  this  period,  some  of  which  were  assisted 
by  the  English  government.  In  1836,  the  number  of  baptized 
Malays  and  Chinese  amounted  to  thirteen. 

The  mission  among  the  Chinese  at  Singapore  was  commenced 
in  1819  by  Mr.  Milton  ; the  colonial  government  granted  a lot, 
and  a chapel  and  other  buildings  were  erected  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years.  Messrs.  Smith  and  Tomlin  came  to  the  settlement  in 


334 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


1827,  but  did  not  remain  long,  the  former  retiring  to  England  on 
account  of  ill  health,  and  Mr.  Tomlin  taking  charge  of  the  col- 
lege at  Malacca,  left  vacant  by  the  departure  of  Mr.  Kidd.  Mr. 
Gutzlaff  came  over  from  the  Dutch  settlement  at  Rhio,  but  did 
not  remain  long  enough  to  effect  anything ; nor  did  Mr.  Abeel, 
who  came  from  China  in  1831,  and  left  soon  after  for  Siam.  The 
German  missionary  at  this  station,  Mr.  Thomsen,  when  about  to 
leave  in  1834,  sold  his  printing  apparatus  to  the  American  mis- 
sion newly  established  there  by  Mr.  Tracy.  The  prospects  in 
China  appearing  unpromising  at  this  time,  it  was  designed  by  the 
directors  of  the  American  society  to  establish  a large  mission, 
to  consist  of  a well  regulated  school  for  both  Chinese  and  Malays, 
which  was  by  degrees  to  become  a seminary,  and  as  many  primary 
schools  as  there  were  means  to  support ; besides  the  usual  labors 
in  preaching  and  visiting,  a type-foundry  and  printing-office 
for  manufacturing  books  in  Chinese,  Malay,  Bugis,  and  Sia- 
mese, were  also  contemplated.  In  December,  1834,  Mr.  Tracy 
was  joined  by  the  Rev.  P.  Parker,  m.  d.,  who  opened  a hospital 
in  the  Chinese  part  of  the  town  for  the  gratuitous  distribution  of 
medicine  and  medical  aid  ; books  were  also  given  to  the  patients, 
and  explanations  of  their  meaning  as  far  as  the  time  permitted. 
In  1835,  Mr.  Wolfe  arrived  from  England,  and  two  years  after- 
ward, Rev.  Messrs.  Dickinson,  Hope,  and  Travelli,  and  Mr.  North 
from  the  United  States,  to  take  charge  of  the  schools  and  print- 
ing-office. The  school  established  by  the  American  mission  was 
carried  on  with  encouraging  success  by  various  members  until 
1844,  when  the  mission  was  removed  to  China,  and  the  Malay 
portion  of  it  given  up. 

The  English  mission,  after  the  death  of  Mr.  Wolfe  in  1837, 
was  under  the  care  of  Messrs.  Dyer  and  Stronach,  the  former  of 
whom  had  removed  there  from  Penang  and  Malacca.  Mr.  Dyer 
had  been  for  many  years  engaged  in  preparing  steel  punches  for 
a font  of  movable  Chinese  type,  and  his  patient  labors  had  already 
overcome  the  principal  difficulties  in  the  way,  when  the  work  was 
arrested  by  his  death  in  1843.  He  had,  however,  finished  ma- 
trices for  so  many  characters  that  the  font  has  gone  into  partial 
operation,  and  the  experiment  has  fully  proved  the  cheapness  and 
superiority  of  metallic  type  over  blocks  or  lithography.  Mr. 
Dyer  labored  nearly  seventeen  years  in  the  cause  of  Christ  among 
the  Chinese  with  a consecration  of  energy  and.  singleness  of  pur- 


MISSIONS  TO  BORNEO  AND  JAVA. 


335 


pose  seldom  exceeded,  and  won  the  affectionate  respect  of  the  na- 
tives wherever  he  lived.  The  mission  was  continued  by  Rev.  A. 
Stronach  in  the  Chinese  department,  and  B.  P.  Keeseberry  in  the 
Malay,  until  1845,  when  the  former  was  suspended,  and  the  print- 
ing and  type-founding  establishment  removed  to  China. 

The  American  mission  among  the  Chinese  in  Borneo  has  been 
subject  to  so  many  opposing  obstacles,  both  external  and  internal, 
that  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  established  at  all  so  far  as 
to  exert  any  effects  upon  the  people.  The  Chinese  on  Borneo  are 
engaged  for  the  most  part  in  mining,  and  being  superior  in  indus- 
try to  the  Malays  and  Dayaks  around  them,  though  by  no  means 
patterns  of  thrift  and  good  order  themselves,  are  the  object  of 
suspicion  and  dread,  and  live  in  small  communities  subject  to 
their  own  rulers,  scattered  over  the  mining  districts  in  the  inte- 
rior. Messrs.  Doty  and  Pohlman  went  to  Pontianak  in  1838  to 
labor  among  the  Chinese,  accompanied  by  three  or  four  fellow- 
laborers  for  the  Dayaks,  but  in  consequence  of  the  greater  de- 
mands of  the  field  at  Amoy,  they  gave  up  their  part  of  the 
mission  in  1844,  and  removed  to  China. 

The  mission  to  the  Chinese  in  Java  was  commenced  by  Mr. 
Slater  in  1819,  and  reinforced  in  1822  by  Mr.  Medhurst,  who 
continued  in  charge  of  it,  with  some  interruptions,  while  travel- 
ling in  the  Archipelago  and  on  the  coast  of  China,  and  a visit  to 
England,  until  1843,  when  he  left  the  island  and  removed  to 
China.  The  account  of  the  various  eflorts  made  by  him  to  dif- 
fuse a knowledge  of  the  gospel  among  the  Chinese  and  Malays, 
as  given  in  his  work  on  China,  exhibits  a series  of  endeavors 
to  interest  the  heathen  in  the  great  truths  of  Christianity  that 
leaves  them  without  excuse.  The  mission  was  not  confined  to 
Batavia,  and,  during  his  residence  in  the  island,  he  took  several 
tours,  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  books,  and  teaching  gospel 
truth  as  he  had  opportunity. 

Mr.  Medhurst  mentions  one  village  near  Batavia,  called  Depok, 
inhabited  by  native  Christians,  whose  origin  deserves  to  be  again 
mentioned,  it  is  so  praiseworthy  and  so  rare.  “ More  than  a 
century  ago,  a Dutch  gentleman,  named  Chasterling,  having  an 
estate  about  six  miles  long  by  two  wide,  cultivated  entirely  by 
slaves,  proposed  to  liberate  them  and  make  them  a present  of  the 
land  if  they  would  consent  to  be  instructed,  and  on  a profession 
of  their  faith,  baptized.  In  compliance  with  this  part  of  the  pro. 


336 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


position,  he  made  over  the  whole  of  his  estate  to  his  former  bond- 
men,  built  a church  for  them,  placed  a schoolmaster  over  them, 
subject  to  the  pastoral  oversight  of  the  Dutch  clergy,  and  left 
them  and  their  families  free.  In  1800,  the  inhabitants  of  Depok 
amounted  to  about  two  hundred  souls.  Never  was  there  a quieter 
village,  or  a more  inoffensive  people  ; and  though  the  majority 
may  be  attached  by  interest  or  education  to  Christianity,  a few 
appear  to  be  lovers  of  the  Savior,  and  some  have  already  found 
their  way  to  the  haven  of  rest ; there  are  now  about  seventy 
members  of  the  church,  and  upwards  of  fifty  children  in  the 
school.”  * 

Writing  suitable  tracts,  and  distributing  them  among  the  peo- 
ple, accompanying  them  with  explanations  and  exhortation, 
preaching  to  the  people  in  the  market-place  and  shops,  by  the 
way  and  in  the  house,  as  well  as  the  more  regular  services  of 
the  Sabbath,  in  English,  Malay,  and  Chinese,  teaching  children 
in  schools,  and  preparing  works  in  English  to  illustrate  the  lan- 
guages spoken  in  Eastern  Asia,  filled  up  the  routine  of  his  labors. 
A number  were  baptized,  few  of  whom  were  Chinese,  while  one, 
more  zealous  than  his  countrymen,  replied  to  the  tracts  against 
the  national  feasts.  The  English  residents  in  Batavia  assisted  in 
erecting  a neat  place  of  worship  ; and  in  1833,  an  orphan  asy- 
lum was  established  by  foreigners,  under  Mr.  Medhurst’s  super- 
intendence, for  the  support  and  education  of  the  destitute  children 
of  Europeans.  In  1833,  the  American  Board  sent  two  missiona- 
ries to  the  Archipelago,  Messrs.  Munson  and  Lyman,  who  landed 
at  Batavia  ; these  two  brethren  were  cut  off  the  next  year  by  the 
Battaks,  when  exploring  in  Sumatra.  In  1835,  the  American 
Episcopal  Board  sent  two  missionaries  to  the  Chinese,  Messrs. 
Lockwood  and  Hanson,  who  settled  in  Batavia  at  the  request  of 
Mr.  Medhurst,  but  ill  health  compelled  them  both  to  return  to 
their  native  land  before  the  mission  was  well  established,  though 
not  before  Mr.  Boone  arrived  to  assist  in  and  continue  their  work. 
Four  other  American  laborers  also  came  to  Batavia  in  the  same 
year,  destined  for  the  Archipelago,  but  the  fears  or  suspicions  of 
the  Dutch  government  were  aroused,  and  they  were  forbidden  to 
proselyte  among  the  natives  in  their  colonial  possessions,  except 
in  Borneo ; and  moreover  were  obliged  to  reside  a year  at  Bata- 
via before  they  could  repair  to  their  field  of  labor.  Few  acts  of 
* China;  Its  State  and  Prospects,  p.  269. 


SUMMARY  OF  LABORS  IN  INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 


387 


modern  Christian  governments  can  compare  with  the  proceedings 
of  the  Dutch  colonial  authorities  in  the  Indian  Archipelago  in 
relation  to  this  matter,  and  all  their  ordinances  were  either  sanc- 
tioned or  suggested  by  their  superiors  at  home.  It  would  be  an 
instructive  subject  for  investigation,  to  examine  the  many  ways 
that  Protestant  governments  have  opposed  the  progress  of  the 
Gospel  and  freedom  of  conscience,  in  various  ages  and  parts  of 
the  world,  and  especially  to  describe  the  many  precautions  they 
have  taken,  lest  the  diffusion  of  Christian  truth  should  undermine 
and  weaken  their  power  over  the  natives.  The  English  and 
Dutch  East  India  Companies,  their  agents  in  the  West  and  East 
Indies,  the  colonial  authorities  in  Guiana,  Cape  Colony,  and  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  have  all  of  them,  at  one  time  or  another, 
done  much  to  prevent  the  natives  receiving  the  truths  and  instruc- 
tions which  formed  the  basis  of  all  the  blessings  they  themselves 
enjoyed,  because  “ the  natives  must  not  be  disturbed  in  their 
religion.” 

The  endeavors  which  have  been  made  to  evangelize  the  Chi- 
nese out  of  their  own  country,  have  not  failed  of  accomplishing 
lasting  good.  The  following  summary  of  labors  at  the  stations 
was  given  by  Medhurst  in  1837,  who  refers  in  it  almost  exclu- 
sively to  the  English  missionaries,  as  the  American  missions  had 
at  that  time  only  recently  commenced  operations.  “ Protestant 
missionaries,  considering  themselves  excluded  from  the  interior 
of  the  empire  of  China,  and  finding  a host  of  emigrants  in  the 
various  countries  in  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  aimed  first  to 
enlighten  these,  with  the  hope,  that  if  properly  instructed  and 
influenced,  they  would,  on  their  return  to  their  native  land,  carry 
with  them  the  gospel  they  had  learned,  and  spread  it  among  their 
countrymen.  With  this  view,  they  established  themselves  in  the 
various  colonies  around  China,  studied  the  language,  set  up 
schools  and  seminaries,  wrote  and  printed  books,  conversed  ex- 
tensively with  the  people,  and  fried  to  collect  congregations  to 
whom  they  might  preach  the  word  of  life.  Since  the  commence- 
ment of  their  missions,  they  have  translated  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
and  printed  two  thousand  complete  Bibles  in  two  sizes,  ten  thou- 
sand Testaments,  and  thirty  thousand  separate  books,  and  upwards 
of  half  a million  of  tracts  in  Chinese  ; besides  four  thousand 
Testaments,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tracts  in  the 
languages  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  making  about  twenty 

VOL.  II.  16 


338 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


millions  of  printed  pages.  About  ten  thousand  children  have 
passed  through  the  mission  schools;  nearly  one  hundred  persons 
have  been  baptized,  and  several  native  preachers  raised  up,  one 
of  whom  has  proclaimed  the  gospel  to  his  countrymen,  and  en- 
dured persecution  for  Jesus’  sake.” 

Since  this  was  written,  the  number  of  pages  printed  and  cir- 
culated has  been  more  than  doubled,  the  number  of  scholars 
taught  been  increased  to  12,000,  and  preaching  proportiona- 
bly  attended  to ; while  a few  more  have  professed  the  gospel  by 
baptism  and  a generally  consistent  life.  All  these  missions,  so 
far  as  the  Chinese  are  concerned,  are  now  suspended,  and  unless 
the  Dutch  resume  them,  are  not  likely  to  be  soon  revived.  The 
greater  openings  in  China  itself  for  disseminating  Christian  truth, 
and  the  small  number  of  qualified  missionaries  ready  to  avail  of 
them,  have  invited  all  the  laborers  away  from  the  outskirts  and 
colonies  to  the  borders,  and  into  the  mother  country  itself.  The 
idea  entertained,  that  the  colonists  would  react  upon  their  coun- 
trymen at  home,  has  proved  illusive  ; for  the  converts,  when  they 
returned  to  dwell  among  their  heathen  countrymen,  away  from 
their  teachers,  are  far  more  likely  to  adopt  or  sanction  some  of 
the  customs  around  them,  than  to  live  up  to  the  truths  of  the  gos- 
pel, and  endure  persecution  for  its  sake.  One  reason  why  mis- 
sions have  produced  no  more  permanent  effect  among  the  Chinese 
emigrants  has  already  been  stated,  in  their  ignorance  and  unset- 
tled habits.  A second  reason  of  still  greater  force,  is  the  very 
small  number  of  missionaries  who  have  learned  the  language  suffi- 
ciently well  to  preach  acceptably  in  it,  and  who  remained  long 
enough  in  one  spot  to  establish  an  influence.  The  rapid  succes- 
sion of  laborers  at  a station,  forbids  the  perpetuation  of  that  kind 
of  influence  which  is  desirable,  and  this  has  been  remarkably  the 
case  at  Singapore,  Malacca,  and  Penang,  where  few  out  of  those 
laboring  remained  long  enough  to  learn  the  language.  Besides 
this,  they  had  the  care  of  schools  and  printing  offices,  wrote 
books,  held  religious  services,  opened  hospitals  for  dispensing 
medical  aid,  and  distributed  books  and  tracts  at  the  same  time. 
When  they  attempted  so  many  things,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  ill 
health  obliged  many  to  leave  their  work. 

The  account  of  Protestant  missions  in  China  was  brought  down 
to  the  death  of  Dr.  Morrison,  in  1834.  He  believed  in  the  final 
evangelization  of  the  country,  but  the  prospect  at  his  death  was 


MISSION  AT  CANTON. 


339 


nearly  as  dark  as  when  he  landed  ; only  three  assistants  had 
come  to  his  help  in  China  itself  during  that  time,  for  there  were 
few  encouragements  for  them  to  stay ; the  openings  were  more 
promising  in  Siam,  Malacca,  and  elsewhere.  Mr.  Bridgman,  the 
first  missionary  from  the  American  churches  to  China,  sailed  in 
October,  1829,  in  company  with  the  Rev.  D.  Abeel,  seamen’s 
chaplain  at  Whampoa ; they  arrived  in  February,  1830,  and 
were  both  cordially  welcomed  by  Dr.  Morrison.  Mr.  Abeel  re- 
mained in  Canton  nearly  a year,  when  he  went  to  Singapore,  and 
subsequently  to  Siam,  in  the  service  of  the  American  Board. 
These  two  brethren  were  received  in  Canton  by  the  house  of 
Olyphant  & Co.,  in  whose  establishment  one  or  both  were  main- 
tained during  the  first  three  years  of  the  mission,  and  whose 
partners,  both  in  China  and  America,  have  ever  remained  the 
friends  and  supporters  of  all  efforts  for  the  evangelization  of  the 
Chinese.  Preaching  in  English  had  always  been  kept  up  by  Dr. 
Morrison  in  Canton  and  Macao,  for  the  benefit  of  foreigners  re- 
siding there,  and  Mr.  Bridgman  assisted  in  this  exercise  while 
pursuing  the  study  of  the  language,  and  making  the  acquaintance 
of  the  people.  He  also  took  four  or  five  boys  as  scholars,  but  his 
limited  accommodations  in  the  factories  prevented  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  school  as  much  as  was  desirable;  and  in  1834,  in 
consequence  of  the  troubles  ensuent  upon  Lord  Napier’s  proceed- 
ings, it  was  disbanded  by  the  departure  of  its  pupils. 

The  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  and  religious  books  has  been 
carried  on  since  1812  ; but  this  branch  of  labor  has  received 
more  attention  since  1832.  During  the  summer  of  that  year, 
Liang  Afah  distributed  a large  number  of  books  in  and  about 
Canton,  and  exhibited  great  zeal  in  this  business,  which  well  suited 
his  inclinations ; he  had  distributed  many  thousands  of  volumes, 
a large  portion  of  them  to  the  students  assembled  at  the  literary 
examinations,  when  the  officers  interfered  to  prevent  him.  A few 
weeks  after,  the  authorities  ordered  a search  for  those  natives  who 
had  “ traitorously  ” assisted  Lord  Napier  in  publishing  an  appeal 
to  the  Chinese,  and  Liang  Afah  and  his  assistants  were  immedi- 
ately suspected.  Two  assistants  were  seized,  one  of  whom  was 
beaten  with  forty  blows  upon  his  face,  for  refusing  to  divulge  ; the 
other  made  a full  disclosure,  and  the  police  next  day  repaired  to 
his  shop,  and  seized  three  printers,  with  four  hundred  volumes 
and  blocks;  the  men  were  subsequently  released  by- paying  about 


340 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


$800.  Liang  Afah  had  already  fled  to  Kiangmun,  a large  town 
west  of  Macao,  when  a body  of  police  arrived  at  his  native  vil- 
lage to  arrest  him,  but  not  finding  him  or  his  family,  they  seized 
three  of  his  kindred,  and  sealed  up  his  house.  He  finally  made 
his  way  to  Macao,  and  not  long  after  sailed  to  Singapore. 

Few  books  were  distributed  after  this  at  Canton  until  the  close 
of  the  war,  but  they  have  been  extensively  circulated  on  the  coast 
from  Macao  to  Tientsin,  occasionally  attended  with  oral  instruc- 
tion and  explanation  of  the  object  of  their  distribution,  but  for  the 
most  part  accompanied  with  merely  a few  general  observations. 
The  first  of  these  voyages,  and  in  many  respects  the  most  inte- 
resting, was  made  by  Mr.  Gutzlaff  in  1831  in  the  native  costume 
on  board  a junk  proceeding  from  Bangkok  to  Tientsin,  in  which 
the  sociable  character  of  the  Chinese,  and  their  readiness  to  receive 
and  entertain  foreigners  when  they  could  do  so  without  fear  of 
their  rulers,  was  plainly  seen  ; it  also  enabled  the  traveller  to 
become  acquainted,  in  a measure,  with  their  ability  to  read,  and 
their  general  information,  and  ascertain  what  likelihood  there  was 
of  establishing  a permanent  mission  on  the  coast.  After  his 
arrival  at  Macao,  Dec.  13th,  Mr.  Gutzlaff  was  engaged  by  the 
enlightened  chief  of  the  English  factory,  Charles  Marjoribanks, 
as  interpreter  to  accompany  Mr.  Lindsay  on  an  experimental 
commercial  voyage  along  the  coast  in  the  ship  Lord  Amherst, 
which  occupied  about  eight  months,  and  presented  still  further 
opportunities  for  learning  the  feelings  of  the  Chinese  officers  re- 
garding foreign  intercourse.  Many  books  were  distributed  on 
both  these  voyages ; among  them  was  one  giving  a general  ac- 
count of  the  English  nation,  which  was  eagerly  received  by  all 
classes.  A third  voyage  was  undertaken  by  Mr.  Gutzlaff  in  1832, 
in  the  Sylph,  an  opium  vessel  in  the  employ  of  a leading  English 
firm  at  Canton,  during  which  he  visited  many  ports  on  the  coast ; 
an  account  of  it,  together  with  those  of  the  two  previous  ones, 
was  published,  and  excited  an  increased  interest  abroad  in  the 
evangelization  of  China.  Contributions  were  sent  to  him  from 
England  and  America,  encouraging  him  to  proceed,  and  grants 
were  made  by  benevolent  societies  to  aid  him  in  printing  Bibles 
and  tracts.  On  his  return  to  Canton  he  remained  a month  or 
two,  and  then  embarked  again  in  another  opium  vessel  for  the 
coast,  where  he  remained  during  most  of  the  year  1834,  having 
opportunities  for  disseminating  religious  books,  but  none  for  hold- 


VOYAGES  FOR  DISTRIBUTING  BOOKS. 


34! 


ing  regular  services,  on  shore.  In  1835,  Mr.  GutzlafF  took  th< 
office  of  interpreter  to  the  English  commission  on  a salary  of  JE800 
and  has  since  continued  in  the  employ  of  that  government,  thougl 
he  has  not  altogether  given  up  his  former  labors. 

In  1835,  Mr.  Medhurst  visited  China,  and  assisted  by  the  house 
of  Olyphant  & Co.,  who  gave  him  the  use  of  the  vessel,  engaged 
the  brig  Huron  at  a cheap  rate,  in  which  he  embarked  in  August, 

1835,  accompanied  by  Mr.  Stevens  of  the  American  mission,  and 
furnished  with  a supply  of  books.  During  the  three  months  of 
the  voyage,  they  “ went  through  various  parts  of  four  provinces 
and  many  villages,  giving  away  about  eighteen  thousand  volumes, 
of  which  six  thousand  were  portions  of  the  Scriptures,  amongst  a 
cheerful  and  willing  people,  without  meeting  with  the  least  aggres- 
sion or  injury  ; having  been  always  received  by  the  people  with  a 
cheerful  smile,  and  most  generally  by  the  officers  with  politeness 
and  respect.”  It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  details  respecting 
this  voyage,  as  the  account  of  it  in  the  work  of  Mr.  Medhurst  has 
already  made  it  well  known. 

The  most  expensive  enterprise  for  this  object  was  set  on  foot  in 

1836,  and  few  efforts  to  advance  the  cause  of  religion  among  the 
Chinese  have  been  planned  on  a scale  of  greater  liberality.  The 
brig  Himmaleh  was  purchased  in  New  York  by  the  firm  of  Talbot, 
Olyphant  & Co.,  principally  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  mission- 
aries in  circulating  religious  books  on  the  coasts  of  China  and  the 
neighboring  countries,  and  arrived  at  Lintin  in  August,  1836. 
Mr.  Gutzlaff,  who  was  then  engaged  as  interpreter  to  the  English 
authorities,  declined  going  in  her,  because  in  that  case  he  must 
resign  his  commission,  and  there  was  no  other  missionary  in  China 
acquainted  with  the  dialects  spoken  on  the  coast.  The  brig  re- 
mained in  the  Chinese  waters,  therefore,  unemployed,  until  De- 
cember, when  she  was  dispatched  on  a cruise  among  the  islands 
of  the  Archipelago  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Stevens,  accom- 
panied by  Mr.  Lay,  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
recently  arrived.  This  decision  of  Mr.  Gutzlaff,  who  had  again 
and  again  urged  such  a measure,  and  had  himself  ceased  his 
voyages  on  the  coast  because  of  his  implied  connexion  thereby 
with  the  opium  trade,  was  quite  unexpected  ; while,  too,  the  death 
of  Mr.  Stevens  in  January,  1837,  before  the  vessel  had  left  Singa- 
pore, threw  the  chief  responsibility  and  direction  of  the  mission 
upon  Capt.  Frazer,  who  seems  to  have  been  poorly  qualified  for 


342 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


any  other  than  the  maritime  part.  Rev.  Messrs.  Dickinson  and 
Wolfe  sailed  in  her  from  Singapore  in  Mr.  Stevens’  place,  but 
none  of  these  gentlemen  understood  the  Malayan  language,  and 
consequently  less  direct  intercourse  was  had  with  the  people 
at  the  various  places  where  she  stopped  than  was  anticipated. 
The  Himmaleh  returned  to  China  in  July,  1837,'  and  as  there 
was  no  one  qualified  to  go  in  her,  she  was  loaded  and  sent 
back  to.  the  United  States.  An  account  of  the  voyage  was  writ- 
ten by  Mr.  Lay,  and  published  in  New  York,  in  connexion  with 
that  of  the  ship  Morrison  to  Japan  in  August,  1837,  by  Mr.  C. 
W.  King  of  the  firm  of  Olyphant  & Co.,  under  whose  direction 
it  was  taken  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  seven  shipwrecked 
Japanese  to  their  native  land.  Mr.  Gutzlaff  accompanied  this 
vessel  as  interpreter,  for  three  of  the  men  were  under  the  orders 
of  the  English  superintendent ; the  expedition  failed  in  its  object, 
and  the  men  were  brought  back.  This  is  the  last  special  effort 
made  to  distribute  books  upon  the  coast,  with  the  exception  of  a 
short  trip  to  the  westward  of  Macao  in  a small  native  vessel  by 
Mr.  Shuck,  in  1837 ; no  books  were,  however,  distributed  in  this 
trip,  nor  did  he  land.  In  October,  1837,  Mr.  Gutzlaff  was  sent  to 
the  province  of  Fuhkien,  by  the  British  superintendent,  to  ascer- 
tain the  fate  of  certain  British  subjects  shipwrecked  on  that  coast, 
and  distributed  several  hundred  volumes.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  make  any  calculation  of  the  number  of  volumes  distributed  in 
all  these  voyages,  and  by  persons  engaged  in  the  coast  trade. 
Probably  fifty  thousand  books  were  scattered  on  the  coast,  and 
more  than  double  that  number  about  Canton,  Macao,  and  their 
vicinity.  Since  the  opening  of  the  five  ports,  increased  numbers 
have  been  put  in  circulation  at  those  points ; and  with  few  excep- 
tions, they  have  been  eagerly  received  by  the  people,  and  by  the 
officers  of  government  when  they  could  do  so  without  observation 
or  suspicion. 

This  promiscuous  distribution  of  books  has  been  criticized  by 
some  as  injudicious,  and  little  calculated  to  advance  the  objects 
of  a Christian  mission.  The  funds  expended  in  printing  and 
circulating  books  could  have  been,  it  is  said,  much  better  em- 
ployed in  establishing  schools,  than  in  scattering  books  broadcast 
among  a people  whose  ability  to  read  them  was  not  ascertained, 
and  under  circumstances  which  prevented  any  explanation  of  the 
design  in  giving  them,  or  inquiries  as  to  the  effects  produced. 


REMARKS  ON  TRACT  DISTRIBUTION. 


343 


Without  entering  into  a discussion  of  the  propriety  of  a course, 
whose  good  or  bad  effects  at  least  could  not  be  ascertained  till  it 
had  been  tried,  it  is  enough  to  observe  that  prior  to  the  treaty  of 
Nanking,  this  was  the  only  means  of  approaching  the  people  of 
the  country.  The  emperor  forbade  foreigners  residing  in  his 
borders  except  at  Canton,  and  consequently  the  good  produced 
by  the  books,  or  whether  the  people  understood  them  at  all,  could 
not  be  ascertained.  No  one,  acquainted  with  the  Chinese  or  any 
heathen  people,  supposes  that  their  desire  to  receive  books  is  to  be 
taken  as  an  index  of  their  ability  to  understand  them,  or  love  of 
the  doctrines  contained  in  them.  If  the  plan  offered  a reasonable 
probability  of  effecting  some  good,  it  certainly  could  do  almost  no 
harm,  for  the  general  respect  for  printed  books  assures  us  that 
they  would  not  be  wantonly  destroyed,  but  rather  in  most  cases 
carefully  preserved.  The  business  of  tract  distribution  and 
colportage  may,  however,  be  carried  too  far  in  advance  of  other 
parts  of  missionary  work.  It  is  much  easier  to  write,  print,  and 
give  away  religious  treatises,  than  it  is  to  sit  down  with  the  peo- 
ple and  explain  the  leading  truths  of  the  Bible ; but  the  two  go 
'.veil  together  among  those  who  can  read,  and  perhaps  in  no  nation 
is  it  more  desirable  that  they  should  be  combined.  If  the  books 
be  given  away  without  explanation,  the  people  do  not  fully  un- 
derstand the  object,  and  feel  too  little  interest  in  them  to  take 
the  trouble  to  find  out ; if  the  preacher  deliver  an  intelligible 
discourse,  his  audience  will  probably  remember  its  general  pur- 
port ; but  on  the  one  hand  they  will  be  likely  to  read  the  book  with 
more  attention,  and  on  the  other  understand  the  sermon  better, 
when  the  two  are  combined,  and  the  voice  explains  the  book,  and 
the  book  recalls  the  ideas  and  teachings  of  the  preacher. 

So  far  as  is  known,  hardly  an  instance  has  occurred  of  a 
Chinese  coming  to  a missionary  to  have  any  passage  explained, 
nor  any  person  converted  who  has  attributed  his  interest  in  reli- 
gion to  the  unassisted  reading  of  books.  Their  fate  cannot  be 
traced,  but  if,  on  the  one  hand,  they  have  been  seen  on  the 
counters  of  shops  in  Macao,  cut  in  two  for  wrapping  up  medicines 
and  fruit ; which  the  shopman  would  not  do  with  the  worst  of 
his  own  books ; a few  have  also  been  met  in  situations  which 
showed  that  they  had  found  their  way  into  the  hands  of  high 
officers,  and  bore  marks  of  careful  perusal.  A copy  of  a gospel 
containing  remarks,  was  found  on  board  the  admiral’s  junk  at 


S44 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Tinghai,  when  that  town  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1840,  which 
seemed  to  have  been  lately  written.  We  can  hope  that  all  the 
books  have  not  been  lost  or  contemptuously  destroyed,  though  per- 
haps most  of  them  have  been  like  seed  sown  by  the  wayside.  In 
missions,  as  in  other  things,  it  is  impossible  to  predict  the  result  of 
several  courses  of  action,  before  trying  them ; and  if  it  was  be- 
lieved that  many  of  those  who  receive  books  can  read  them,  there 
was  a strong  inducement  to  press  this  branch  of  labor,  when  too 
it  was  the  only  one  which  could  be  brought  to  bear  upon  large 
portions  of  the  people. 

In  1832,  the  publication  of  the  Chinese  Repository  was  com- 
menced by  Mr.  Bridgman,  at  a press  sent  out  by  a church  in 
New  York,  called  the  Bruen  Press.  The  Repository  was  encou- 
raged by  Dr.  Morrison,  who,  with  his  son,  continued  to  enrich  it 
by  valuable  papers  and  translations,  as  long  as  they  lived.  The 
object  of  this  periodical  was  to  diffuse  correct  information  concern- 
ing China,  while  it  formed  a convenient  repertory  of  the  essays, 
travels,  translations,  and  papers  of  contributors.  It  has  drawn 
but  little  on  the  time  of  any  individual  since  the  third  or  fourth 
year  of  its  existence,  and  the  number  of  collaborators  at  present 
is  such  as  to  devolve  still  less  labor  upon  its  editor. 

The  mission  was  increased  in  1833,  by  the  arrival  of  two 
laborers,  one  of  whom,  Mr.  Tracy,  left  the  next  spring  by  the 
advice  of  his  brethren  to  commence  a mission  at  Singapore,  while 
the  other  remained  in  China  to  superintend  the  press.  In  1834, 
Doct.  Parker  arrived,  and  soon  after  went  to  Singapore  to  study 
the  Fuhkien  dialect ; he  returned  to  Canton  in  about  a year, 
and  opened  a hospital  in  one  of  the  rear  factories  for  the  gratui- 
tous relief  and  cure  of  such  diseases  among  the  Chinese  as 
his  time  and  means  would  allow,  devoting  his  attention  chiefly  to 
ophthalmic  cases  and  surgical  operations.  This  branch  of  Chris- 
tian benevolence  was  already  not  unknown  in  China.  Dr.  Mor- 
rison in  1820  had,  in  connexion  with  Doct.  Livingstone  of  the 
E.  I.  Co.’s  factory,  opened  a dispensary  at  Macao,  in  which 
medical  relief  was  afforded  to  many  persons.  In  1827,  Doct.  T. 
R.  Colledge,  also  connected  with  the  Company,  opened  a dispen- 
sary at  his  own  expense  at  Macao,  but  finding  the  number  of 
patients  rapidly  increasing,  he  rented  two  small  houses  for  their  ac- 
commodation, where  in  four  years  more  than  four  thousand  patients 
were  cured  or  relieved.  The  benevolent  design  was  encouraged 


MEDICAL  MISSIONS  AMONG  THE  CHINESE. 


345 


by  the  foreign  community,  and  about  $6500  were  contributed,  so 
that  it  was,  after  the  first  year,  no  other  expense  to  the  benevo- 
lent founder,  than  giving  his  time  and  strength.  It  was  unavoid- 
ably closed  in  1832,  there  being  no  physician  so  circumstanced 
that  he  could  gratuitously  attend  to  such  a crowd  of  patients,  few 
or  none  of  whom  could  pay  him  in  anything  better  than  thanks, 
fruit,  or  fire-crackers,  or  written  cards  of  gratitude.  A philan- 
thropic Swede  living  in  Macao,  Sir  Andrew  Ljungstedt,  prepared 
a short  account  of  this  hospital  in  1834,  and  inserted  several 
letters  written  to  Doct.  Colledge  by  the  patients,  one  of  which  is 
here  quoted. 

“ To  knock  head  and  thank  the  great  English  doctor.  Venerable  gen- 
tleman.— May  your  groves  of  almond  trees  be  abundant,  and  the  orange 
trees  make  the  water  of  your  well  fragrant ; as  heretofore,  may  you  be 
made  known  to  the  world  as  illustrious  and  brilliant,  and  as  a most  pro- 
found and  skilful  doctor.  I last  year  arrived  in  Macao,  blind  in  both 
eyes ; I have  to  thank  you,  venerable  sir,  for  having,  by  your  excellent 
methods,  cured  me  perfectly.  Your  goodness  is  as  lofty  as  a hill,  your 
virtue  deep  as  the  sea ; therefore  all  my  family  will  express  their  grati- 
tude for  your  new  creating  goodness.  Now  I am  desirous  of  returning 
home ; your  profound  kindness  it  is  impossible  for  me  to  requite ; I feel 
extremely  ashamed  of  myself  for  it.  I am  grateful  for  your  favors,  and 
shall  think  of  them  without  ceasing.  Moreover,  I am  certain  that  since 
you  have  been  a benefactor  to  the  world,  and  your  good  government  is 
spread  abroad,  heaven  must  surely  grant  you  a long  life,  and  you  will 
enjoy  every  happiness.  I return  to  my  mean  province.  Your  illustrious 
name,  venerable  Sir,  will  extend  to  all  time  ; during  a thousand  ages  it 
will  not  decay.  I return  thanks  for  your  great  kindness  ; impotent  are 
my  words  to  sound  your  fame,  and  to  express  my  thanks.  I wish  you 
everlasting  tranquillity.  Presented  to  the  great  English  doctor  and  noble 
gentleman  in  the  11th  year  of  Taukwang,  by  Ho  Shuh  of  the  district 
of  Chau-ngan  in  the  department  of  Changchau  in  FuhkieD,  who  knocks 
head  and  presents  thanks.” 

Another  patient,  in  true  Chinese  style,  returned  thanks  for  the 
aid  he  had  received  in  a poetical  effusion. 

“ This  I address  to  the  English  physician:  condescend,  Sir,  to  look 
upon  it.  Diseased  in  my  eyes,  I had  almost  lost  my  sight,  when,  happily, 
Sir,  I met  with  you  : — you  gave  me  medicine,  you  applied  the  knife ; 
and  as  when  the  clouds  are  swept  away,  now  again  I behold  the  azure 
heavens.  My  joys  know  no  bounds.  As  a faint  token  of  my  feelings, 

VOL.  II.  16* 


346 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


I have  composed  a stanza  in  heptameter,  which,  with  a few  trifling  pre- 
sents, I beg  you  will  be  pleased  to  accept.  Then  happy,  happy  shall  I be ! 

“ He  lavishes  his  blessings,  but  seeks  for  no  return ; 

Such  medicine,  such  physician,  since  Tsin  were  never  known : 

The  medicine — how  many  kinds  most  excellent  has  he  ! 

The  surgeon’s  knife — it  pierced  the  eye,  and  spring  once  more  I see. 
If  Tung  has  not  been  born  again,  to  bless  the  present  age, 

Then  sure,  ’t  is  Su  reanimate  again  upon  the  stage : 

Whenever  called  away  from  far,  to  see  your  native  land, 

A living  monument  I’ll  wait  upon  the  ocean’s  strand.” 

Two  benevolent  men  connected  with  the  Dispensary  at  Canton, 
Doct.  Bradford  of  Philadelphia  and  Doct.  Cox  of  London,  also 
gave  gratuitous  medical  assistance  to  poor  natives. 

Doct.  Parker’s  design,  therefore,  had  already  been  tried,  and 
when  the  scheme  was  made  known  to  Howqua,  the  senior  hong- 
merchant,  he  readily  fell  in  with  it,  and  moreover  let  his  building 
at  a very  reasonable  rate.  It  was  opened  for  the  admission  of 
patients  Nov.  4,  1835.  The  peculiar  circumstances  under  which 
this  hospital  was  rented  and  opened,  imposed  some  caution  on  its 
superintendent,  and  the  hong-merchants  themselves  seem  to  have 
had  a lurking  suspicion  that  so  purely  a benevolent  object,  involv- 
ing so  much  expense  of  time,  labor,  and  money,  must  have  some 
latent  object  which  it  behooved  them  to  watch.  A linguist’s  clerk 
was  in  attendance  much  of  the  time,  partly  for  this  purpose,  for 
three  or  four  years,  and  made  himself  very  useful  in  many  ways. 
The  ultimate  objects  of  the  hospital  were  to  prove  to  the  Chinese 
the  practical  benevolence  of  the  Christian  religion  by  healing 
their  sick,  while  the  opportunity  was  improved  to  preach  and 
teach  the  assembled  patients  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and 
impress  upon  them  that  the  great  motive  for  thus  relieving  their 
bodily  diseases  was  to  exhibit  the  benevolence  of  the  religion  of 
Jesus,  so  freely  offered  for  their  acceptance.  The  latter  and 
most  important  of  these  objects  was  not  carried  into  full  effect  at 
Canton  till  recently,  owing  to  the  want  of  a qualified  coadjutor, 
for  it  was  beyond  the  strength  of  one  man  to  attend  to  their  ail- 
ments and  preach  too.  It  was  deemed  wise,  moreover,  to  defer 
the  distribution  of  tracts  until  the  institution  should  become  well 
known  and  somewhat  appreciated  among  all  classes  of  people, 
for  if  the  lessor  should  suspect  that  he  was  likely  to  be  impli- 


OPHTHALMIC  HOSPITAL  AT  CANTON. 


347 


cated  or  annoyed  by  the  emissaries  of  government,  it  was  almost 
certain  that  he  would  immediately  refuse  the  lease,  and  make  it 
impossible  to  procure  another  building,  and  thus  shut  up  the  pros- 
pect of  doing  good  in  this  way  ; all  the  native  assistants  would  also 
leave  from  the  same  fear.  Conversation  could  have  been  pro- 
fitably carried  on  with  the  patients  on  religious  subjects  as  they 
were  seated  around  the  room,  if  there  had  been  any  person  qua- 
lified to  do  it,  but  it  was  unwise  to  distribute  books,  since  only  a 
year  before  Liang  Afah  was  obliged  to  flee  for  this  reason. 

The  mode  of  conducting  the  hospital  was  to  open  the  doors 
once  a week,  and  give  the  patients  small  cards  to  carry  away. 
They  were  seated  around  the  room,  the  men  and  women  apart ; 
and  with  the  exception  of  a little  impatience  to  be  treated  soon, 
arising  from  oft  repeated  observation,  that  if  they  were  not,  the 
crowd  was  too  large  for  all  to  be  attended  to  on  one  day,  no  au- 
dience could  behave  better.  The  women  were  treated  first,  and 
whenever  a person  ignorant  of  the  rules  of  the  hospital  pressed 
forward,  urgent  to  be  relieved,  a simple  explanation  and  request 
to  wait  for  his  turn,  was  usually  sufficient.  Cards  were  filled  up 
for  each  patient  containing  his  number,  name,  age,  residence, 
disease,  and  date,  and  notes  were  taken  of  the  symptoms  and 
treatment  as  far  as  necessary,  so  that  when  he  came  again,  the 
number  of  the  card  referred  to  the  notes  and  list,  and  the  case 
easily  understood.  Natives  were  soon  instructed  in  giving  out 
medicines,  and  performing  simple  operations  of  cleansing,  dress- 
ing, and  bandaging,  while  two  or  three  pupils  were  taken  for 
more  regular  instruction  in  medical  science.  About  a hundred 
patients  attended  daily,  of  whom  one-fifth  were  women,  besides 
many  servants  and  friends.  Surgical  operations  were  performed 
once  a week,  and  the  in-door  patients  visited  daily,  who  numbered 
about  forty,  including  servants  and  friends.  The  repeated  in- 
stances of  kind  feeling  between  friends  and  relatives  exhibited 
among  the  patients,  tender  solicitude  of  parents  for  the  relief  of 
their  children,  and  contrariwise,  the  heartfelt  gratitude  for  bene- 
fits received,  and  the  fortitude  with  which  the  severest  operations 
were  borne,  or  faith  shown  in  receiving  unknown  medicines,  all 
tended  to  elevate  the  character  of  the  Chinese  in  the  opinion  of 
every  beholder. 

The  efforts  made  in  the  hospital  immediately  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  foreign  community,  and  donations  were  sent  in  for 


348 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


defraying  its  current  expenses.  The  reports  gave  the  requisite 
information  as  to  its  operations,  and  means  were  taken  to  place 
the  whole  system  upon  a surer  footing  by  forming  a society  in 
China.  Suggestions  as  to  the  propriety  of  establishing  a society 
for  this  object  were  circulated  in  October,  1836,  signed  by  Messrs. 
Colledge,  Parker,  and  Bridgman,  in  which  the  motives  for  such 
a step,  and  the  good  effects  likely  to  result  from  it,  were  thus 
explained  : — 

“We  cannot  close  these  suggestions  without  adverting  to  one  idea, 
though  this  is  not  the  place  to  enlarge  upon  it.  It  is  affecting  to  contem- 
plate this  empire,  embracing  three  hundred  and  sixty  millions  of  souls, 
where  almost  all  the  light  of  true  science  is  unknown,  where  Christianity 
has  scarcely  shed  one  genial  ray,  and  where  the  theories  concerning  mat- 
ter and  mind,  creation  and  providence,  are  wofully  destitute  of  truth ; it 
is  deeply  affecting  to  see  the  multitudes  who  are  here  suffering  under 
maladies,  from  which  the  hand  of  charity  is  able  to  relieve  them.  Now 
we  know,  indeed,  that  it  is  the  glorious  gospel  of  the  blessed  God  only 
that  can  set  free  the  human  mind,  and  that  it  is  only  when  enlightened 
in  the  true  knowledge  of  God  that  man  is  rendered  capable  of  rising  to 
his  true  intellectual  elevation ; but  while  we  take  care  to  give  this  truth 
the  high  place  which  it  ought  ever  to  hold,  we  should  beware  of  depre- 
ciating other  truth.  In  the  vast  conflict  which  is  to  revolutionize  the  in- 
tellectual and  moral  wTorld,  we  may  not  underrate  the  value  of  any  w’eapon. 
As  a means,  then,  to  waken  the  dormant  mind  of  China,  may  we  not 
place  a high  value  upon  medical  truth,  and  seek  ils  introduction  with  good 
hope  of  its  becoming  the  handmaid  of  religious  truth  ? If  an  inquiry 
after  truth  upon  any  subject  is  elicited,  is  there  not  a great  point  gained  ? 
And  that  inquiry  after  medical  truth  may  be  provoked,  there  is  good  rea- 
son to  expect : for,  exclusive  as  China  is  in  all  her  systems,  she  cannot 
exclude  disease,  nor  shut  her  people  up  from  the  desire  of  relief.  Does 
not,  then,  the  finger  of  Providence  point  clearly  to  one  way  that  we 
should  take  with  the  people  of  China,  directing  us  to  seek  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  remedies  for  sin  itself,  by  the  same  door*  through  which  we 
convey  those  which  are  designed  to  mitigate  or  remove  its  evils  ? Al- 
though medical  truths  cannot  restore  the  sick  and  afflicted  to  the  favor 
of  God,  yet  perchance,  the  spirit  of  inquiry  about  it  once  awakened,  will 
not  sleep  till  it  inquires  about  the  source  of  truth  ; and  he  who  comes 
with  the  blessings  of  health  may  prove  an  angel  of  mercy  to  point  to  the 
Lamb  of  God.  At  any  rate,  this  seems  the  only  open  door ; let  us  enter 
it.  A faith  that  worketh  not  may  wait  for  other  doors.  None  can  deny 
that  this  is  a way  of  charity  that  worketh  no  ill,  and  our  duty  to  walk  in 
it  seems  plain  and  imperative.”* 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  V.,  page  372;  Vol.  VII.,  pages  33-40. 


FORMATION  OF  MEDICAL  MISSIONARY  SOCIETY. 


349 


This  paper  was  favorably  received  in  China,  and  in  February 
1838,  a public  meeting  was  convened  at  Canton  for  the  purposf 
of  forming  a society,  “ the  object  of  which  shall  be  to  encourage 
gentlemen  of  the  medical  profession  to  come  and  practise  gra- 
tuitously among  the  Chinese,  by  affording  the  usual  aid  of  hos- 
pitals, medicines,  and  attendants ; but  that  the  support  or  remune- 
ration of  such  medical  gentlemen  be  not  at  present  within  its 
contemplation.”  Another  resolution  passed  at  this  meeting  was 
that  “ candidates  for  the  patronage  of  the  society  must  furnish 
satisfactory  certificates  of  their  medical  education,  approved  of  by 
the  society  sending  them  out which  insured,  as  far  as  could  be, 
that  all  its  agents  should  be  pious,  discreet,  and  able  physicians, 
and  willing,  as  they  had  the  strength,  to  attend  to  both  the  bodies 
and  souls  of  their  patients.  A few  rules  for  the  internal  regula- 
tion of  the  hospitals,  such  as  keeping  registers  of  all  cases,  and 
taking  notes  of  such  things  as  might  be  deemed  useful,  were 
adopted  \ but  no  directions  were  given  by  the  framers  of  the  so- 
ciety concerning  the  mode  of  imparting  religious  instruction,  dis- 
tributing tracts,  or  doing  missionary  work  as  they  had  opportunity. 
The  signers  of  the  original  paper  of  suggestions  also  issued  an 
address,  further  setting  forth  their  views  and  expectations  in  this 
benevolent  enterprise. 

“ To  restore  health,  to  ease  pain,  or  in  any  way  to  diminish  the  sum  of 
human  misery,  forms  an  object  worthy  of  the  philanthropist.  But  in  the 
prosecution  of  our  views  we  look  forward  to  far  higher  results  than  the 
mere  relief  of  human  suffering.  We  hope  that  our  endeavors  will  tend 
to  break  down  the  walls  of  prejudice  and  long  cherished  nationality  of 
feeling,  and  to  teach  the  Chinese  that  those  whom  they  affect  to  despise 
are  both  able  and  willing  to  become  their  benefactors.  They  shut  the 
door  against  the  teachers  of  the  Gospel ; they  find  our  books  often  writ- 
ten in  idioms  which  they  cannot  readily  understand  ; and  they  have  laid 
such  restrictions  upon  commerce  that  it  does  not  awaken  among  them 
that  love  of  science,  that  spirit  of  invention,  and  that  love  of  thought, 
which  it  uniformly  excites  and  fosters  whenever  it  is  allowed  to  take  its 
own  course  without  limit  or  interference.  In  the  way  of  doing  them 
good,  our  opportunities  are  few,  but  among  these,  that  of  practising  me- 
dicine and  surgery  stands  pre-eminent.  Favorable  results  have  hitherto 
followed  it,  and  will  still  continue  to  do  so.  It  is  a department  of  bene- 
volence peculiarly  adapted  to  China 

“In  the  department  of  benevolence  to  which  our  attention  is  now 
turned,  purity  and  disinterestedness  of  motive  are  more  clearly  evinced 


350 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


than  in  any  other.  They  appear  unmasked  ; they  attract  the  gaze,  and 
excite  the  admiration  and  gratitude  of  thousands.  Heal  the  sick  is  our 
motto,  constituting  alike  the  injunction  under  which  we  act,  and  the  ob- 
ject at  which  we  aim ; and  which,  with  the  blessing  of  God,  we  hope  to 
accomplish  by  means  of  scientific  practice,  in  the  exercise  of  an  un- 
bought and  untiring  kindness.  We  have  called  ours  a Missionary  So- 
ciety, because  we  trust  it  will  advance  the  cause  of  missions,  and  be- 
cause we  want  men  to  fill  our  institutions,  who  to  requisite  skill  and  ex- 
perience add  the  self-denial  and  high  moral  qualities  which  are  looked 
for  in  a missionary.” 

The  address  then  goes  on  to  enumerate  some  collateral  advan- 
tages which  are  likely  to  accrue  both  to  the  Chinese  and  their 
benefactors,  among  which,  teaching  the  theory  and  practice  of 
medicine  and  surgery  to  natives,  thereby  introducing  the  benefits 
and  stimulus  of  sound  knowledge  and  skill  in  place  of  charla- 
tanry and  ignorance,  ascertaining  what  remedies  the  Chinese 
used  which  might  profitably  be  introduced  into  western  pharma- 
copoeias, and  whether  they  had  any  modes  of  treating  diseases, 
or  preparing  medicines,  which  could  be  advantageously  adopted. 
The  amount  of  funds  contributed  in  China  and  its  vicinity  to 
this  object,  up  to  the  date  of  the  address,  was  about  $9000, 
nearly  half  of  which  was  employed  in  purchasing  a building  for 
a hospital  at  Macao,  to  be  made  the  principal  establishment  of 
the  Society  for  educating  native  students,  when  it  should  obtain 
more  physicians.  At  the  first  annual  meeting  in  November, 
1838,  a report  was  read  of  the  operations  of  the  hospital  at  Can- 
ton and  Macao,  in  which  it  was  stated  that  more  than  six  thou- 
sand persons  had,  with  few  exceptions,  received  permanent  re- 
lief from  suffering,  of  which  a large  number  had  been  restored 
from  partial  or  total  blindness  to  the  blessings  of  sight,  all  of 
whom  had  been  attended  to  by  Doct.  Parker  since  Nov.,  1835. 
Doct.  Colledge’s  medical  library  was  purchased  for  the  Society 
by  a liberal  English  merchant  in  Canton,  William  Jardine,  Esq., 
and  some  other  books  were  presented  by  the  members,  together 
with  a few  instruments,  so  that  nothing  was  wanting  except  com- 
petent medical  missionaries  to  take  charge  of  the  hospitals. 
Some  of  the  Chinese  at  Canton,  who  were  made  acquainted  with 
the  design  of  the  institution,  manifested  unexpected  interest  in  its 
prosperity,  and  members  of  the  co-hong  and  others  contributed 
to  its  support.  Lamqua,  a well  known  painter,  freely  proposed 


MISSIONARY  HOSPITALS  IN  CHINA. 


351 


to  make  drawings  of  such  cases  as  were  deemed  worth  preserv- 
ing, observing,  “ that  if  Doct.  Parker  cured  the  patients  for 
nothing,  he  could  do  no  less  than  draw  them  as  cheaply.”  His 
skill  was  frequently  called  for  and  freely  rendered,  and  his  paint- 
ings of  remarkable  operations  have  done  something  to  advance 
and  make  known  the  objects  of  the  Society. 

In  January,  1839,  William  Lockhart,  m.r.c.s.,  arrived  from 
England,  and  during  the  next  year  he  was  joined  by  Benjamin 
Hobson,  m.b.,  both  connected  with  the  London  Missionary  Socie- 
ty ; they  were  accepted  by  the  Medical  Missionary  Society,  as 
was  also  W.  B.  Diver,  m.b.,  from  the  United  States.  Doct. 
Lockhart  opened  a hospital  at  Chusan  in  1840,  and  relieved  or 
cured  3052  patients  in  about  five  months.  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  in  1840,  the  hospital  at  Canton  was  closed,  and  Doct. 
Parker  visited  the  United  States ; he  was  gone  upwards  of  two 
years,  and  made  the  objects  and  success  of  this  plan  of  benevo- 
lence extensively  known  in  the  United  States  and  England,  in 
both  of  which  countries  societies  were  formed  and  funds  collected 
in  aid  of  its  operations, — an  evidence  of  the  decided  approbation 
of  those  who  had  become  acquainted  with  its  character  and  ends. 

The  second  report,  published  in  1841,  stated  that  about  12,500 
patients  had  been  relieved,  a large  portion  of  whom  could  not 
have  been  preserved  from  blindness  or  deformity,  or  perhaps 
saved  from  speedy  death  resulting  from  their  distempers,  ulcers, 
tumors,  luxations,  or  injuries,  without  the  charity  and  aid  fur- 
nished by  the  Society.  The  report  closes  with  an  expression  of 
gratitude  to  “Him,  whose  creatines  we  all  are,  for  opportunities 
afforded  them  of  benefiting  their  fellow-men,  while  they  look 
forward  with  confident  expectation  to  continually  enlarging  fields 
of  usefulness,  and  increasing  opportunities  of  conveying  to  the 
minds  of  their  patients  the  healing  influences  of  moral  care,  and 
especially  of  the  hopes  that  the  Gospel  alone  offers.”  This  last 
and  great  object  of  the  formation  of  the  Medical  Missionary  So- 
ciety, had  not  received  that  degree  of  attention  in  the  hospital  at 
Canton  which  could  be  given  it  in  those  at  Macao  and  Chusan, 
both  from  the  inability  of  the  medical  officer  to  attend  to  it,  the 
constant  presence  or  surveillance  of  Chinese  officers  attending 
as  patients,  and  the  desirableness  of  doing  nothing  to  lead  the 
owner  of  the  building  to  shut  it.  The  same  reasons  did  not  exist 
at  other  stations,  where  books  were  distributed,  and  religious  in- 


352 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


struction  imparted,  as  far  as  the  knowledge  of  the  language  and 
the  time  of  the  physician  permitted. 

It  was  in  Amoy,  however,  on  the  opening  of  a dispensary  by 
W.  H.  Cumming,  m.  d.,  from  Georgia,  in  1842,  that  the  good 
effects  of  medical  missions  were  first  seen.  Rev.  Messrs.  Abeel 
and  Boone  had  gone  to  Amoy  in  February  of  that  year,  and  made 
the  acquaintance  of  the  people  on  Kulang  su,  who  were  much 
pleased  to  meet  with  those  who  could  converse  with  them,  and 
answer  their  inquiries.  Doctor  Cumming  was  able,  by  the  as- 
sistance of  these  brethren,  as  soon  as  he  opened  his  dispensary, 
to  inform  the  people  of  his  designs  in  so  doing  ; and  the  missiona- 
ries, on  their  part,  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  assembled  patients, 
and  gave  them  suitable  books.  The  experience  already  obtained 
elsewhere,  showed  that  the  people  were  so  ready  to  accept  the 
proffered  relief  that  it  was  impossible  for  one  man  to  do  more 
than  wait  upon  the  blind,  lame,  diseased,  and  injured,  who 
thronged  his  doors ; the  result  of  a few  months  at  Amoy  equally 
proved,  that  while  the  physician  was  attending  to  the  patients  in 
one  room,  the  preacher  could  not  ask  for  a better  audience  than 
those  who  were  waiting  in  the  adjoining  one.  An  invitation  to 
attend  more  formal  services  on  the  Sabbath  was  soon  accepted  by 
a few,  whose  curiosity  led  them  to  come  and  hear  more  of 
foreigners,  and  their  teachings.  The  reputation  of  the  hospital 
was  seen  when  taking  short  excursions  in  the  vicinity,  for  persons 
who  had  been  relieved  constantly  came  forward  to  express  their 
gratitude.  Persons  thus  treated  were  more  likely  to  hearken  to 
the  instructions  delivered,  and  read  the  books  given  them,  than 
those  who  had  no  opportunity  of  learning  the  character  of 
foreigners,  and  supposed  them  to  be,  as  they  had  been  taught  to 
regard  them,  barbarians  and  demons.  A hospital  has  also  been 
established  at  Ningpo,  by  Messrs.  McCarty  and  Macgowan,  and 
another  at  Shanghai,  by  Doct.  Lockhart,  in  both  of  which  the 
same  system  of  preaching  - and  practice  has  been  carried  on, 
though  the  assistance  of  the  missionary  has  not  been  so  constant 
at  the  former  as  at  the  latter  place.  A native  convert  has  assisted 
in  the  hospital  at  Hongkong,  conducting  daily  services  among  the 
patients  with  considerable  acceptance. 

The  proposition  to  educate  Chinese  youth  as  physicians  and 
surgeons  has  not  been  carried  out  to  much  extent,  only  one  or 
two  assistants  having  yet  gone  through  a course  of  medical  edu- 


SOCIETY  FOR  DIFFUSION  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE. 


353 


"cation,  though  several  have  become  qualified  to  perform  opera- 
tions. It  is  not  likely,  however,  that  the  Chinese  generally  will 
immediately  discard  their  own  mode  of  practice,  and  adopt  an- 
other from  their  countrymen,  so  far  as  to  support  them  in  their 
new  system.  They  have  not  enough  knowledge  of  medicine  to 
appreciate  the  difference  between  science  and  charlatanism  ; and 
a native  physician  himself  might  reasonably  have  fears  of  the 
legal  or  personal  results  of  an  unsuccessful  or  doubtful  surgical 
case,  among  his  ignorant  patients,  so  far  as  often  to  prevent  him 
trying  it. 

The  experience  of  past  years  in  China  has  conclusively  shown, 
that  where  a physician  and  a preacher  join  their  labors  in  a mis- 
sionary hospital,  both  of  them  speaking  the  language,  few  plans 
are  better  adapted  for  removing  prejudice,  relieving  disease  and 
pain,  otherwise  irremediable,  collecting  audiences  well  fitted  for 
patiently  hearing  the  Gospel,  and  imparting  a knowledge  of  its 
great  truths  to  people  rendered  somewhat  ready  to  lend  a willing 
ear  by  a sense  of  suffering,  and  experience  of  the  unbought  kind- 
ness bestowed  upon  them.  The  Medical  Missionary  Society  still 
exists,  supported  chiefly  by  benevolent  foreigners  in  China,  and 
has,  since  its  formation  in  1838,  done  a good  work.  There  have 
been  more  than  thirty  thousand  patients  relieved  through  its  in- 
strumentality, some  of  them  belonging  to  the  imperial  ^family, 
others  acting  as  high  commissioners,  governors,  and  officers  of 
various  grades,  all  of  whom,  as  well  as  the  thousands  of  common 
people,  have  trusted  themselves  into  the  hands  and  direction  of 
the  foreigner,  and  thus  been  led,  in  some  degree,  to  think  better 
of  him  and  his  country. 

Another  benevolent  society,  whose  name  and  object  was  the 
Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge  in  China,  was  established  prior  to 
the  Medical  Missionaiy  Society,  in  December,  1834.  The  designs 
of  the  association  were,  “ by  all  means  in  its  power,  to  prepare 
and  publish,  in  a cheap  form,  plain  and  easy  treatises  in  the 
Chinese  language,  on  such  branches  of  useful  knowledge  as  are 
suited  to  the  existing  state  and  condition  of  the  Chinese  empire.” 
The  publication  of  a Chinese  Magazine,  edited  jointly  by  the 
Chinese  and  English  secretaries  of  the  Society  (Messrs.  Morrison 
and  Gutzlaff),  was  undertaken,  and  prosecuted  at  intervals  for  two 
or  three  years.  Among  the  works  which  have  been  published 
by  this  Society  may  be  mentioned  a General  View  of  Universal 


354 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


History,  in  three  volumes ; a history  of  the  United  States ; a"* 
history  of  the  Jews ; a translation  of  Esop’s  Fables ; a history 
of  England  ; and  an  Introduction  to  Geography.  The  Magazine 
was  published  in  Singapore  at  too  great  a distance  from  China  for 
it  to  be  issued  to  the  subscribers  with  any  degree  of  regularity, 
and  the  fears  of  native  booksellers  lest  they  should  somehow  be 
implicated  prevented  them  from  undertaking  the  publication  of 
works  bearing  such  a decided  foreign  character.  A greater 
obstacle,  however,  was  the  few  persons  qualified  by  their  know- 
ledge of  Chinese,  to  write  or  translate  suitable  books.  Since  the 
restoration  of  peace,  and  the  increase  of  students  and  writers  in 
the  Chinese  language,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  objects  of  the 
Useful  Knowledge  Society  will  be  carried  out,  and  works  of 
general  science  written  and  circulated  among  the  Chinese.  The 
circulation  of  the  Magazine  was  the  most  likely  means  of  awaken- 
ing attention,  and  sufficient  was  done  to  prove  the  adaptedness  of 
such  publications  as  newspapers  and  magazines,  when  suitably 
illustrated,  to  excite  perusal  and  convey  information.  Mr.  Gutzlaff 
was  the  principal  author  of  the  six  volumes  which  were  printed, 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  work  will  be  revived  in  some  shape, 
and  greater  efforts  made  to  render  it  attractive  and  insure  its  cir- 
culation. An  attempt  was  made,  in  fact,  by  Mr.  Morrison,  a short 
time  before  his  lamented  death,  to  establish  a similar  periodical 
called  the  Telescope,  but  only  one  number  was  issued. 

The  usefulness  of  such  works  in  a country  like  China,  as  aids 
and  precursors  of  the  introduction  of  the  Gospel,  is  very  great. 
Among  a less  intelligent  population  they  are  not  so  important 
until  the  people  get  a taste  for  knowledge  in  schools  ; but  where 
the  conceit  of  false  learning,  and  pride  of  literary  attainments, 
cause  such  a contempt  for  all  other  than  their  own  books,  as  is 
the  case  in  Chinese  society,  entertaining  narratives  and  notices 
of  other  people  and  lands,  got  up  in  an  attractive  form,  tend  to 
disabuse  them  of  these  ideas  (the  offspring  of  arrogant  ignorance 
rather  than  deliberate  rejection),  and  incite  them  to  learn  and 
read  more.  The  influence  of  newspapers  and  other  periodical 
literature  will  probably  be  very  great  among  the  Chinese,  when 
they  begin  to  think  for  themselves  on  the  great  truths  and  prin- 
ciples which  are  now  being  introduced  among  them  ; and  such 
auxiliaries  are  in  some  degree  necessary  to  supply  proper  mental 
aliment  for  students.  It  may,  by  some,  be  considered  as  not  the 


MORRISON  EDUCATION  SOCIETY. 


355 


business  of  a missionary  to  edit  a newspaper  or  publish  a penny 
magazine,  but  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  debased  inert- 
ness of  heathen  mind  know  that  any  means,  which  will  convey 
truth  and  arouse  the  people,  tends  to  advance  religion,  since  it 
stirs  up  their  powers.  The  influence  of  the  Dnyanodya  in 
Bombay,  and  other  kindred  publications  in  various  places  in 
India,  is  great  and  good  ; hundreds  of  the  people  read  them  and 
then  talk  about  the  subjects  treated  in  them,  who  would  neither 
attend  religious  meetings,  look  at  the  Scriptures,  nor  have  a tract 
in  their  possession.  The  same  will  be  the  case  in  China,  and  it 
is  not  irrelevant  to  the  work  of  a missionary  to  adopt  such  a mode 
of  imparting  religious  and  useful  truths,  if  it  be  the  most  likely 
way  of  reaching  the  prejudiced,  proud,  and  ignorant  people  around 
him.  When  the  native  religious  community  has  begun  to  take 
form,  this  mode  of  instruction  and  disputation  had,  of  course, 
better  be  left  to  its  most  intelligent  members. 

Besides  the  Medical  Missionary  Society,  and  Society  for  the 
Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  the  foreign  community  in  China 
established  a third  association,  which  originated  entirely  with  a 
few  of  its  own  leading  members.  In  Jan.,  1835,  soon  after  the 
death  of  Dr.  Morrison,  a paper  was  circulated  among  the  foreign 
residents  containing  suggestions  for  the  formation  of  an  associa- 
tion to  be  called  the  Morrison  Education  Society,  intended  both 
as  a testimonial  of  the  worth  and  labors  of  that  excellent  man, 
more  enduring  than  marble  or  brass,  and  a means  of  continuing 
his  efforts  for  the  good  of  China.  A provisional  committee  was 
formed  from  among  the  subscribers  to  this  paper,  consisting 
of  Sir  G.  B.  Robinson,  bart.,  Messrs.  W.  Jardine,  D.  W.  C. 
Olyphant,  Lancelot  Dent,  J.  R.  Morrison,  and  Rev.  E.  C. 
Bridgman  ; and  $5977  were  immediately  subscribed,  and  about 
1500  volumes  of  books  presented  to  its  library.  This  liberal 
spirit  for  the  welfare  of  the  people  among  whom  they  sojourned 
reflected  the  highest  credit  on  the  gentlemen  interested  in  it,  and 
the  whole  foreign  community ; inasmuch  as,  with  only  four  or 
five  exceptions,  none  of  them  were  united  to  the  country  by  other 
than  temporary  business  relations. 

The  main  objects  of  the  Morrison  Education  Society  were  com- 
pendiously set  forth  in  the  Address  read  at  the  first  meeting,  in 
Oct.,  1836,  as  being  “ the  establishment  and  improvement  of 
schools,  in  which  Chinese  youth  shall  be  taught  to  read  and  write 


356 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  English  language  in  connexion  with  their  own,  by  which 
means  shall  be  brought  within  their  reach  all  the  instruction 
requisite  for  their  becoming  wise,  industrious,  sober,  and  virtuous 
members  of  society,  fitted  in  their  respective  stations  of  life  to  dis- 
charge well  the  duties  which  they  owe  to  themselves,  their  kin- 
dred, their  country,  and  their  God.”  The  desirableness  of  forming 
a library  available  not  only  for  the  scholars  and  teachers  of  the 
Society,  but  also  for  the  foreign  community,  was  adverted  to  in 
the  address;  the  necessity  of  procuring  competent  teachers  from 
England  and  the  United  States  to  conduct  the  schools  was  men- 
tioned ; the  propriety  of  making  extensive  investigations  into  the 
Chinese  modes  of  education  and  their  efficiency  was  suggested ; 
and  the  way  in  which  something  might  be  done  by  supporting 
lads  in  such  schools  as  were  already  established,  pointed  out  in 
this  programme  of  labors,  whose  comprehensiveness  was  equalled 
only  by  its  philanthropy.  Applications  were  made  for  suitable 
teachers  both  in  England  and  America  ; from  the  former,  an 
answer  was  received  that  there  was  no  likelihood  of  obtaining 
one ; a person  was  selected  in  the  latter,  the  Rev.  S.  R.  Brown, 
who  with  his  wife  arrived  at  Macao  in  Feb.,  1839.  In  the  inter- 
val between  the  formation  of  the  Society,  and  the  time  when  its 
operations  assumed  a definite  shape  in  its  own  schools,  something 
was  done  in  collecting  information  concerning  native  education, 
and  in  supporting  a few  boys,  or  assisting  Mrs.  Gutzlaff’s  school 
at  Macao.  Mr.  Brown  applied  himself  for  the  first  few  months 
to  the  study  of  the  language,  and  the  school  was  not  opened  till 
Nov.,  1.839,  with  six  scholars.  It  was  carried  on  in  Macao  until 
1842,  when  by  the  liberal  benefaction  of  $3000  from  its  president, 
Lancelot  Dent,  a commodious  school-house  was  erected  in  Hong- 
kong, on  a site  granted  for  the  purpose  by  his  excellency  Sir 
Henry  Pottinger,  and  the  school  removed  to  it  in  November. 

From  the  seventh  Annual  Report  presented  to  the  Society  in 
September,  1845,  by  Mr.  Brown,  it  appears  that  there  were  then 
thirty  pupils  in  the  school,  which  were  as  many  as  could  be  ac- 
commodated. When  it  was  opened,  the  parents  were,  in  many 
cases,  apprehensive  lest  there  was  a sinister  underhand  motive  in 
thus  asking  for  their  children,  to  freely  support  and  educate  them, 
and  some  obstinately  removed  their  children,  before  they  had  been 
long  enough  under  instruction  to  derive  any  permanent  benefit 
from  their  studies.  In  this  report  it  is  mentioned  as  a gratifying 


OBJECTS  AIMED  AT  BY  THIS  SOCIETY. 


357 


evidence  of  advance  in  confidence  on  their  part,  that  no  parent 
had  asked  to  have  his  child  leave  during  the  year.  “ When  the 
school  was  commenced,”  observes  Mr.  Brown,  “ few  offered  their 
sons  as  pupils,  and  even  they,  as  some  of  them  have  since  told 
me,  did  it  with  a good  deal  of  apprehension  as  to  the  conse- 
quences. ‘ We  could  not  understand,’  says  one  who  first  brought 
a boy  to  the  school,  ‘ why  a foreigner  should  wish  to  feed  and 
instruct  our  children  for  nothing.  We  thought  there  must  be 
some  sinister  motive  at  the  bottom  of  it.  Perhaps  it  was  to  entice 
them  away  from  their  parents  and  country,  and  transport  them  by 
and  by  to  some  foreign  land.’  At  all  events,  it  was  a mystery. 

‘ But  now,’  said  the  same  father  to  me  a few  weeks  go,  ‘ I under- 
stand it.  I have  had  my  three  sons  in  your  school  steadily  since 
they  entered  it,  and  no  harm  has  happened  to  them.  The  eldest 
has  been  qualified  for  service  as  an  interpreter.  The  other  two 
have  learned  nothing  bad.  The  religion  you  have  taught  them, 
and  of  which  I was  so  much  afraid,  has  made  them  better.  I 
myself  believe  its  truth,  though  the  customs  of  my  country  forbid 
my  embracing  it.  I have  no  longer  any  fear  ; you  labor  for 
others’  good,  not  your  own.  I understand  it  now.’  ” 

It  is  not  necessary  to  particularize  the  modes  of  conducting  the 
school,  for  it  is  much  the  same  as  in  similar  institutions  else- 
where, when  placed  under  the  supervision  of  teachers  who  wish 
to  train  minds  for  high  usefulness  and  efficiency  here,  and  show 
them  the  way  of  obtaining  happiness  hereafter.  The  Bible  has 
always  been  taught ; but  no  prominent  effort  has  been  made  to 
show  the  pupils  the  folly  or  sin  of  idolatry,  and  none  has  been 
necessary  ; they  have  abandoned  all  outer  observances  of  its 
rites  almost  of  their  own  accord.  The  school  has  always  had 
the  appearance  of  a Christian  school.  The  lads  vary  from  ten 
to  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  are  mostly  from  the  middle  walks  of 
life  ; they  study  English  and  Chinese  equally,  but  make  much 
greater  progress  in  the  former  than  the  latter,  partly  because  of 
the  greater  facilities  for  reading  and  speaking  it  after  a few 
months’  study  has  enabled  them  to  understand  simple  books  and 
conversation  in  it,  and  partly  because  most  of  the  school-books 
are  entirely  in  English.  The  greater  progress  in  knowledge 
made  in  the  foreign  language  than  in  his  own,  also  inclines  a 
youth  to  take  more  pleasure  in  it,  and  some  difficulty  is  found  to 
bring  him  to  like  the  thorough  study  of  his  national  classics. 


358 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


However,  mention  is  made  in  this  report  of  a lad,  employed 
a year  and  a half  in  the  service  of  the  British  consulate  at 
Shanghai  as  interpreter  and  clerk,  who  had  been  in  the  school 
about  four  years,  and  had  learned  the  two  languages  so  well  that 
he  was  able  to  translate  to  and  from  them  both.  Chinese  boys 
are  able  to  make  as  high  attainments  in  knowledge  and  mental 
discipline  as  any  Asiatics;  indeed,  Mr.  Brown,  who  is  well  able 
to  form  an  opinion,  places  them  nearly  on  an  equality  with  the 
common  run  of  boys  in  Christian  lands. 

The  attachment  of  the  boys  to  their  teacher  has  often  been 
manifested.  One  instance  is  taken  from  the  fourth  Report. 
“ Last  spring,  the  father  of  one  in  the  older  class  came  to  the 
house,  and  told  his  son  that  he  could  not  let  him  remain  here 
any  longer,  but  that  he  must  put  him  out  to  service  and  make 
him  earn  something.  His  father  is  a poor  miserable  man,  be- 
sotted by  the  use  of  opium,  and  has  sold  his  two  daughters  into 
slavery  to  raise  money.  The  boy  ran  away  to  his  instructor, 
and  told  him  what  his  father  had  said,  adding,  ‘ 1 cannot  go.’ 
Willing  to  ascertain  the  sincerity  of  the  boy,  and  the  strength  of 
his  attachment  to  his  friends,  his  teacher  coolly  replied,  ‘ Perhaps 
it  will  be  well  for  you  to  go,  for  probably  you  could  be  a table-boy 
in  some  gentleman’s  house,  and  so  get  $2  a month,  which  is  two 
more  than  you  get  here,  where  only  your  food  is  given  you.’ 
The  little  fellow  looked  at  him  steadily  while  he  made  these  re- 
marks, as  if  amazed  at  the  strange  language  he  used,  and  when 
he  had  done,  turned  hastily  about  and  burst  into  tears,  exclaim- 
ing, ‘ I cannot  go  ; if  I go  away  from  this  school  I shall  be  lost.’ 
He  did  not  leave,  for  his  father  did  not  wish  to  force  him  away.” 

Another  case  is  cited  from  the  seventh  Report,  to  show  the 
confidence  of  a parent,  on  occasion  of  the  death  of  one  of  the 
pupils,  his  only  child.  “He  heard  of  his  son’s  illness  too  late 
to  arrive  before  he  died,  and  when  he  came  it  was  to  bury  his 
remains.  He  was  naturally  overwhelmed  with  grief  at  the 
affliction  that  had  come  upon  him,  and  his  apprehensions  of  the 
effect  of  the  tidings  upon  the  boy’s  mother  were  gloomy  enough. 
After  the  funeral  was  over,  I conversed  with  him.  To  my  sur- 
prise he  made  not  the  least  complaint  as  to  what  had  been  done 
for  the  sick  lad,  either  in  the  way  of  medical  treatment  or  other- 
wise, but  expressed  many  thanks  for  the  kind  and  assiduous 
attentions  that  had  bpen  bestowed  upon  him.  He  said  he  had 


REPORTS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  OF  THE  M.  E.  SOCIETY. 


359 


entertained  great  hope  of  his  son’s  future  usefulness,  and  in 
order  to  promote  it  had  placed  him  here  at  school.  But  now  his 
family  would  end  in  himself.  I showed  him  some  specimens  of 
his  son’s  drawing,  an  amusement  of  which  he  was  particularly 
fond.  The  tears  gushed  faster  as  his  eyes  rested  on  these  evi- 
dences of  his  son’s  skill.  ‘ Do  not  show  them  to  me,’  said  he  ; 
* it  is  too  much.  I cannot  speak  now.  I know  you  have  done 
well  to  my  son.  I pity  you , for  all  your  labor  is  lost.’  I assured 
him  I did  not  think  so.  He  had  been  a very  diligent  and  obedi- 
ent learner,  and  had  won  the  esteem  of  his  teachers  and  compa- 
nions. He  had  been  taught  concerning  the  true  God  and  the 
way  of  salvation  ; and  it  might  have  done  him  everlasting  good. 
As  the  old  man  was  leaving  me,  he  turned  and  asked  if,  in  case 
he  should  adopt  another  boy,  I would  receive  him  as  a pupil,  to 
which  I replied  in  the  affirmative.” 

An  assistant  teacher,  Mr.  Wm.  A.  Macy,  arrived  from  the 
United  States  in  February,  1846,  and  is  now  engaged  in  the 
same  useful,  laborious  work,  which  these  reports  so  well  de- 
scribe. The  design  of  the  trustees  is  to  enlarge  the  accommo- 
dations so  that  the  number  of  pupils  can  be  doubled,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  they  will  be  sustained  in  their  laudable  intentions.  It 
is  likely,  too,  that  other  schools  will  soon  be  established  by  mis- 
sionaries, in  the  various  ports  now  open  to  Christian  labors,  both 
male  and  female,  which  will  extend  the  work  so  well  begun  by 
the  Morrison  Education  Society.  Some  have  already  been  com- 
menced, and  bid  fair  to  prove  like  blessings. 

The  efforts  of  Protestants  for  the  evangelization  of  China  were, 
for  the  most  part,  of  a preparatory  nature  until  the  year  1842. 
Most  of  the  laborers  were  stationed  in  the  settlements  out  of 
China,  and  those  in  the  empire  itself  were  unable  to  pursue  their 
designs  without  so  many  interruptions  and  embarrassments  as  to 
seriously  impair  the  influence  of  their  instructions.  Mrs.  Gutz- 
laff  experienced  so  many  obstacles  in  her  endeavors  to  collect  a 
school  at  Macao,  partly  from  the  fears  of  the  parents  and  the 
harassing  inquiries  of  the  police,  the  latter  of  which  naturally 
increased  the  former ; and  partly  from  the  short  period  the  pa- 
rents were  willing  to  allow  their  children  to  remain,  that  the 
attempt  was  given  up.  Preaching  and  distribution  of  tracts 
were  carried  on  to  some  extent  in  and  around  Macao,  but  when 
the  Chinese  authorities  had  their  attention  directed  to  it,  thev 


360 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


stopped  their  public  operations  by  requiring  the  Portuguese  au- 
thorities to  prohibit  all  attempts  to  diffuse  seditious  doctrines  with- 
in the  settlement.  The  Portuguese  clergy  and  government  of 
Macao  have  done  nothing  themselves  to  impede  Protestant  mis- 
sionaries  in  their  labors  in  the  colony  since  1833,  when  the  go- 
vernor ordered  the  Albion  press,  belonging  to  Dr.  Morrison’s  son, 
to  be  stopped,  on  account  of  his  publishing  a religious  newspaper 
called  the  Miscellanea  Sinicse ; and  this  he  was  encouraged  to 
do,  from  knowing  that  the  E.  I.  Company  was  opposed  to  its 
continuance.  The  governor  intimated  to  one  of  the  American 
missionaries  in  1839,  that  no  tracts  must  be  distributed  or  public 
congregations  gathered,  but  no  objection  would  be  made  to  audi- 
ences collected  in  his  own  house  for  instruction.  No  obstacle 
was,  however,  put  in  the  way  of  printing,  and  the  press  that  was 
interdicted  in  1833  was  carried  back  to  Macao  in  1835,  under 
the  direction  of  the  American  mission.  Most  of  the  Chinese 
printing  for  this  mission  was  done  at  Singapore  until  1842,  it 
being  considered  unwise  to  again  commence  extensive  operations 
of  this  sort  where  the  workmen  were  liable  to  be  seized  or 
jeoparded,  and  the  blocks  and  books  lost. 

The  city  of  Canton  is  one  of  the  most  unpromising  fields  for 
missionary  labors  now  open,  arising  in  a degree  from  the  turbu- 
lent populace ; their  inclination  for  riot  and  plunder  is  stirred 
up  by  demagogues,  who  make  use  of  the  opium  traffic,  the  war 
with  England,  the  supposed  underhand  designs  of  foreigners,  and 
other  similar  causes,  to  excite  their  passions,  and  incite  them  to 
attack  and  plunder  the  factories  or  their  inmates  when  opportu- 
nity offers.  Long  usage  and  example  of  their  rulers  have  made 
the  natives  of  that  city  accustomed  to  call  foreigners  by  oppro- 
brious epithets,  and  treat  them  contemptuously,  not  even  deserv- 
ing ordinary  civility ; they  are  disinclined,  too,  to  have  them 
erect  houses,  and  live  elsewhere  than  in  the  small  circuit  of  the 
factories.  Something  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  teaching 
them,  and  more  is  now  attempting.  Audiences  are  collected  o'n 
the  Sabbath  and  at  other  times,  both  at  the  Ophthalmic  hospital 
and  at  the  houses  of  the  missionaries,  and  books  are  distributed 
in  the  streets  and  among  the  boats  on  the  river,  accompanied 
more  or  less  with  explanation  and  instruction.  A Christian 
church  was  formed  at  Canton  in  1835,  the  first  Protestant  one  in 
China.  Since  Dr.  Bridgman’s  arrival  in  1830,  this  work  has 


MISSION  AT  CANTON. 


361 


been  carried  on,  more  or  less,  with  the  exception  of  about  three 
years,  and  is  now  prosecuted  with  greater  vigor  by  the  agents  of 
two  or  three  missionary  societies. 

The  following  extract  exhibits  the  freedom  with  which  the 
hospital  is  now  used  as  a means  of  making  known  the  Gospel  at 
Canton,  where  ten  years  before  it  was  deemed  inexpedient  to  dis- 
tribute books  or  hold  religious  services,  lest  the  whole  establish- 
ment should  be  shut  up.  “ The  average  attendance  of  Chinese 
has  been  over  a hundred,  and  none  have  been  more  respectful 
and  cordial  in  their  attention  than  those  in  whom  aneurism  has 
been  cured  or  sight  restored,  from  whom  the  tumor  has  been  ex- 
tirpated, or  the  stone  extracted.  These  services  must  be  wit- 
nessed to  understand  fully  their  interest.  Deep  emotions  have 
been  awakened  when  contrasting  the  restrictions  of  the  first  years 
of  Protestant  missions  in  China  with  the  present  freedom.  Then, 
not  permitted  to  avow  our  missionary  character  and  object  lest  it 
might  eject  us  from  the  country  ; nor  could  a Chinese  receive  a 
Christian  book  but  at  the  peril  of  his  safety,  or  embrace  that  re- 
ligion without  hazarding  his  life.  Now,  he  may  receive  and 
practise  the  doctrines  of  Christ,  and  transgress  no  law  of  the  em- 
pire. Our  interest  may  be  more  easily  conceived  than  expressed, 
as  we  have  declared  the  truths  of  the  Gospel ; or  when  looking 
upon  the  evangelist  Liang  Afah,  and  thought  of  him  fleeing  for 
his  life,  and  long  banished  from  his  native  land,  and  now  returned 
to  declare  boldly  the  truths  of  the  Gospel  in  the  city  from  which 
he  had  fled.  Well  did  he  call  upon  his  audience  to  worship  and 
give  thanks  to  the  God  of  heaven  and  earth  for  what  he  had  done 
for  them.  With  happy  effect  he  dwelt  upon  the  Savior’s  life  and 
example,  and  pointing  to  the  paintings  suspended  on  the  walls  of 
the  room,  informed  his  auditors  that  these  were  performed  by  his 
blessing,  and  in  conformity  to  his  precepts  and  example.  Por- 
tions of  the  Scriptures  and  religious  tracts  are  given  to  all  the 
hearers  on  the  Sabbath,  and  likewise  to  all  the  patients  during 
«4he  week,  so  that  thousands  of  volumes  have  been  sent  forth  from 
the  hospital  to  scores  of  villages  and  to  distant  provinces.” 

The  island  of  Hongkong,  about  40  miles  east  of  Macao,  was 
occupied  as  a missionary  station  very  soon  after  it  was  takeij 
possession  of  in  1841,  by  Rev.  I.  J.  Roberts  of  the  Baptist  mission. 
His  coadjutor,  Mr.  Shuck,  removed  thither  from  Macao  in  the 
same  year,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  foreign  community,  whicl} 
VOL.  II.  17 


362 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


has  ever  been  ready  to  respond  to  calls  of  a benevolent  character, 
erected  a chapel  and  mission  house  in  the  settlement.  The  Mor- 
rison Education  Society,  and  a hospital  under  the  care  of  the 
Medical  Missionary  Society,  with  the  school  and  mission  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  are  also  at  present  located  there. 
The  latter  has  a fine  chapel,  where  religious  services  are  con- 
ducted in  two  languages.  A native  assistant,  Tsin  Shen,  edu- 
cated at  Malacca,  was  recently  licensed  as  a preacher.  The 
population  of  Hongkong  is  still  unsettled,  and  several  dialects 
are  spoken  among  them.  A few  converts  have  been  baptized, 
and  preaching  is  regularly  conducted  by  both  foreign  and  native 
preachers  to  orderly  and  attentive  congregations  of  from  fifty  to 
a hundred  and  more  people.  Chinese  audiences  are  usually  de- 
corous, and  listen  without  interrupting  the  speaker,  even  when 
there  is  some  reason  to  suppose  they  do  not  clearly  understand 
what  is  said. 

The  mission  at  Amoy  was  commenced  in  1842  by  Rev.  Messrs. 
Abeel  and  Boone  under  the  most  favorable  auspices.  The  Eng- 
lish expedition  took  that  city  in  August,  1841,  and  on  leaving  it, 
stationed  a small  naval  and  military  force  on  the  island  of  Ku- 
lang  su.  The  people  of  Amoy  and  its  environs  cared  perhaps 
little  for  the  merits  of  the  war  then  raging,  but  they  knew  that 
they  had  suffered  much  from  it,  and  no  interpreters  were  avail- 
able to  carry  on  communication  between  the  two  parties.  Both 
these  gentlemen  could  converse  in  the  local  dialect,  and  were 
soon  applied  to  by  many  desirous  of  learning  something  of  the 
foreigners,  or  who  had  business  with  them.  The  Chinese  author- 
ities in  Amoy  were  much  pleased  to  obtain  the  aid  of  competent 
interpreters,  and  although  these  duties  have  long  since  devolved 
upon  others,  the  good  opinion  of  these  dignitaries  has  continued, 
and  exercised  considerable  influence  in  inducing  the  people  to 
attend  upon  the  ministrations  of  the  missionaries  and  receive  their 
books  without  fear.  Both  officers  and  private  gentlemen  invited 
them  to  their  residences,  where  they  had  opportunity  to  answeP- 
their  reasonable  inquiries  concerning  foreign  lands  and  customs, 
and  convey  an  outline  of  the  Christian  faith.  The  number  of 
books  given  away  was  not  great,  but  part  of  every  day  was  spent 
in  talking  with  the  people  ; and  when  the  hospital  was  opened  by 
Doct.  Cumming  in  July,  still  greater  facilities  were  afforded  for 
doing  good.  Mr.  McBryde  joined  them  for  a while  in  1842,  Doct* 


MISSIONS  AT  AMOY  AND  FUHCHAU. 


363 


Hepburn  in  1843,  Rev.  Messrs.  Stronach,  Young,  Pohlman,  and 
Doty  in  1844  ; and  several  others  since  then.  By  all  these  bre- 
thren, part  of  whom  have  since  left,  the  work  of  diffusing  gospel 
truth  has  been  carried  on  without  interruption,  both  in  the  hos- 
pital and  at  the  regular  Sabbath  services,  and  among  the  neigh- 
boring villages. 

The  mission  at  Amoy  has  been  much  afflicted  with  sickness 
and  death  among  its  members  since  its  formation ; Mrs.  Boone 
died  within  three  months  after  her  arrival  in  1842,  and  all  the 
other  members  were  sick  more  or  less  during  that  summer  of  the 
prevailing  fever.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  McBryde  left  from  ill  health  in 
January,  1843  ; and  Dr.  Abeel  and  Doct.  and  Mrs.  Hepburn  in 
1845.  Mrs.  Pohlman  and  Mrs.  Doty  died  at  Amoy  in  that  year, 
and  Mrs.  Stronach  on  her  way  to  England,  and  Dr.  Abeel  in  1846. 
Still,  laborers  have  been  constantly  on  the  spot,  and  the  work  so 
pleasantly  begun  in  1842  has  been  continued  without  interruption. 
Two  persons  were  baptized  in  1846  ; and  the  courtesy  of  the  of- 
ficers, and  the  general  goodwill  and  attendance  of  the  people, 
augur  favorably.  On  a recent  occasion,  the  governor-general  of 
the  provinces  of  Fuhkien  and  Chehkiang  was  at  Amoy,  and 
treated  the  missionaries  with  great  attention  in  the  presence  of 
crowds  of  people  assembled  like  them  to  see  him. 

Fuhchau  fu  has  not  been  so  much  frequented  by  foreign  ship- 
ping as  the  other  ports,  and  consequently  fewer  opportunities  have 
offered  for  visiting  it.  No  Protestant  missionary  took  up  his  resi- 
dence there  until  1846,  but  the  Rev.  George  Smith  spent  several 
weeks  in  exploring  the  city  in  1845  ; three  societies  have  their 
agents  there  at  present,  whose  knowledge  of  the  language  is 
still  partial.  Its  position  on  the  river  Min,  and  its  importance  as 
the  provincial  capital,  render  it  a desirable  location  for  a mis- 
sionary station.  The  Romanists  have  many  converts  in  the  part 
of  the  province  lying  between  Fuhchau  and  Amoy,  many  of 
whom  resorted  to  the  hospitals  and  received  religious  books. 

The  first  missionary  efforts  north  of  Canton  of  a permanent 
nature  were  made  in  1840  by  Doct.  Lockhart,  in  the  establishment 
of  a hospital  at  Tinghai.  They  were  resumed  by  Rev.  Mr. 
Milne,  in  1842,  and  while  the  island  of  Chusan  was  under  the 
control  of  the  British  troops,  efforts  were  made  to  instruct  the 
people.  Mr.  Gutzlaff  was  appointed  Chinese  magistrate  of  Ting- 
hai in  1842,  and  during  the  time  he  held  that  office  endeavored 


364 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


to  hold  meetings.  Mr.  Milne  left  Ningpo  in  June,  1843,  and  came 
to  Hongkong  overland  through  the  provinces  of  Chehkiang, 
Kiangsi,  and  Kwangtung,  dressed  in  a native  costume.  The  jour- 
ney was  the  first  ever  taken  in  this  manner  by  a Protestant,  and 
was  performed  without  detection  ; it  showed,  however,  that  while 
short  trips  might  be  made  without  the  aid  of  native  converts  and 
friends  in  the  interior,  it  would  be  very  difficult,  if  not  impossi- 
ble, to  establish  a permanent  mission.  When  missions  at  the  five 
ports  are  fully  supplied,  and  there  are  men  to  spare  for  these 
trips  and  experiments,  it  will  be  time  to  try  whether  a mission 
cannot  be  fixed  among  the  people  in  the  interior. 

After  Mr.  Milne’s  departure  from  Ningpo,  some  time  elapsed 
before  his  place  was  supplied.  The  journal  of  his  residence  in- 
dicates a great  willingness  on  the  part  of  people  of  all  ranks  to 
cultivate  intercourse  with  such  foreigners  as  could  converse  freely 
with  them.  Docts.  Macgowan  and  McCarty  went  there  in  1844  to 
open  a hospital,  and  were  followed  during  the  next  year  by  Rev. 
Messrs.  Lowrie,  Culbertson,  and  Loomis,  and  Mr.  Cole  with  a 
printing-office  of  English  and  Chinese  type,  and  a type-foundry. 
Mr.  Loomis  resided  at  Tinghai  until  it  was  re-occupied  by  the 
Chinese  authorities,  when  he  was  compelled  to  remove  to  Ningpo. 
Religious  services  are  held  at  the  hospitals  in  that  city,  and  Doct. 
Macgowan  in  his  report  says,  “ each  patient  is  exhorted  to  re- 
nounce all  idolatry  and  wickedness,  and  to  embrace  the  religion 
of  the  Savior.  They  are  admitted  by  tens  into  the  prescribing 
room,  and  before  being  dismissed  are  addressed  by  the  physician 
and  the  native  Christian  assistant  on  the  subject  of  religion. 
Tracts  are  given  to  all  who  are  able  to  read.”  The  more  such 
labors  are  carried  on,  the  better  will  the  prospect  of  peace  and  a 
profitable  intercourse  between  China  and  western  nations  be- 
come ; the  more  the  people  of  that  vast  empire  learn  of  the  sci- 
ence and  resources,  the  character  and  designs,  and  partake  of  the 
religion  and  benevolence,  of  western  nations,  the  less  chance  will 
there  be  of  collisions,  and  the  more  each  party  will  respect  the 
other.  The  fear  is,  however,  that  the  disruptive  and  disorgan- 
izing influences  will  preponderate  over  the  peaceful,  and  precipi- 
tate new  outbreaks  before  these  influences  obtain  much  hold  upon 
the  Chinese. 

The  mission  to  Shanghai,  like  those  at  Amoy  and  Ningpo,  was 
commenced  favorably  soon  after  the  treaty  of  peace  in  1842. 


MISSIONS  AT  NINGPO  AND  SHANGHAI-. 


365 


Doct.  Lockhart  early  opened  a hospital,  and  in  the  second  report 
of  its  operations,  from  May,  1844,  to  June,  1845,  he  states,  that 
10,978  patients  had  been  attended  to  in  fourteen  months.  One 
effect  of  the  opening  of  the  institution  at  this  city  was,  to  incite 
the  inhabitants  to  open  a dispensary  during  four  summer  months, 
for  the  gratuitous  relief  of  the  sick.  It  was  called  Shi  1 Kung- 
kiuh,  or  Public  Establishment  for  Dispensing  Healing.  “ It  was 
attended  by  eight  or  nine  native  practitioners,  who  saw  the  patients 
once  in  five  days  ; this  attendance  was  gratuitous  on  the  part  of 
some  of  them,  and  was  paid  for  in  the  case  of  others.  The 
medicines  are  supplied  from  the  different  apothecary  shops,  one 
furnishing  all  that  is  wanted  during  one  day,  which  is  paid  for  by 
subscriptions  to  the  dispensary.  The  patients  vary  from  300  to 
500.  The  reason  given  for  the  recent  establishment  of  this  dis- 
pensary for  relieving  the  sick  is,  that  it  has  been  done  by  a 
foreigner  who  came  to  reside  at  the  place,  and  therefore  some  of 
the  wealthy  natives  wished  to  show  their  benevolence  in  the  same 
way.”  Such  a spirit  speaks  well  for  the  inhabitants  of  Shang- 
hai, for  nothing  like  competition  in  doing  good  has  ever  been 
started  elsewhere,  nor  even  a public  acknowledgment  made  of 
the  benefits  conferred  by  the  hospitals. 

Rev.  Dr.  Medhurst  joined  Doct.  Lockhart  in  1844,  bringing  full 
machinery  with  him  for  the  manufacture  of  books.  During  the 
voyage  made  by  Messrs.  Medhurst  and  Stevens,  in  1835,  in  the 
Huron,  they  visited  Shanghai,  and  the  account  of  their  adventures 
is  detailed  in  their  journals.  An  abstract  of  Mr.  Medhurst’s  in- 
terview with  the  officers  of  the  place,  on  that  occasion,  is  taken 
from  his  journal.  He  had  already  been  invited  by  them  to  enter 
a temple  hard  by  the  landing-place,  to  the  end  that  they  might 
learn  the  object  of  the  visit,  and  was  conversing  with  them. 

“ The  party  was  now  joined  by  another  officer  named  Chin,  a hearty, 
rough-looking  man,  with  a keen  eye,  and  a voluble  tongue.  He  imme- 
diately took  the  lead  in  the  conversation,  and  asked  whether  we  had  not 
been  in  Shantung,  and  had  communication  with  some  great  officers  there  ? 
He  inquired  after  Messrs.  Lindsay  and  Gutzlaff,  and  wished  to  know 
whither  we  intended  to  proceed.  I told  him  these  gentlemen  were  well ; 
but  we  could  hardly  tell  where  we  should  go,  quoting  a Chinese  proverb, 
‘ We  know  not  to-day  what  will  take  place  to-morrow.’  But,  I continued, 
as  your  native  conjurors  are  reckoned  very  clever,  they  may  perhaps  be 
•able  to  tell  you.  ‘ I am  conjuror  enough  for  that,’  said  Chin,  ‘ but  what 


366 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


is  your  profession  ? ’ I told  him  that  I was  a teacher  of  religion.  . . 

After  a little  time,  a great  noise  was  heard  outside,  and  the  arrival  of  the 
chief  magistrate  of  the  city  was  announced,  when  several  officers  came 
in,  and  requested  me  to  go  and  see  his  worship.  He  appeared  to  be  a 
middle-aged  man,  but  assumed  a stern  aspect  as  I entered,  though  I paid 
him  the  usual  compliments,  and  took  my  seat  in  a chair  placed  opposite. 
This  disconcerted  him  much,  and  as  soon  as  he  could  recover  himself 
from  the  surprise  at  seeing  a barbarian  seated  in  his  presence,  he  ordered 
me  to  come  near  and  stand  before  him  ; while  all  the  officers  called  out, 
‘ Rise ! Rise  ! ’ I arose  accordingly,  and  asked,  whether  I could  not  be 
allowed  to  sit  at  the  conference,  and  as  he  refused,  I bowed,  and  left  the 
room.  I was  soon  followed  by  Chin  and  Wang,  who  tried  every  effort  to 
persuade  me  to  return  ; this,  however,  I steadfastly  refused  to  do,  unless 
I could  be  allowed  to  sit,  as  others  of  my  countrymen  had  done  in  like 
circumstances 

“ Having  been  joined  by  Mr.  Stevens  (who  had  been  distributing  books 
among  the  crowd  without),  we  proceeded  to  converse  more  familiarly, 
and  to  deliver  out  books  to  the  officers  and  their  attendants,  as  well  as  to 
some  strangers  that  were  present,  till  they  were  all  gone.  A list  of  such 
provisions  as  were  wanted  had  been  given  to  Wang,  whom  we  requested 
to  purchase  them  for  us,  and  we  would  pay  for  them.  By  this  time  the 
articles  were  brought  in,  which  they  offered  to  give  us  as  a present,  and 
seeing  that  there  was  no  other  way  of  settling  the  question,  we  resolved 
to  accept  of  the  articles,  and  send  them  something  in  return.  The  rain 
having  moderated,  .we  arose  to  take  a walk,  and  proceeded  towards  the 
boat,  where  the  sailors  were  busy  eating  their  dinner.  Wishing  to  enter 
the  city,  we  turned  off  in  that  direction,  but  were  stopped  by  the  officers 
and  their  attendants,  and  reluctantly  returned  to  the  temple.  After  an- 
other hour’s  conversation,  and  partaking  of  refreshments  with  the  officers, 
they  departed.  On  the  steps  near  the  boat,  we  observed  a basket  nearly 
full  of  straw,  and  on  the  top  about  half  a dozen  books  torn  in  pieces  and 
about  to  be  burnt.  On  inquiry,  they  told  us  that  these  were  a few  that 
had  been  torn  in  the  scuffle,  and  in  order  to  prevent  their  being  trodden 
under  foot  they  were  about  to  burn  them.  Recollecting,  however,  that 
Chin  had  told  his  servant  to  do  something  with  the  books  he  had  re- 
ceived, it  now  occurred  to  us  that  he  had  directed  them  to  be  burned  in 
our  presence.  On  the  torch  being  applied,  therefore,  we  took  the  pre- 
sents which  were  lying  by  and  threw  them  on  the  fire,  which  put  it  out. 
The  policeman,  taking  off  the  articles,  applied  the  torch  again,  whilst 
we  repeated  the  former  operation  ; to  show  them,  that  if  they  despised 
our  presents,  we  also  disregarded  theirs.  Finally,  the  basket  was  thrown 
into  the  river,  and  we  left,  much  displeased  at  this  insulting  conduct.”* 

’China;  Its  State  and  Prospects,  pp.  371 — 377  ; Chinese  Repository, 
Vol.  IV.,  pp.  330,  331. 


EFFECTS  OF  MISSIONS  AMONG  THE  CHINESE. 


367 


How  great  the  contrast  now  ! Doct.  Lockhart  says,  in  his  report 
of  the  hospital  for  1 845,  that  “ Mr.  Medhurst  has  kindly  attended 
three  times  a week,  and  addressed  the  patients  on  the  leading 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  it  is  very  pleasing  to  see  the  marked 
attention  with  which  they  listen  to  the  exhortations  made  to  them.” 
He  has  also  taken  an  excursion  into  the  country  in  a hired  boat, 
and  returned  after  four  months,  without  any  molestation.  In 
1845,  Bishop  Boone,  formerly  stationed  at  Amoy,  arrived  from 
America,  accompanied  by  several  fellow  laborers,  of  whom  two 
female  teachers  have  opened  a girls’  school.  The  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  has  also  reinforced  its  missions  at  this  impor- 
tant place  ; and  Rev.  Mr.  McClatchie,  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  has  recently  settled  there.  Bishop  Boone  has  baptized 
one  convert,  and  the  attendance  on  the  public  services  of  all  the 
missionaries  is  highly  encouraging.  The  courteous  treatment 
they,  and  all  foreigners  generally,  receive  from  the  inhabitants, 
stands  in  strong  contrast  with  the  insults  and  restrictions  expe- 
rienced at  Canton. 

The  consequences  of  the  introduction  of  the  Gospel  into  China 
are  likely  to  be  the  same  that  they  have  been  elsewhere,  in  stir- 
ring up  private  and  public  opposition  to  what  is  so  opposed  to  the 
depravity  of  the  human  heart.  There  are  some  grounds  for 
hoping,  that  there  will  not  be  much  systematic  opposition  from 
the  imperial  government  when  once  the  chiefs  of  the  nation  learn 
the  popular  sentiments  and  will.  The  principal  reasons  for  en- 
tertaining the  hope  that  China  is  to  be  evangelized  without  the 
terrible  convulsions  which  attended  the  Reformation,  are  found 
in  the  character  of  the  people,  who  are  not  cruel,  or  disposed  to 
take  life  for  opinions,  when  those  opinions  are  held  by  numbers 
of  respectable  and  intelligent  men.  The  fact,  that  the  officers 
of  government  all  spring  from  the  body  of  the  people,  and  that 
these  dignitaries  are  neither  governed  nor  influenced  by  any 
state  hierarchy — by  any  body  of  priestly  men,  who,  feeling  that 
the  progress  of  the  new  faith  will  cause  the  loss  of  their  influence 
and  position,  are  determined  to  use  the  power  of  the  state  to  put 
it  down,  leads  us  to  hope,  that  such  officers  as  may  adopt  the  new 
faith  will  not,  on  account  of  their  profession,  be  banished  or  dis- 
graced. Such  was  the  case  with  Siu,  who  assisted  and  counte- 
nanced Ricci.  The  general  character  of  the  Chinese  is  irreli. 
gious,  and  they  care  much  more  for  money  and  power  than  they 


368 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


do  for  religious  ceremonies  of  any  kind  ; they  would  never  lose 
a battle  as  the  Egyptians  did,  because  the  Persians  placed  cats 
between  the  armies.  There  are  no  ceremonies  which  they  con- 
sider so  binding  as  to  be  willing  to  fight  for  them,  and  persecute 
Others  for  omitting,  except  those  pertaining  to  ancestral  worship ; 
and  these  are  of  so  domestic  a nature,  that  thousands  of  converts 
might  discard  them  before  much  would  be  known  or  done  by  the 
people  in  relation  to  the  matter.  The  conscientious  Christian 
magistrate  would  be  somewhat  obnoxious  to  his  master,  and  lia- 
ble to  be  removed,  for  refusing  to  perform  his  functions  at  the 
ching-hwang  miau,  before  the  tutelar  gods  of  the  empire.  These 
and  other  reasons,  growing  out  of  the  character  of  the  people, 
and  the  nature  of  their  political  and  religious  institutions,  lead  to 
the  hope,  that  the  leaven  of  truth  will  permeate  the  mass  of 
society,  and  renovate,  purify,  and  strengthen  it,  without  weaken- 
ing, disorganizing,  or  destroying  the  government.  There  are,  also, 
some  causes  to  fear  that  such  will  not  be  the  case,  arising  from 
the  ignorance  of  the  people  of  the  proper  results  of  Christian 
doctrines ; from  a dread  of  the  government  respecting  its  own 
stability  from  foreign  aggression  ; from  the  natural  consequences 
of  the  smuggling  trade  in  opium,  and  the  drainage  of  the  pre- 
cious metals  ; and  from  the  disturbing  effects  of  the  intercourse 
with  unscrupulous  foreigners  and  irritated  natives  often  leading 
to  riots  and  the  interference  of  governmental  authorities. 

That  the  government  at  present  is  inclined  to  allow  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity,  so  far  as  they  know  its  character,  is  evi 
dent  from  the  following  rescript  to  the  memorial  of  Kiying. 

“ Kiying,  imperial  commissioner,  minister  of  state,  and  governor-ge- 
neral of  Kvvangtung  and  Kwangsi,  respectfully  addresses  the  throne  by 
memorial. 

“ On  examination  it  appears,  that  the  religion  of  the  Lord  of  heaven 
is  that  professed  by  all  the  nations  of  the  west ; that  its  main  object  is  to 
encourage  the  good  and  suppress  the  wicked  ; that,  since  its  introduction 
to  China  during  the  Ming  dynasty,  it  has  never  been  interdicted ; that 
subsequently,  when  Chinese,  practising  this  religion,  often  made  it  a 
covert  for  wickedness,  even  to  the  seducing  of  wives  and  daughters,  and 
to  the  deceitful  extraction  of  the  pupils  from  the  eyes  of  the  sick,*  go- 

*This  is  thus  explained  by  a Chinese.  “ It  is  a custom  with  the  priests 
who  teach  this  religion,  when  a man  is  about  to  die,  to  take  a handful  of 
cotton,  having  concealed  within  it  a sharp  needle,  and  then,  while  rubbing 


EDICT  TOLERATING  CHRISTIANITY. 


369 


vernment  made  investigation  and  inflicted  punishment,  as  is  on  record ; 
and  that  in  the  reign  of  Kiaking,  special  clauses  were  first  laid  down  for 
the  punishment  of  the  guilty.  The  prohibition,  therefore,  was  directed 
against  evil-doing  under  the  covert  of  religion,  and  not  against  the  reli- 
gion professed  by  the  western  foreign  nations. 

“ Now  the  request  of  the  French  ambassador,  Lagrene,  that  those  Chi- 
nese who,  doing  well,  practise  this  religion,  be  exempt  from  criminality, 
seems  feasible.  It  is  right  therefore  to  make  the  request,  and  earnestly  to 
crave  celestial  favor,  to  grant  that,  henceforth,  all  natives  and  foreigners 
without  distinction,  who  learn  and  practise  the  religion  of  the  Lord  of 
heaven,  and  do  not  excite  trouble  by  improper  conduct,  be  exempted  from 
criminality.  If  there  be  any  who  seduce  wives  and  daughters,  or  deceit- 
fully take  the  pupils  from  the  eyes  of  the  sick,  walking  in  their  former 
paths,  or  are  otherwise  guilty  of  criminal  acts,  let  them  be  dealt  with 
according  to  the  old  laws.  As  to  those  of  the  French  and  other  foreign 
nations,  who  practise  the  religion,  let  them  only  be  permitted  to  build 
churches  at  the  five  ports  opened  for  commercial  intercourse.  They 
must  not  presume  to  enter  the  country  to  propagate  religion.  Should 
any  act  in  opposition,  turn  their  backs  upon  the  treaties,  and  rashly  over- 
step the  boundaries,  the  local  officers  will  at  once  seize  and  deliver  them 
to  their  respective  consuls  for  restraint  and  correction.  Capital  punish- 
ment is  not  to  be  rashly  inflicted,  in  order  that  the  exercise  of  gentleness 
may  be  displayed.  Thus,  peradventure,  the  good  and  the  profligate  will 
not  be  blended,  while  the  equity  of  mild  laws  will  be  exhibited. 

“ This  request,  that  well-doers  practising  the  religion  may  be  exempt 
from  criminality,  I (the  commissioner),  in  accordance  with  reason  and 
bounden  duty,  respectfully  lay  before  the  throne,  earnestly  praying  the 
august  emperor  graciously  to  grant  that  it  may  be  carried  into  effect. 
A respectful  memorial. 

“ Taukwang,  24th  year,  11th  month,  19th  day  (Dec.  28th,  1844),  was 
received  the  vermilion  reply : * Let  it  be  according  to  the  counsel  [of  Ki- 
ying].’  This  is  from  the  emperor.” — Clii.  Rep.  Yol.  XIV.,  p.  195. 

This  paper  grants  toleration  to  the  Christians  already  in  the 
country,  known  for  two  centuries  by  the  term  Tien  Chu  kiau,  or 
religion  of  the  Lord  of  heaven,  and  referring  only  to  those  per- 
sons who  profess  Catholicism.  It  was  obtained  at  the  instance  of 
the  French  ambassador  to  China,  M.  de  Lagrene,  who  deserves 
the  thanks  of  all  those  interested  in  the  progress  of  Christianity 

the  individual’s  eyes  with  the  cotton,  to  introduce  the  needle  into  the  eye 
and  puncture  the  pupil  with  it;  the  humors  of  the  pupil  saturate  the  cot- 
ton and  are  afterwards  used  as  a medicine.”  This  foolish  idea  has  its  origin 
in  the  extreme  unction  administered  by  Catholic  priests  to  the  dying. 

VOL.  II.  17* 


370 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


for  having  brought  the  matter  before  the  imperial  officers.  Sub- 
sequently, H.  E.  the  French  minister  was  asked  to  state  whether 
in  making  this  request  of  the  Chinese  officers  he  intended  to 
include  Christians  of  all  sects,  as  there  had  been  some  doubts  on 
that  point.  He  therefore  brought  the  subject  again  before  Kl- 
ying,  who  issued  the  following  explanatory  order.  It  appears 
in  the  form  of  a communication  to  the  American  consul  at  Can- 
ton, and  seems  to  grant  as  extensive  toleration  to  all  Christian 
sects  as  the  Chinese  commissioner  was  able  to  do  from  his  know- 
ledge of  the  differences  between  them. 

“ Kiying,  of  the  imperial  house,  governor-general  of  Kwangtung  and 
Kwangsi,  a director  of  the  Board  of  War,  a vice  high  chancellor,  vice 
guardian  of  the  heir  apparent,  minister  and  commissioner  extraordinary 
of  the  empire,  makes  this  communication : 

“ A dispatch  has  been  received  from  the  French  commissioner  Lagrene, 
in  which  the  following  appears : ‘Formerly,  in  requesting  that  a memo- 
rial might  be  laid  before  the  throne  for  removing  the  prohibitions  against 
the  religion  of  the  Lord  of  heaven,  it  was  my  original  design  that  all 
persons  professing  this  religion  and  acting  well,  should  alike  share  the 
imperial  favor,  and  that  the  great  western  nations  should  all  as  one  be 
held  blameless  in  the  practice  thereof.  The  religious  customs  referred 
to  on  a previous  occasion,  were  those  of  my  own  nation;  yet  if  persons 
of  other  nations  did  not  entirely  conform  to  these,  still  there  was  to  be 
no  distinction,  no  obstruction, — thus  showing  great  magnanimity.’ 

“ Now  I find  that,  in  the  first  place,  when  the  regulations  for  free  trade 
were  agreed  upon,  there  was  an  article  allowing  the  erection  of  churches 
at  the  five  ports.  This  same  privilege  was  to  extend  to  all  nations ; there 
were  to  be  no  distinctions.  Subsequently  the  commissioner  Lagrene 
requested  that  the  Chinese,  who  acting  well  practised  this  religion, 
should  equally  be  held  blameless.  Accordingly,  I made  a representation 
of  the  case  to  the  throne,  by  memorial,  and  received  the  imperial  consent 
thereto.  After  this,  however,  local  magistrates  having  made  improper 
seizures,  taking  and  destroying  crosses,  pictures,  and  images,  further 
deliberations  were  held,  and  it  was  agreed  that  these  [crosses,  &c.] 
might  be  reverenced.  Originally  I did  not  know  that  there  were,  arpong 
the  nations,  these  differences  in  their  religious  practices.  Now  with 
regard  to  the  religion  of  the  Lord  of  heaven — no  matter  whether  the 
crosses,  pictures,  and  images  be  reverenced  or  be  not  reverenced,  all, 
who  acting  well,  practise  it,  ought  to  be  held  blameless.  All  the  great 
western  nations  being  placed  on  an  equal  footing,  only  let  them  by  acting 
well  practise  their  religion,  and  China  will  in  no  way  prohibit  or  impede 
their  so  doing.  Whether  their  customs  be  aliae  or  unlike,  certainly  it 
is  right  that  there  should  be  no  distinction  and  no  obstruction. 


FURTHER  PERMISSION  TO  PROFESS  CHRISTIANITV . 


371 


“ As  it  behooves  me,  I make  this  communication.  On  its  reaching 
the  said  consul,  he  will  easily  comprehend  it.” — Dec.  22 d,  1845. 

The  sentence  in  this  document  which  speaks  of  local  magis- 
trates making  improper  seizures  probably  refers  to  something 
which  had  occurred  in  the  country.  At  Shanghai,  the  intendant 
of  circuit  issued  a proclamation  in  Nov.  1845,  based  upon  the 
emperor’s  rescript,  in  which  he  defines  the  Tien  Chu  kiau  “ to 
consist  in  periodically  assembling  for  unitedly  worshipping  the 
Lord  of  heaven,  in  respecting  and  venerating  the  cross,  with 
pictures  and  images,  as  well  as  in  reading  aloud  the  works  of 
the  said  religion  ; these  are  customs  of  the  said  religion  in  ques- 
tion, and  practices  not  in  accordance  with  these  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  the  religion  of  the  Lord  of  heaven.”  The  various 
associations  and  sects  found  throughout  China,  and  which  are 
an  annoyance  to  the  government  and  well  disposed  people,  are 
referred  to  and  excepted  against  in  this  proclamation,  for  it  can- 
not be  supposed  that  the  emperor  or  his  statesmen  have  any  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  nature  of  true  Christianity,  and  have  not 
consequently  forbidden  what  they  were  mainly  ignorant  of.  The 
whole  body  of  officers  are  suspicious  of  combinations,  and  they 
will  probably  take  action  against  Christianity  first  on  account 
of  its  bringing  people  together  in  assemblies,  and  making  them 
familiar  with  united  power  and  action. 

The  last  act  of  the  imperial  government  thus  far  is  contained 
in  a decree  received  by  Kiying  at  Canton,  Feb.  20th,  1846,  relat- 
ing to  the  restoration  of  the  houses  belonging  to  Romanists. 

“ On  a former  occasion  Kiying  and  others  laid  before  Us  a memonal, 
requesting  immunity  from  punishment  for  those  who  doing  well  profess 
the  religion  of  heaven’s  Lord ; and  that  those  who  erect  churches,  assem- 
ble together  for  worship,  venerate  the  cross  and  pictures  and  images, 
read  and  explain  sacred  books,  be  not  prohibited  from  so  doing.  This 
was  granted.  The  religion  of  the  Lord  of  heaven,  instructing  and  guid- 
ing men  in  well-doing,  differs  widely  from  the  heterodox  and  illicit  sects ; 
and  the  toleration  thereof  has  already  been  allowed.  That  which  has 
been  requested  on  a subsequent  occasion,  it  is  right  in  like  manner  to 
grant. 

“ Let  all  the  ancient  houses  throughout  the  provinces,  which  were 
built  in  the  reign  of  Kanghi,  and  have  been  preserved  to  the  present  time, 
and  which,  on  personal  examination  by  proper  authorities,  are  clearly 
found  to  be  their  bona  fide  possessions,  be  restored  to  the  professors  of 


372 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


this  religion  in  their  respective  places,  excepting  only  those  churches 
which  have  been  converted  into  temples  and  dwelling-houses  for  the 
people. 

“ If,  after  the  promulgation  of  this  decree  throughout  the  provinces, 
the  local  officers  irregularly  prosecute  and  seize  any  of  the  professors  of 
the  religion  of  the  Lord  of  heaven,  who  are  not  bandits,  upon  all  such 
the  just  penalties  of  the  law  shall  be  meted  out. 

“ If  any,  under  a profession  of  this  religion,  do  evil,  or  congregate  people 
from  distant  towns,  seducing  and  binding  them  together;  or  if  any  other 
sect  or  bandits,  borrowing  the  name  of  the  religion  of  the  Lord  of  heaven, 
create  disturbances,  transgress  the  laws,  or  excite  rebellion,  they  shall  be 
punished  according  to  their  respective  crimes,  each  being  dealt  with  as 
the  existing  statutes  of  the  empire  direct. 

“ Also,  in  order  to  make  apparent  the  proper  distinctions,  foreigners  of 
every  nation  are,  in  accordance  with  existing  regulations,  prohibited  from 
going  into  the  country  to  propagate  religion. 

“ For  these  purposes  this  decree  is  given.  Cause  it  to  be  made  known. 
From  the  emperor.”* 

The  last  sentence  shows  that  the  Chinese  government  has  not 
intended,  by  these  concessions  to  its  own  subjects,  to  allow 
foreigners  to  enter  to  teach  them  and  form  communities ; but  it 
is  also  quite  well  aware  of  the  impossibility  of  preventing  them 
doing  so,  and  has  perhaps  added  this  with  some  reference  to  the 
future  probability  there  might  be  of  deporting  them.  In  any  point 
of  view,  however,  these  concessions  are  remarkable,  and  the  favor 
of  God  should  be  acknowledged  in  them.  Although  the  exist- 
ence of  a distinct  community  of  persons,  professing  to  obey  only 
the  requirements  of  the  Bible,  who  worship  no  images  or  tablets, 
and  have  merely  a simple  ceremonial,  is  not  known  in  China  to 
any  extent,  still  these  papers  permit  enough  to  enable  the  native 
Protestant  to  appeal  to  them  in  defence  of  his  faith.  They  will 
aid  not  a little,  moreover,  in  removing  the  apprehensions  of  the 
people  in  regard  to  attending  meetings  and  receiving  books.  The 
feelings  of  all  the  Romish  missionaries,  at  the  removal  of  the 
many  disabilities  under  which  they  had  long  lived,  were  express- 
ed by  the  bishop  of  Shantung  in  an  encyclical  letter  to  his  peo- 
ple, in  which  he  exhorts  them  to  “ maintain  and  diligently  learn 
the  holy  religion.  . . . Let  them  also  pray  that  the  holy  religion 
may  be  greatly  promoted,  remembering  that  the  kind  considera- 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  155,  where  the  original  is  given. 


REVISION  OF  THE  CHINESE  BIBLE. 


373 


tion  of  the  emperor  towards  our  holy  religion  springs  entirely 
from  the  favor  of  the  Lord  of  heaven.  After  the  reception  of 
this  order,  let  thanks  be  offered  up  to  God  for  his  mercies  in  the 
churches,  for  three  Lord’s  days  in  succession.  While  the  faith- 
ful rejoice  in  this  extraordinary  favor,  let  Ave  Marias  be  recited 
to  display  grateful  feelings.” 

The  subject  of  the  thorough  revision  of  the  Chinese  Bible  had 
long  occupied  the  thoughts  of  those  best  acquainted  with  the  need, 
of  such  a work;  and  at  the  meeting  of  the- English  missionaries 
at  Hongkong  in  1843,  a general  conference  of  all  Protestant 
missionaries  was  called  to  take  measures  for  the  preparation  of 
so  desirable  a work.  The  version  of  Morrison  and  Milne  was 
acknowledged  by  themselves  to  be  imperfect,  and  Dr.  Morrison 
had  begun  some  corrections  in  it  before  his  death.  Messrs.  Med- 
hurst,  Gutzlaff,  Bridgman,  and  Morrison,  had  united  their  labors 
in  1835,  in  revising  the  New  Testament,  aud  published  it  in 
1836  ; but  it  did  not  altogether  suit  the  brethren  in  Malacca,  and 
some  hesitation  was  naturally  felt  by  the  Bible  societies  in  Eng- 
land and  America  in  granting  funds  for  a version  which  had  not 
received  the  approbation  of  all  parties.  Mr.  Gutzlaff  has  since 
issued  a second  edition  containing  some  corrections  of  his  own. 

The  greatest  harmony  existed  at  this  meeting,  and  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament  were  distributed  in  various  portions  among 
the  missionaries  at  the  several  stations  without  regard  to  denomi- 
nation. The  only  point  on  which  any  discussion  arose  was  the 
best  word  for  baptism  ; and  after  considerable  friendly  discussion, 
it  was  agreed  that  the  version  should  be  made  and  then  accepted 
by  all  parties  at  a subsequent  general  meeting,  and  the  Baptists 
afterwards  use  what  word  they  pleased  in  their  version,  while  the 
two  should  be  in  other  respects  alike.  The  term  si  li,  which  had 
been  in  use  to  denote  this  rite  since  the  days  of  Ricci,  by  Roman- 
ists of  all  opinions,  had  been  taken  by  Morrison  and  Medhurst, 
and  by  those  associated  with  them.  Marshman  preferred  another 
word,  tsan,  which  was  so  unusual  that  it  would  almost  always 
require  explanation ; and  in  fact,  could  only  be  fully  explained 
by  the  ceremony  itself.  Some  of  the  American  Baptist  mission- 
aries have  taken  Marshman’s  term,  and  others  have  proposed  a 
third  one,  yuh.  The  adjustment  of  this  question  on  the  plan 
agreed  upon  in  1843  cannot  fail  to  satisfy  all,  while  the  greater 
point  of  having  a uniform  text  for  the  Chinese  is  nearly  or  quite 


374 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


attained;  for  whatever  word  or  term  is  used,  its  explanation  will 
be  given  in  its  practice  by  all  parties.  The  Baptist  Bible  Society 
in  the  United  States  has,  however,  refused  to  cooperate  in  this 
arrangement,  and  requires  its  funds  to  be  devoted  to  a separate 
version.  It  is  expected'  that  some  parts  of  the  new  version  will 
soon  be  agreed  upon  by  those  engaged  in  it,  and  before  many 
years  all  the  Bible  be  given  to  the  Chinese  as  the  only  guide  of 
their  faith  and  practice. 

The  following  list  of  all  Protestants  known  to  have  been,  or 
who  are  now  engaged  in  the  work  of  missions  among  the  Chinese, 
is  compiled  from  the  best  sources  within  reach.  About  three- 
fourths  of  them  have  been  married.  The  influence  and  labors 
of  female  missionaries  in  China  is,  from  the  constitution  of  society 
in  that  country,  likely  to  be  the  only,  or  principal  means  of  reach- 
ing their  sex  for  a long  time  to  come,  and  it  is  desirable,  therefore, 
that  they  should  engage  in  the  work  by  learning  the  language, 
and  making  the  acquaintance  of  the  families  around  them.  No 
nation  can  be  elevated,  or  Christian  institutions  placed  upon  a 
permanent  basis,  until  females  are  taught  their  rightful  place  as 
the  companions  of  men,  and  can  teach  their  children  the  duties 
they  owe  to  their  God,  themselves,  and  their  country.  Female 
schools  are  the  necessary  complement  of  boys’,  and  a heathen 
wife  soon  carries  a man  back  to  idolatry,  if  he  is  only  intellectu- 
ally convinced  of  the  truths  of  Christianity.  The  comparatively 
high  estimation  the  Chinese  place  upon  female  education  is  an 
encouragement  to  multiply  girls’  schools. 

The  total  number  of  names  in  the  list  is  112,  in  addition  to 
which  are  four  Germans  from  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society, 
whose  names  we  have  been  unable  to  obtain.  Of  the  entire 
number,  35  are  from  England,  73  from  the  United  States,  and  8 
from  Germany  ; one  of  them,  W.  H.  Cumming,  m.  d.,  is  not 
connected  with  any  society,  and  two  of  them,  under  the  patron- 
age of  the  Morrison  Education  Society,  are  supported  in  China. 
Fourteen  of  the  whole  have  died,  three  of  them  by  accidents, 
the  average  of  whose  missionary  lives  was  about  seven  years. 
The  average  length  of  labor  of  those  who  returned  is  4f  years ; 
the  number  engaged  at  present  is  68  men,  of  whom  55  are  cler- 
gymen and  13  physicians,  printers,  and  teachers ; and  about  35 
females,  four  or  five  of  whom  are  unmarried. 


LIST  OF  PROTESTANT  MISSIONARIES 


375 


LIST  OF  MISSIONARIES  SENT  TO  THE  CHINESE  BY  PROTESTANT 
SOCIETIES. 


NAMES. 

| ARRIVED. 

RETIRED. 

Q 

U 

S 

NAME  OF 
THE 

SOCIETY. 

STATION. 

Robert  Morrison,  D.D., 

1807 

1834 

Lon.  M.  S. 

Canton. 

William  Milne,  D.D., 

1813 

1821 

“ 

Principal  of  college,  Malacca. 

Walter  H.  Medhurst,  D.D., 

1817 

“ 

Batavia,  Shanghai. 

Rev.  John  Slater, 

1817 

1823 

“ 

Batavia. 

Rev.  John  Ince, 

1818 

1825 

4‘ 

Penang  ; drowned. 

Rev.  Samuel  Milton, 

1818 

1825 

“ 

Singapore. 

Rev.  Robert  Fleming, 

1820 

1823 

“ 

Malacca. 

Rev.  James  Humphreys, 

1822 

1830 

“ 

Principal  of  college,  Malacca. 

Rev.  David  Collie, 

1822 

1828 

“ 

Principal  of  college,  Malacca. 

Rev.  Samuel  Kidd, 

1824 

1832 

“ 

Malacca. 

Rev.  John  Smith, 

J820 

1829 

“ 

Malacca. 

Rev.  Jacob  Tomlin, 

1826 

1836 

“ 

Singapore. 

Rev.  Samuel  Dyer, 

1827 

1843 

“ 

Penang,  Singapore. 

Rev.  Charles  Gutzlaff, 

1827 

1834 

Neth.  M.  S. 

Siam,  China. 

E.  C.  Bridgman.  D.D., 

1829 

A.  B.C.F.M. 

Canton. 

David  Abeel,  D.D., 

1830! 

1846 

“ 

Siam,  Amoy. 

Rev.  Herman  Rottger, 

1832 

1845 

Rhen.  M.  S. 

Rhio,  near  Singapore. 

Rev.  John  Evans, 

1833 

1841 

Lon.  M.  S. 

Principal  of  college,  Malacca. 

Rev.  Ira  Tracy, 

1833 

1841 

A.B.e.F.  M. 

Singapore. 

S.  Wells  Willhrtns, 

1833 

“ 

Canton,  Macao. 

Rev.  Stephen  Johnson, 

1833 

“ 

Bangkok,  Fuhchau. 

Rov.  Samuel  Munson, 

1833 

1834 

“ 

Indian  Archipelago  ; killed. 

Rev.  Peter  Parker,  M.D., 

1834 

1847 

“ 

Canton. 

Rev.  William  Dean, 

1834 

A.B.  B.  F.  M. 

Bangkok,  Hongkong. 

Rev.  Edwin  Stevens, 

183.5 

1837 

A.  B.C.F.M. 

Canton ; died  at  Singapore. 

Rev.  Henry  Lockwood, 

1835 

1838 

A.E.B.F.M. 

Batavia. 

Rev.  Francis  R.  Hanson, 

1835 

1837 

“ 

Batavia. 

Rev. Wurth, 

1835 

1842 

Rhen.  M.  S. 

Malacca. 

Rev.  Evan  Davies, 

1835 

1839 

Lon.  M.  S. 

Penang.  [ ga. 

Rev.  Samuel  Wolfe, 

1835 

1837 

“ 

Singapore  ; died  at  Zamboan- 

Rev.  J.  L.  Shuck, 

1836 

A.B.B.F.M. 

Macao,  Shanghai. 

Rev.  Alanson  Reed, 

1836 

1837 

“ 

Bangkok. 

Rev.  I.  J.  Roberts, 

1836 

“ 

Macao,  Canton. 

Rev.  James  T.  Dickinson, 

1837 

1840 

A.B.  C.  F.M. 

Singapore. 

Rev.  M.  B.  Hope,  M.D., 

1837 

1838 

“ 

Singapore. 

Stephen  Tracy,  M.D., 

1837 

1839 

“ 

Singapore,  Bangkok. 

Rev.  Elihu  Doty, 

1837 

“ 

Borneo,  Amoy. 

Rev.  Elbert  Nevius, 

1837 

1841 

Borneo,  Batavia. 

Rt.  Rev.  W.  J.  Boone,  D.D., 

1837 

A.E.B.F.M. 

Batavia,  Shanghai. 

Rev. Baker, 

1837 

1842 

Rhen.  M.  S. 

Malacca. 

Rev.  Alexander  Stronach, 

1837 

Lon.  M.  S. 

renang,  Singapore,  Amoy 

Rev.  John  Stronach, 

1837 

“ 

Singapore,  Amoy. 

Edward  B.  Squire, 

1838 

1840 

C.  M.  S. 

Singapore,  Macao. 

William  Young, 

1838 

Lon.  M.  S. 

Batavia,  Amoy. 

Rev.  W.  J.  Pohlman, 

1838 

A.B.  C.  F.M. 

Borneo,  Amoy. 

Rev.  Dyer  Ball,  M.D., 

1838 

“ 

Singapore,  Canton. 

Rev.  George  W.  Wood, 

1838 

1840 

“ 

Singa  pore. 

Will.  Lockhart.  M.  R.  C.  S., 

1838 

Lon.  M.  S. 

Macao,  Shanghai. 

Rev.  Robert  W.  Orr, 

1838 

1841 

B.F.M.P.C. 

Singapore. 

Rev.  John  A.  Mitchell, 

1838 

1838 

“ 

Singapore. 

Rev.  S.  R.  Brown, 

1839 

Mor.  Ed.  S. 

Hongkong. 

Rev.  Josinh  Goddard, 

1839 

A.  B.B.F.M. 

Bangkok.  [Meinam. 

Rev.  Nathan  S.  Benham, 

1839 

1840 

A.  B.C.F.M. 

Bangkok ; drowned  in  the 

Rev.  Lyman  B.  Peet, 

1839 

“ 

Bangkok,  Fuhchau. 

William  B.  Diver,  M.D., 

1839 

1841 

“ 

Singapore. 

James  Legge,  D.D., 

1839 

Lon.  M.  S. 

Malacca,  Hongkong. 

Rev.  William  C.  Milne, 

1839 

“ 

Ningpo,  Shanghai. 

Benjamin  Hobson,  M.B., 

1839 

“ 

Hongkong. 

Rev.  Thos.  L.  McBryde, 

1840 

1843 

B.F.M.P.C. 

Singapore,  Amoy. 

James  C.  Hepburn,  M.D., 

1841 

1845 

“ 

Singapore,  Amoy. 

Will.  H.  Cuinming,  M.D., 

1842 

— 

Amoy. 

Rev.  W.  M.  Lowrie, 

1842 

B.F.M.P.C. 

Ningpo. 

Daniel  J.  Macgiwan,  M.D., 

1843 

A.B.B.F.M. 

Ningpo. 

376 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


LIST  OF  MISSIONARIES — Continued. 


NAMES. 

ar’d 

re’d 

DIED 

SOCIETY. 

STATION. 

Rev.  Richard  Q,.  Way, 

1843 

B.F.M.  P.C. 

Ningpo. 

1).  Bethune  McCarty,  M.D., 

1844 

“ 

Ningpo. 

Richard  Cole, 

1844 

“ 

Ningpo ; sup’t  of  press. 

Rev.  James  G.  Bridgman, 

1844 

A.B.C.  F.  51. 

Canton. 

Rev.  T.  T.  Devan,  5I.D., 

1844 

A.  B.  B.F.  51. 

Hongkong,  Canton. 

Rev.  A.  W.  Loomis, 

1844 

B.  F.  51.  P.  C. 

Chusan,  Ningpo. 

Rev.  M.  S.  Culbertson, 

1844 

“ 

Ningpo. 

Rev.  John  Lloyd, 

1844 

“ 

Amoy. 

Rev.  And.  P.  Happer,  5I.D., 

1844 

“ 

Macao. 

Rev.  William  Gillespie, 

1844 

Lon.  51.  S. 

Hongkong. 

Rev.  George  Smith, 

1844 

1846 

C.  M.  S. 

China  ; sent  to  explore. 

Rev.  T.  51cClatchie, 

1844 

“ 

Shanghai. 

Rev.  H.  W.  Woods, 

1845 

1846 

A.E.B.F.5I. 

Shanghai. 

Rev.  R.  Graham, 

1845 

1847 

“ 

Shanghai. 

Rev.  William  Fairbrother, 

1845 

1846 

Lon.  51.  S. 

Shanghai. 

Samuel  W.  Bonney, 

1845 

A.B.C.F.  51. 

Canton. 

Rev.  Hugh  A.  Brown, 

1845 

B.F.  51.  P.  C. 

Amoy. 

Rev.  J.  Syle, 

1845 

A.E.B.F.5I. 

Shanghai. 

Rev.  T.  H.  Hudson, 

1845 

Eng.  B.5I.S. 

Ningpo. 

Rev.  William  Jarrom, 

1845 

Ningpo. 

William  A.  Macy, 

1846 

5Ior.  Ed.  S. 

Hongkong. 

Rev.  William  Speer, 

1846 

B.  F.  51.  P.  C. 

Macao. 

Rev.  J.  W.  Quaterman, 

1846 

Ningpo. 

Rev.  John  B.  French,  MJ)., 

1846 

“ 

Macao,  Canton. 

Rev.  Erasmus  N.  Jencks, 

1846 

A.  B M.  U. 

Hongkong. 

Rev.  George  Pearcy, 

1846 

South.  B.  C. 

Canton. 

Rev.  Samuel  C.  Clopton, 

1846 

1847 

“ 

Canton. 

Rev.  John  F.  Cleland, 

1846 

Lon.  51.  S. 

Hongkong. 

Rev.  S.  Carpenter, 

1847 

S.  D.  B.  51.  S. 

Shanghai. 

Rev.  N.  Wardner, 

1847 

“ 

Shanghai. 

Rev.  Edward  C.  Lord, 

1847 

A.  B.  51.  U. 

Ningpo. 

Rev.  J.  Van  Ess  Talma ge. 

1847 

A.B.C.F.  51. 

Amoy. 

Rev.  Francis  Johnson, 

1847 

South.  B.  C. 

Canton. 

Rev.  Phineas  D.  Spaulding, 

1847 

A.  E.  B.F.  51. 

Shanghai. 

Rev.  Moses  C.  White, 

1847 

51.  S.  51.  E.  C. 

Fuhchau. 

Rev.  Judson  D.  Collins, 

1847 

«« 

Fuhchau. 

Rev.  Henry  Hickok, 

1847 

“ 

Fuhchau. 

Rev.  Charles  Maclay, 

1847 

“ 

Fuhchau. 

• Kirschberg  M B., 

1847 

Lon.  M.  S. 

Hongkong. 

Rev.  Wm.  Muirhead, 

1847 

“ 

Shanghai. 

Rev.  B.  Southwell, 

1^47 

«* 

Shanghai. 

A.  Wylie, 

1847 

“ 

Shanghai ; sup’t  of  press. 

Rev.  Seneca  Cummings, 

1847 

A.B.C.F.  51. 

Fuhchau. 

Rev.  Caleb  C.  Baldwin, 

1847 

Fuhchau. 

Rev.  William  L.  Richards, 

1847 

« 

Fuhchau. 

Rev.  John  Johnson, 

1847 

A.  B.  51.  U. 

Hongkong. 

Rev.  M.  T.  Yates, 

1847 

South.  B.  C. 

Shanghai. 

J.  Sexton  James,  M.D., 

1847 

“ 

Shanghai. 

Rev.  T.  U.  Tobey. 

1847 

“ 

Shanghai. 

No.  sent 
by  each. 


CONTRACTIONS  AND  EXPLANATIONS. 


30 

3 
2 

25 

16 

16 

7 

4 

2 

3 

1 

2 


Lon.  M.  S.,  or  London  Missionary  Society. 

C.  M.  S.,  or  Church  Missionary  Society. 

Eng.  B.  M.  S„  or  English  Baptist  Missionary  Society. 

A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  or  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mission?. 

t A.  B.  B.  F.  M.,  or  American  Board  of  Baptist  Foreign  Missions,  divided  into 
< A.  B.  M.  U.,  or  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union ; and 
( South.  B.  C.,  or  Southern  Baptist  Convention. 

B.  F.  M.  P.  C.,  or  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presb,  ‘erian  Church. 

A.  E.  B.  F.  51.,  or  American  Episcopal  Board  of  Foreign  Missions. 

M.  S.  M.  E.  C.,  or  Missionary'  Society  of  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

S.  D.  B.  51.  S.,  or  Seventh  Day  Baptist  5Iissionary  Society. 

Rhen.  5L  S.,  or  Rhenish  5Iissionary  Society. 

Neth.  51.  S.,  Netherlands  5Iissionaiy  Society'. 

Mor.  Ed.  S.,  or  Morrison  Educatio  • Society. 


NOTICES  OF  DECEASED  MISSIONARIES. 


377 


The  worth  and  labors  of  some  of  those  mentioned  in  this  list 
have  long  been  known  to  the  Christian  public,  and  those  who 
have  deceased  saw  only  the  commencement  of  a great  work.  Dr. 
Morrison  was  much  encouraged  at  the  prospects  of  more  labor- 
ers, a short  time  before  his  death.  Dr.  Milne  and  Mr.  Collie 
ardently  longed  and  labored  diligently  for  the  coming  and  exten- 
sion of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  in  China  and  Mr.  Stevens  had 
laid  himself  out  to  assist  in  perfecting  the  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, for  which  he  was  eminently  qualified  : but  these  all  died 
without  seeing  much  to  promise  the  speedy  diffusion  of  the  gos- 
pel. Few  men  in  the  missionary  corps  have  exceeded  Edwin 
Stevens  in  sound  judgment,  steady  pursuit  of  a well-formed  pur- 
pose, and  willingness  to  take  any  place  which  Providence  pointed 
out  to  him  in  the  work  he  was  engaged  in.  He  was  employed 
nearly  three  years  as  seamen’s  chaplain  at  Canton  and  Wham- 
poa, before  entering  the  service  among  the  Chinese,  and  his  labors 
in  that  department  were  highly  acceptable  to  those  who  fre- 
quented the  port.  He  took  two  voyages  up  the  coast  in  1835, 
and  had  embarked  in  the  Himmaleh,  when  he  died  at  Singapore, 
January,  1837,  just  as  he  was  ready  to  sail. 

The  warm-hearted,  humble  piety,  and  singleness  of  purpose 
of  Mr.  Dyer,  were  also  well  known  to  every  one  engaged  with 
him.  His  long  and  assiduous  labors  to  complete  a fount  of  Chi- 
nese metallic  type,  amid  many  obstacles  and  hindrances,  were 
prompted  by  his  sense  of  the  importance  of  the  enterprise,  and 
the  hope  that  when  once  finished,  books  could  be  printed  with 
more  elegance,  cheapness,  and  rapidity  than  in  any  other  way. 
He  lived  to  see  it  brought  into  partial  use,  and  to  satisfy  himself 
concerning  the  feasibility  of  this  plan.  The  Rev.  Alanson  Reed, 
of  Bangkok,  and  Rev.  Samuel  Wolfe,  of  Singapore,  lived  too 
short  a time  to  accomplish  much,  for  they  had  hardly  learned  the 
language,  but  their  lives  and  labors,  hopes  and  prayers,  were 
devoted  to  the  same  great  object  of  doing  good  to  China.  If  the 
impulses  of  private  friendship,  and  the  esteem  generally  enter- 
tained for  Dr.  Abeel,  should  prompt  a notice  of  his  character 
and  labors,  it  would  soon  extend  to  many  pages ; they  are  well 
worthy  the  fuller  notice  which  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  be  given  in 
his  memoir.  Female  missionaries  have  also  done  much,  and  will 
do  more,  in  this  work,  which  requires  minds  and  labors  in  large 
variety.  Mrs.  Mary  Morrison,  Mrs.  Boone,  Mrs.  Dean,  Mrs. 


378 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Ball,  Mrs.  Shuck,  Mrs.  Doty,  and  Mrs.  Pohlman,  have  all  died  in 
China ; and  others  equally  zealous,  as  Mrs.  John  Stronach,  Mrs. 
Hobson,  and  Mrs.  Fairbrother,  have  deceased  in  the  missions  out 
of  China,  or  on  the  voyage  home  for  the  recovery  of  their  health. 
Let  not  these  casualties  deter  other  Christian  ladies  from  assist- 
ing in  the  good  cause,  or  be  laid  to  the  climate  of  China.  Hardly 
any  two  of  them  died  of  the  same  disease,  and  none  of  them 
from  any  which  could  be  called  tropical,  though  it  may  be  that 
the  climate  had  weakened  their  ability  to  resist  disease. 

Before  closing  this  brief  sketch  of  Christian  missions  among 
the  Chinese,  it  may  be  well  to  mention  some  of  the  peculiar  faci- 
lities and  difficulties  which  attend  the  work.  The  business  of 
demolishing  heathen  society,  and  reconstructing  it  on  Christian 
principles,  is  a great  and  protracted  undertaking,  and  is  to  be 
commenced  in  all  communities  by  working  on  individuals.  The 
opposition  of  the  unregenerate  heart  can  of  course  only  be  over- 
come by  the  transforming  influences  of  the  Spirit,  but  the  intel- 
lect must  be  enlightened,  and  the  moral  sense  instructed  by  a 
system  of  means,  before  the  truths  of  the  Bible  can  be  intelli- 
gently received  or  rejected.  This  opposition  is  not  peculiar  to 
China,  but  it  will  probably  assume  a more  polemic  and  argumen- 
tative cast  there  than  in  some  other  countries.  The  proud  lite- 
rati of  China  are  not  disposed  to  abase  Confucius  below  the  Sa- 
vior, but  rather  inclined  to  despise  the  reiteration  of  his  name 
and  atonement,  as  a seesaw  about  “one  Jesus  who  was  dead, 
whom  we  affirm  to  be  alive.”  In  the  account  given  by  Mr. 
Medhurst  of  his  labors,  is  a notice  of  a tract  written  against  him 
by  a Chinese,  in  which  he  argues,  “ that  it  was  monstrous  in  bar- 
barians to  attempt  to  improve  the  inhabitants  of  the  celestial  em- 
pire when  they  were  so  miserably  deficient  themselves.  Thus, 
introducing  among  the  Chinese  a poisonous  drug,  for  their  own 
benefit  to  the  injury  of  others,  they  were  deficient  in  benevo- 
lence ; sending  their  fleets  and  armies  to  rob  other  nations  of 
their  possessions,  they  could  make  no  pretensions  to  rectitude  ; 
allowing  men  and  women  to  mix  in  society  and  walk  arm  in  arm 
through  the  streets,  they  showed  that  they  had  not  the  least  sense 
of  propriety ; and  in  rejecting  the  doctrines  of  the  ancient  kings 
they  were  far  from  displaying  wisdom  : indeed,  truth  was  the 
only  good  quality  to  which  they  could  lay  the  least  claim.  Defi- 
cient, therefore,  in  four  out  of  the  five  cardinal  virtues,  how 


OBSTACLES  AND  ENCOURAGEMENTS  IN  CHINESE  MISSIONS.  379 


could  they  expect  to  renovate  others  ? Then,  while  foreigners 
lavished  money  in  circulating  books  for  the  renovation  of  the 
age,  they  made  no  scruple  of  trampling  printed  paper  under  foot, 
by  which  they  showed  their  disrespect  for  the  inventors  of  let- 
ters. Further,  these  would-be  exhorters  of  the  world  were  them- 
selves deficient  in  filial  piety,  forgetting  their  parents  as  soon  as 
dead,  putting  them  off  with  deal  coffins  only  an  inch  thick,  and 
never  so  much  as  once  sacrificing  to  their  manes,  or  burning  the 
smallest  trifle  of  gilt  paper  for  their  support  in  the  future  world. 
Lastly,  they  allowed  the  rich  and  noble  to  enter  office  without 
passing  through  any  literary  examinations,  and  did  not  throw 
open  the  road  to  advancement  to  the  poorest  and  meanest  in  the 
land.  From  all  these,  it  appeared  that  foreigners  were  inferior 
to  Chinese,  and  therefore  most  unfit  to  instruct  them.” 

To  these  arguments,  which  commend  themselves  to  a Chinese 
with  a force  that  can  hardly  be  understood  by  a foreigner,  they 
often  add  the  intemperate  lives  and  reckless  cupidity  of  professed 
Christians  who  visit  their  shores,  and  ask  what  good  it  will  do 
them  to  change  their  long  tried  precepts  for  the  new  fangled 
teachings  of  the  Bible  ? The  pride  of  learning  is  a great  obstacle 
to  the  reception  of  the  humiliating  truths  of  the  Gospel  every- 
where, but  perhaps  especially  in  China  where  letters  are  so 
highly  honored  and  patronized.  The  language  is  another  dif- 
ficulty in  the  way  of  the  diffusion  of  the  Gospel,  both  on  the  part 
of  the  native  and  the  missionary.  The  mode  of  education  among 
the  Chinese  is  admirably  fitted  for  the  ends  they  propose,  viz.  of 
forming  the  mind  to  implicit  belief  and  reverence  for  the  precepts 
of  Confucius,  and  obedience  to  the  government,  which  makes  those 
precepts  the  outlines  of  its  actions,  but  it  stunts  and  almost  inca- 
pacitates the  intellect  for  independent  thought  on  other  subjects. 
The  language  itself  is  an  unwieldy  vehicle  for  imparting  new 
truths,  either  in  writing  or  speaking,  not  so  much  because  it  is 
not  copious  enough  for  all  these  purposes,  but  because  of  the 
additional  burden  every  new  character  or  term  imposes  upon  the 
memory.  The  immense  number,  however,  who  read  and  speak 
this  language,  reconciles  one  to  some  extra  labor  and  patience  to 
become  familiar  with  its  forms  of  speech,  and  ascertain  the  best 
modes  of  conveying  truth  by  books  and  preaching. 

Besides  the  difficulties  mentioned  in  the  preceding  extract, 
and  those  growing  out  of  the  language  and  literary  notions  of  the 


380 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Chinese,  there  are  few  peculiar  obstacles  now  in  the  way.  The 
five  ports  afford  free  access  to  two  or  three  millions  of  people, 
and  their  environs  to  more  than  twice  that  number,  all  of  whom, 
except  those  about  Canton  and  Macao,  are  tolerably  well  disposed 
to  foreigners,  when  they  understand  what  is  said  to  them.  Con- 
gregations are  now  collected,  and  truth  explained  to  them  with  a 
good  degree  of  acceptance  every  Sabbath,  and  all  that  is  wanted 
to  get  more  congregations  is  more  preachers ; and  long  before 
missionary  labors  are  accomplished  in  all  the  ports,  the  whole  land 
will  afford  every  choice  of  climate  and  position.  God,  too,  has 
wondrously  opened  the  way  for  the  extension  of  intercourse,  and 
his  promises  are  surety  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  work  thus 
begun.  Facilities  for  learning  the  language  are  constantly  in- 
creasing. Dictionaries,  vocabularies,  phrase  books,  grammars, 
and  chrestomathies  in  all  the  dialects,  will  soon  be  prepared ; and 
the  list  now  is  not  small.  They  have  all,  with  few  exceptions, 
been  made  and  printed  by  Protestant  missionaries. 

Churches  have  increased  since  the  first  one  was  formed  in 
Canton  in  1835,  and  some  of  them  are  served  by  native  evange- 
lists, two  of  whom,  Liang  Afah  and  Tsin  Shen,  are  acceptable, 
educated,  earnest  preachers  of  the  gospel.  The  number  of  per- 
sons baptized  by  all  the  missionaries  is  not  definitely  known,  but 
they  form  even  now  a nucleus  for  a regular  congregation.  The 
future  is  full  of  promise,  and  the  efforts  of  the  church  with  regard 
to  China  will  not  cease  until  every  son  and  daughter  of  the  race 
of  Han  has  been  taught  the  truths  of  the  Bible,  and  has  had  them 
fairly  propounded  for  reception  or  rejection.  They  will  progress 
until  all  the  cities,  towns,  villages,  and  hamlets  of  that  vast  empire, 
have  the  teacher  and  professor  of  religion  living  in  them  ; until 
their  children  are  educated,  their  civil  liberties  understood,  and 
political  rights  guaranteed  ; their  poor  cared  for,  their  literature 
purified,  their  condition  bettered  in  this  world,  and  the  knowledge 
of  another  made  known  to  them.  The  work  of  missions  will  go 
on  until  the  government  is  modified,  and  religious  and  civil  liberty 
granted  to  all,  and  China  takes  her  rank  among  the  Christian 
nations  of  the  earth,  reciprocating  all  the  courtesies  due  from 
people  professing  the  same  faith. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


Commerce  of  the  Chinese. 

It  is  probable  that  the  applications  made  in  remote  times  to  the 
rulers  of  China  for  liberty  to  trade  with  their  subjects,  partook  in 
their  opinion  very  much  of  the  nature  of  an  acknowledgment  of 
their  power,  and  the  presents  accompanying  the  request  were  re- 
garded as  tribute  ; the  traders  themselves  probably  also  looked 
upon  the  intercourse  in  somewhat  the  same  light.  The  commerce 
then  consisted  mainly  of  the  silks  and  porcelain  of  China,  in  ex- 
change for  the  medicines,  gems,  precious  metals,  and  furs  of  the 
people  on  the  west  and  south.  The  records  of  the  origin  and 
early  course  of  this  trade  are  lost  to  a great  extent,  but  the  Chi- 
nese annals  furnish  proof  of  its  existence,  and  their  own  traffick- 
ing spirit  would  develope  it  as  much  as  possible.  The  restrictions 
and  charges  upon  this  trade  were  of  small  amount  at  this  early 
period  ; as  it  extended,  the  cupidity  of  local  officers  led  them  to 
burden  it  with  numerous  illegal  fees,  which  gradually  reduced 
its  value,  and  finally,  in  some  instances,  drove  it  away  altogether. 
The  succeeding  chapter  contains  a brief  detail  of  the  various 
changes  attending  this  traffic,  down  to  the  time  when  it  was  entirely 
remodelled  according  to  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty  of  Nanking, 
and  placed  upon  a better  understood  basis  than  ever  before,  so  that 
the  manner  in  which  it  was  carried  on  before  that  time,  now  pos- 
sesses less  interest  to  the  general  reader  than  formerly.  Its  prin- 
cipal items  of  export  and  import  have  not  materially  changed 
during  the  last  century;  the  splendid  fabrics  of  the  Chinese  looms, 
their  tea,  their  lacquered  ware,  and  the  produce  of  their  kilns, 
being  still  bartered  for  the  cottons,  metals,  furs,  and  gems  of  the 
west.  A succinct  description  of  such  articles  as  possess  peculiar 
interest,  and  have  not  been  already  described,  together  with  a few 
notices  respecting  the  present  extent  and  mode  of  conducting  the 
trade,  will  suffice  t <5  explain  its  general  featuies.  The  history  of 


382 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  tea  trade  has  been  often  written,  and  the  story  told  of  Lady 
Pumphraston,  who,  receiving  a small  sample,  complained  she 
“ could  not  make  these  foreign  greens  soft,  either  by  frying  or 
stewing  them j”  and  its  history  is  instructive  too,  as  it  shows  how 
Providence  brings  nations  together  by  ties  and  impulses  of  mutual 
advantage  and  desires,  and  makes  them  better  acquainted  when 
otherwise  they  would,  perhaps,  have  quarrelled  with  or  despised 
each  other. 

The  first  thing  which  attracts  attention  in  the  table  of  trade 
with  China,  is  the  opium  traffic,  whose  growth  and  momentous 
consequences  require  a detailed  account.  The  use  of  opium  as  a 
medicine  has  not  long  been  known  to  Chinese  doctors,  though, 
from  the  way  the  poppy  is  mentioned  in  the  Chinese  Herbal,  there 
is  reason  to  suppose  it  to  be  indigenous  ; the  drug  is  called  apien, 
in  imitation  of  the  word  opium : other  names  given  to  it  are, 
“smoking  dirt,”  “foreign  poison.”  “black  commodity,”  and 
“ black  earth,”  while  the  plant  is  called  afuyung,  a foreign  name 
said  by  the  Chinese  to  signify  “our  hibiscus.”  The  compiler  of 
the  Herbal,  who  wrote  two  centuries  ago,  speaks  of  both  the  plant 
and  its  inspissated  juice,  saying  both  were  formerly  but  little 
known ; and  then  concisely  describes  the  mode  of  collecting  it, 
which  almost  leads  to  the  inference  that  it  was  then  used  in  me- 
dicine. None  was  imported  coastwise  for  scores  of  years  after 
that  date,  but  as  the  natives  of  Assam  and  the  adjoining  region 
have  used  opium  for  a long  period,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  it  was 
made  known  to  the  Chinese  from  that  quarter.  The  poppy  is  now 
grown  in  the  eastern  and  southern  provinces,  and  memorials  to 
the  emperor,  requesting  him  to  prohibit  the  cultivation,  were  pre- 
sented from  the  governors  of  all  these  provinces.  One  censor,  in 
1830,  says  that  it  is  produced  over  one  half  of  Chehkiang ; but 
he  gives  no  statement  as  to  the  amount.  The  juice  is  collected 
and  prepared,  judging  from  his  account,  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  in  India,  and  by  the  people  themselves  for  their  own  consump- 
tion. He  observes,  that  “ within  less  than  ten  years,  the  evil  had 
spread  over  a large  part  of  that  province,  not  only  bringing  injury 
on  the  good,  but  greatly  retarding  the  work  of  the  husbandmen.” 
It  is  not  improbable  that  the  native  cultivation  of  the  plant  was  in 
a good  degree  stopped  in  the  eastern  provinces,  for  no  mention  is 
made  of  it  in  subsequent  memorials ; but  in  Kweichau,  Yunnan, 
and  contiguous  parts,  it  is  still  grown  and  prepared, — Chu  Tsun, 


PLACES  AND  MODE  OF  CULTIVATING  OPIUM. 


383 


in  a memorial  written  in  1836,  says  to  the  extent  of  several  thou- 
sand chests  in  Yunnan  alone. 

Barrow  refers  to  the  prevalent  use  of  the  drug  by  officials  and 
others  in  the  upper  ranks  of  society,  but  neither  the  gentlemen  of 
the  last  Dutch,  nor  of  the  two  English  ambassies,  mention  having 
seen  the  poppy  growing ; though  this  is  not  surprising,  inasmuch 
as  their  route  mostly  lay  along  the  Grand  canal  and  rivers,  the 
banks  of  which  are  not  favorable  to  its  cultivation. 

The  mode  of  raising  the  poppy  in  the  Patna  district  in  India, 
is  thus  described  : “ The  "ryot  or  cultivator  having  selected  a 
piece  of  ground,  always  preferring  ( cceteris  paribus ) that  which  is 
nearest  his  house,  fences  it  in.  He  then,  by  repeated  ploughings, 
makes  it  completely  fine,  and  removes  all  the  weeds  and  grass. 
Next,  he  divides  the  field  into  two  or  more  beds  by  small  dikes 
of  mould,  running  lengthwise  and  crosswise  according  to  the  slope 
and  nature  of  the  ground,  and  again  into  smaller  squares  by  other 
dikes  leading  from  the  principal  ones.  A tank  is  dug  about  ten 
feet  deep  at  one  end  of  the  field,  from  which  by  a leathern  bucket, 
water  is  raised  into  one  of  the  principal  dikes  and  carried  to  every 
part  as  required  ; this  irrigation  is  necessary  because  the  cultiva- 
tion is  carried  on  in  the  dry  weather.  The  seed  is  sown  in  No- 
, vember,  and  the  juice  collected  in  February  and  March,  during 
a period,  usually,  of  about  six  weeks ; weeding  and  watering 
commence  as  soon  as  the  plants  spring  up,  and  are  continued  till 
the  poppies  come  to  maturity.  Cuts  are  then  made  in  the  rind 
of  the  seed  vessel,  with  a small  shell  ; from  them  the  juice  ex- 
udes during  the  night,  and  is  scraped  off  in  the  morning ; when 
the  heads  are  exhausted,  they  become  whitish. 

The  cultivator  is  assisted  by  his  family,  and  must  deliver  a 
certain  quantity  at  such  a price  to  the  collector,  the  amount  being 
fixed  by  a survey  of  the  field  when  in  bloom  ; he  receives  about 
$1,65  for  a seer  (1  lb.  13  oz.)  of  the  poppy  juice,  which  must  be 
of  a certain  consistence.  The  ryot  has,  in  most  cases,  already  re- 
ceived the  advance  money  for  the  opium,  and  if  he  sell  it  to  any 
other  than  the  collector,  or  if  he  fail  to  deliver  the  estimated 
quantity,  and  there  is  reason  for  supposing  he  has  embezzled  it, 
he  is  liable  to  punishment.  In  all  the  territories  belonging  to  the 
Company,  the  cultivation  of  the  poppy;  the  preparation  of  the 
drug,  and  the  traffic  in  it  until  it  is  sold  at  auction  for  expoidation, 
are  under  a strict  monopoly.  Should  an  individual  undertake  the 


384 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


cultivation  without  having  entered  into  engagements  with  the  go- 
vernment to  deliver  the  produce  at  the  fixed  rate,  his  property 
would  be  immediately  attached,  and  he  compelled  either  to  de- 
stroy the  poppies,  or  give  security  for  the  faithful  delivery  of  the 
product.  The  cultivation  of  the  plant  is  compulsory,  for  if  the 
ryot  refuse  the  advance  for  the  year’s  crop,  the  simple  plan  of 
throwing  the  rupees  into  his  house  is  adopted  ; should  he  attempt 
to  abscond,  the  agents  seize  him,  tie  the  advance  up  in  his  clothes, 
and  push  him  into  his  house.  There  being  then  no  remedy,  he 
applies  himself  as  he  may  to  the  fulfilment  of  his  contract.  Vast 
tracts  of  the  very  best  land  in  Benares,  Bahar,  and  elsewhere  in 
the  northern  and  central  parts  of  India,  are  now  covered  with 
poppies ; and  other  plants  used  for  food  or  clothing,  grown  from 
time  immemorial,  have  nearly  been  driven  out.  In  Turkey, 
Persia,  India  and  China,  many  myriads  of  acres  and  millions  of 
people  are  employed  in  the  cultivation  of  poppies.”* 

The  preparation  of  the  opium  for  the  Chinese  market  is  super- 
intended by  examiners  appointed  by  the  government,  and  is  a 
business  of  some  difficulty  from  the  many  substances  put  into  the 
juice  by  the  ryots  to  adulterate  or  increase  its  weight.  Wetting 
it  so  that  the  mass  shall  be  more  fluid  than  it  naturally  is,  mixing 
sand,  soft  clayey  mud,  sugar,  coarse  molasses,  cow-dung,  pounded 
poppy-seeds,  and  the  juice  of  stramony,  quinces,  and  other  plants, 
are  all  resorted  to,  although  with  the  almost  certain  result  of  de- 
tection and  loss.  When  taken  from  the  cultivator  and  native 
collector,  the  crude  mass  undergoes  careful  examination,  and  is 
rolled  into  small  balls  with  a covering  of  lewa  or  opium  paste 
mixed  with  the  petals  of  the  poppy.  When  the  juice  gathered 
from  the  plant  has  been  dried  properly  in  a cool  shade,  to  about 
70  per  cent,  spissitude,  it  appears  coppery  brown  in  the  mass, 
and  when  spread  thin  on  a white  plate,  shows  considerable  trans- 
lucency,  with  a gallstone  yellow  color  and  a slightly  granular 
texture.  When  cut  with  a knife  it  exhibits  sharp  edges  without 
drawing  out  into  threads  ; and  is  tremulous  like  strawberry -jam, 
to  which  it  has  been  aptly  compared.  It  has  considerable  adhe- 
siveness, a handful  of  it  not  dropping  from  the  inverted  hand  for 
some  seconds. 

All  the  opium  grown  fn  the  Company’s  territories  is  brought  to 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  V.,  page  472. 


PREPARATION  AND  SALE  OF  OPIUM. 


385 


Calcutta  and  stored  in  government  warehouses,  until  it  is  exposed 
for  sale  at  auction,  in  lots  of  five  chests  each,  at  an  upset  price, 
graduated  according  to  the  market  price  in  China.  It  is  supposed 
not  to  cost  much  more  than  700  rupees  a chest,  and  is  sold  at 
101  iO  rupees  and  upwards,  yielding  a net  annual  revenue  of  over 
two  millions  sterling.  Care  is  taken  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  Chi- 
nese ; and  on  one  occasion,  the  Company  refunded  part  of  the 
price  on  a lot  which  had  been  differently  prepared,  to  try  whether 
that  people  would  prefer  it.  There  are  four  sorts  of  opium : Tur- 
key, which  sells  cheapest  in  China,  and  is  brought  chiefly  from 
Smyrna ; Patna  and  Benares,  which  are  grown  in  the  Company’s 
territories,  and  sold  at  Calcutta;  and  Malwa,  which  is  cultivated 
out  of  their  jurisdiction,  but  pays  them  a revenue  of  about  200 
rupees  each  chest  for  its  transit  to  Bombay,  where  it  is  shipped. 
The  Portuguese  also  export  a small  quantity  from  their  settle- 
ment in  Damaun.  The  drug  is  rolled  in  balls,  and  then  packed 
in  strong  boxes,  weighing  from  116  for  Patna,  to  134  lbs.  or 
140  lbs.  for  Malwa.  The  Malwa  opium  is  grown  and  prepared 
entirely  by  natives,  and  is  often  so  extensively  adulterated  as  to 
be  worthless.  There  are  between  400  and  500  cakes  in  a chest 
of  Malwa,  and  the  cultivator  there  receives  double  the  wages  of 
the  ryot  in  Bengal. 

The  chests  of  Patna  and  Benares  are  made  of  mango  wood,  and 
consist  of  two  stories  or  parts,  in  each  of  which  there  are  twenty 
partitions ; the  forty  balls  to  fill  these  partitions  are  carefully 
rolled  in  dried  poppy  leaves.  The  chest  is  covered  with  hides  or 
gunny  bags,  and  the  seams  closed  so  as  to  render  it  as  impervious 
to  the  air  as  possible,  but  considerable  allowance  is  made  for  dry- 
age.  After  the  drug  is  sold  at  Calcutta,  it  is  shipped  in  small  fast- 
sailing vessels  for  China,  more  than  half  of  the  export  from  that 
and  other  ports  in  India  being  sent  off-  in  these  clippers. 

The  use  of  opium  among  the  Chinese  two  centuries  ago  must 
have  been  very  little,  or  the  writings  of  the  Romish  missionaries, 
from  1580  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  would 
certainly  have  contained  some  account  of  it.  It  was  not  till  the 
year  1767,  that  the  importation  reached  a thousand  chests,  and 
continued  at  that  rate  for  some  years,  most  of  the  trade  being  in 
the  hands  of  the  Portuguese.  The  East  India  Company  made  a 
small  adventure  in  1773 ; and  seven  years  after,  a depot  of  two 
small  vessels  was  established  by  the  English  in  Lark’s  bay,  sontl* 

VOL.  II.  18 


336 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  Macao;  the  price  was  then  about  $550  a chest.  In  1781,  the 
Company  freighted  a vessel  to  Canton  with  it,  but  were  obliged  to 
sell  the  lot  of  1600  chests  at  $200  a chest,  to  Sinqua,  one  of  the 
hong-merchants,  who,  not  being  able  to  dispose  of  it  to  advantage, 
reshipped  it  to  the  Archipelago.  The  price  in  1791  was  about 
$370  a chest,  and  was  imported  under  the  head  of  medicine  at  a 
duty  of  about  $7  a cwt.,  including  charges.  The  authorities  at 
Canton  began  to  complain  of  the  two  ships  in  Lark’s  bay  in  1793, 
and  their  owners  being  much  annoyed  by  the  pirates  and  revenue 
boats,  and  inconvenienced  by  the  distance  from  Canton,  loaded 
the  opium  on  board  a single  vessel,  and  brought  her  to  Whampoa, 
where  she  lay  unmolested  for  more  than  a year.  She  was  then 
loaded  and  sent  out  of  the  river,  and  the  drug  introduced  in 
another  ship ; this  practice  continued  until  1820,  when  the  go- 
vernor-general and  collector  of  customs  issued  an  edict,  forbidding 
any  vessel  to  enter  the  port  in  which  opium  was  stored,  and 
making  the  pilots  and  hong-merchants  responsible  for  its  being 
on  board.  The  Portuguese  were  also  forbidden  to  introduce  it 
into  Macao,  and  every  officer  in  the  Chinese  custom-house  there 
was  likewise  made  responsible  for  preventing  it,  under  the  heaviest 
penalties.  “ Be  careful,”  says  his  excellency  in  conclusion,  “ and 
do  not  view  this  document  as  mere  matter  of  form,  and  so  tread 
within  the  net  of  the  law,  for  you  will  find  your  escape  as  imprac- 
ticable as  it  is  for  a man  to  bite  his  own  navel.”  The  importation 
of  this  pernicious  drug  had  been  prohibited  by  the  emperor,  in 
1800,  under  heavy  penalties,  on  account  of  its  wasting  the  time 
and  destroying  the  property  of  the  people  of  the  Inner  Land,  and 
exchanging  their  silver  and  commodities  for  the  “vile  dirt”  of 
foreign  countries.  The  supercargoes  of  the  Company  therefore 
recommended  the  Directors  to  prohibit  its  shipment  to  China  from 
England  and  India,  but  this  could  not  be  done  ; and  they  there- 
fore forbade  their  own  ships  bringing  it  to  China.  The  hong- 
merchants  were  required  to  give  bonds,  in  1809,  that  no  ship 
which  discharged  her  cargo  at  Whampoa  had  opium  on  board  ; 
but  they  contrived  to  evade  it.  The  traffic  was  carried  on  at 
Whampoa  and  Macao  by  the  connivance  of  local  officers,  some 
of  whom  watched  the  delivery  of  every  chest,  and  received  a 
fee ; while  their  superiors,  remote  from  the  scene  of  smuggling, 
pocketed  an  annual  bribe  for  overlooking  the  violation  of  the  im- 
perial orders. 


PROHIBITION  OF  OPIUM  IK  CHINA. 


387 


The  system  of  bribery  and  overlooking  malpractices,  so  common 
in  China,  is  well  illustrated  by  a case  which  occurred  in  con- 
nexion with  this  business.  In  September,  1821,  a Chinese  in- 
habitant of  Macao,  who  had  been  the  medium  of  receiving  from  the 
Portuguese,  and  paying  to  the  Chinese  officers  the  several  bribes 
annually  given  for  the  introduction  of  opium,  was  seized  by 
government  for  hiring  banditti  to  assault  an  opponent  of  his,  which 
they  did ; and  having  got  the  man  in  their  power,  poured  quick- 
silver into  his  ears,  to  injure  his  head  without  killing  him  ; and 
having  shaved  the  short  hairs  from  his  head,  they  mixed  them 
with  tea,  and  forced  him  to  drink  the  potion.  The  vile  wretch 
who  originated  this  cruel  idea  and  paid  the  perpetrators  of  it,  was 
a pettifogging  notary,  who  brought  gain  to  the  officials  by  oppress- 
ing and  intimidating  the  people,  until  he  was  the  pest  and  terror 
of  the  neighborhood.  An  official  enemy  at  last  laid  his  character 
and  doings  before  the  governor,  who  had  him  seized  and  thrown 
into  prison,  when  he  turned  his  wrath  on  his  former  employers, 
and  confessed  that  he  held  the  place  of  bribe-collector,  and  that 
all  the  authorities  received  so  much  per  chest,  even  up  to  the  ad- 
miral of  the  station.  The  governor,  though  doubtless  aware  of 
these  practices,  was  now  obliged  to  notice  them  ; but  instead  of 
punishing  those  who  were  directly  guilty,  he  accused  the  senior 
hong-merchant,  a rich  man,  nicknamed  the  “ timid  young  lady,” 
and  charged  him  with  neglecting  his  suretyship  in  not  pointing 
out  every  foreign  ship  which  contained  opium.  It  was  in  vain  for 
him  to  plead  that  he  had  never  dealt  in  opium,  nor  had  any  con- 
nexion with  those  who  did  deal  in  it ; nor  could  he  search  the 
ships  to  ascertain  what  was  in  them,  or  control  the  authorities 
who  encouraged  and  protected  the  smuggling  of  opium : not- 
withstanding all  his  pleas,  the  governor  was  determined  to  hold 
him  responsible.  He  was  accordingly  disgraced,  and  a paper, 
combining  admonition  with  exhortation  and  intreaty,  was  ad- 
dressed by  his  excellency  to  the  foreigners,  Portuguese,  Eng- 
lish, and  Americans.  The  gods,  he  said,  would  conduct  the  fair 
dealers  in  safety  over  the  ocean,  but  over  the  contraband  smug- 
glers of  a pernicious  poison,  the  terrors  of  the  royal  law  on  earth, 
and  the  wrath  of  the  infernal  gods  in  hades  were  suspended.  The 
Americans  brought  opium,  he  observed,  “ because  they  had  no 
king  to  rule  them.”  The  opium  ships  thus  being  driven  from 
Whampoa,  and  '.he  Portuguese  unwilling  or  afraid  to  admit  it  into 


388 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Macao  unless  at  a high  duty,  the  merchants  established  a floating 
depot  of  receiving  ships  at  Lintin,  an  island  between  Macao  and 
the  Bogue.  In  summer,  the  ships  moved  to  Kumsing  moon, 
Kapshui  moon,  Hongkong,  and  other  anchorages  off  the  river,  to 
be  more  secure  against  the  tyfoons ; remaining  near  Lintin  dur- 
ing the  north-east  monsoon,  until  1839.* 

The  mode  of  introducing  the  opium  into  the  country,  when  the 
fleet  was  stationed  “ outside”  at  Lintin,  was  by  means  of  brokers 
resident  in  Canton.  These  men  went  to  the  foreign  merchants, 
and  purchased  the  opium  at  the  market  price,  paying  for  it  in 
specie,  and  receiving  an  order  on  the  captain  for  the  amount  pur- 
chased. The  boxes  were  opened  and  the  drug  carefully  exam- 
ined before  it  was  shipped  on  board  native  wherries,  vulgarly 
called  fast-crabs  and  scrambling-dragons,  which  paid  a regular  fee 
to  the  custom-house  and  military  posts,  but  resisted  other  official 
boats ; fighting  desperately  when  attacked,  for  if  taken,  the  men 
generally  lost  both  life  and  property.  The  opium,  when  carried 
ashore  to  the  purchasers,  was  retailed  in  balls  as  crude  opium, 
or  prepared  by  themselves,  for  retail  or  more  convenient  trans- 
portation further  inland. 

The  utensils  used  in  preparing  the  opium  for  smoking,  consist 
chiefly  of  three  hemispherical  brass  pans,  two  bamboo  filters,  two 
portable  furnaces,  earthen  pots,  ladles,  straining-cloths,  and  sprink- 
lers. The  ball  being  cut  in  two,  the  interior  is  taken  out,  and 
the  opium  adhering  to  or  contained  in  the  leafy  covering  is 
previously  simmered  three  several  times,  each  time  using  a pint 
of  spring  water,  and  straining  it  into  an  earthen  pot ; some  cold 
water  is  poured  over  the  dregs  after  the  third  boiling,  and  from 
half  a cake  (weighing  at  first  about  28  lbs.,  and  with  which  this 
process  is  supposed  to  be  conducted),  there  will  be  about  five 
pints  of  liquid.  The  interior  of  the  cake  is  then  boiled  with  this 
liquid  for  about  an  hour,  until  all  is  reduced  to  a paste,  which  is 
spread  out  with  a spatula  in  two  pans,  and  exposed  to  to  the  fire 
for  two  or  three  minutes  at  a time,  till  the  water  is  all  driven  off ; 
during  this  operation,  it  is  often  broken  up  and  re-spread,  and  at 
the  last  drying  cut  across  with  a knife.  It  is  all  then  spread  out 
in  one  cake,  and  covered  with  six  pints  of  water,  and  allowed  to 
remain  several  hours  or  over  night  for  digestion.  When  suf- 

a o 


Chinese  Repository.  Vol  V.,  pp.  54G — L”3. 


MODE  OF  PREPARING  OPIUM  FOR  SMOKING. 


389 


ficiently  soaked,  a rag  filter  is  placed  on  the  edge  of  the  pan,  and 
the  whole  of  the  valuable  part  drips  slowly  through  the  rag  into  a 
basket  lined  with  coarse  bamboo  paper,  from  which  it  falls  into 
the  other  brass  pan,  about  as  much  liquid  going  through  as  there 
was  water  poured  over  the  cake.  The  dregs  are  again  soaked 
and  immediately  filtered  till  found  to  be  nearly  tasteless ; this 
weaker  part  usually  makes  about  six  pints  of  liquid. 

The  first  six  pints  are  then  briskly  boiled,  being  sprinkled  with 
cold  water  to  allay  the  heat  so  as  not  to  boil  over,  and  removing 
the  scum,  by  a feather,  into  a separate  vessel.  After  boiling 
twenty  minutes,  five  pints  of  the  weak  liquid  are  poured  in  and 
boiled  with  it,  until  the  whole  is  evaporated  to  about  three  pints, 
when  it  is  strained  through  paper  into  another  pan,  and  the  re- 
maining pint  thrown  into  the  pan  just  emptied,  to  wash  away  any 
portion  that  may  remain  in  it,  and  also  boiled  a little  while,  when 
it  is  also  strained  into  the  three  pints.  The  whole  is  then  placed 
over  a slow  fire  in  the  small  furnace,  and  boiled  down  to  a proper 
consistency  for  smoking ; while  it  is  evaporating,  a ring  forms 
around  the  edge,  and  the  pan  is  taken  off  the  fire  at  intervals  to 
prolong  the  process,  the  mass  being  the  while  rapidly  stirred  with 
sticks  and  fanned,  until  it  becomes  like  thick  treacle,  when  it  is 
taken  out  and  put  into  small  pots  for  smoking.  The  boxes  in 
which  it  is  retailed  are  made  of  buffalo’s  horn,  of  such  a size  as 
easily  to  be  carried  about  the  person.  The  dregs  containing  the 
vegetable  residuum,  together  with  the  scum  and  washings  of  the 
pans,  are  lastly  strained  and  boiled  with  water,  producing  about  six 
pints  of  thin  brownish  liquid,  which  is  evaporated  to  a proper  con- 
sistence for  selling  to  the  poor.  The  process  of  seething  the  crude 
opium  is  exceedingly  unpleasant  to  those  unaccustomed  to  it,  from 
the  overpowering  narcotic  fumes  which  arise,  and  this  odor  marks 
every  shop  where  it  is  prepared,  and  every  person  who  smokes  it. 
The  loss  in  weight  by  this  mode  of  preparation  is  about  one-half. 
The  Malays  prepare  it  in  much  the  same  manner.  The  custom 
in  Penang  is  to  reduce  the  dry  cake  made  on  the  first  evaporation 
to  a powder ; and  when  it  is  digested  and  again  strained  and  eva- 
porated, reducing  it  to  a consistence  resembling  shoemaker’s  wax. 

The  opium  pipe  consists  of  a tube  of  heavy  wood,  furnished  at 
the  head  with  a cup,  which  serves  to  collect  the  residuum  or  ashes 
left  after  combustion ; this  cup  is  usually  a small  cavity  in  the 
end  of  the  pipe,  and  serves  to  elevate  lhe  bowl  to  a level  with  the 


390 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


lamp.  The  bowl  of  the  pipe  is  made  of  earthenware,  of  an  ellip- 
soid shape,  and  sets  down  upon  the  hole,  itself  having  a small 
rimmed  orifice  on  the  flat  side.  The  opium-smoker  always  lies 
down  ; and  the  singular  picture  given  by  Davis,  of  a “ Mandarin 
smoking  an  opium-pipe,”  dressed  in  his  official  robes  and  sitting 
up  at  a table,  was  probably  made  to  order  by  some  artist  who 
had  never  seen  anybody  use  it.  Lying  along  the  couch,  he 
holds  the  pipe,  aptly  called  yen  tsiang,  i.  e.  smoking-pistol,  by  the 
Chinese,  so  near  the  lamp  that  the  bowl  can  be  brought  up  to 
it  without  stirring  himself.  A little  opium  of  the  size  of  a pea, 
being  taken  on  the  end  of  a spoon-headed  needle,  is  put  upon 
the  hole  of  the  bowl,  and  set  on  fire  at  the  lamp,  and  inhaled  at 
one  whiff,  so  that  none  of  the  smoke  shall  be  lost.  Old  smokers 
will  retain  the  breath  a long  time,  filling  the  lungs,  and  exhaling 
the  fumes  through  the  nose.  The  taste  of  the  half-fluid  extract  is 
sweetish  and  oily,  somewhat  like  rich  cream,  but  the  smell  of  the 
burning  drug  is  rather  sickening.  When  the  pipe  has  burned 
out,  the  smoker  lies  listless  for  a moment  while  the  fumes  are 
dissipating,  and  then  repeats  the  process  until  he  has  spent  all  his 
purchase,  or  taken  his  prescribed  dose.  When  the  smoking  com- 
mences, the  man  becomes  loquacious,  and  breaks  out  into  boister- 
ous, silly  merriment,  which  gradually  changes  to  a vacant  pale- 
ness and  shrinking  of  the  features,  as  the  quantity  increases  and 
the  narcotic  acts.  A deep  sleep  supervenes  from  half  an  hour  to 
three  or  four  hours’  duration,  during  which  the  pulse  becomes 
slower,  softer,  and  smaller  than  before  the  debauch.  No  refresh- 
ment is  felt  from  this  sleep,  when  the  person  has  become  a victim 
to  the  habit,  but  a universal  sinking  of  the  powers  of  the  body  and 
mind  is  experienced,  and  complete  recklessness,  so  be  it  that  the 
appetite  for  more  be  gratified. 

A novice  is  content  with  one  or  two  whiffs,  which  produce  ver- 
tigo, nausea,  and  headache,  though  practice  enables  him  to  gra- 
dually increase  the  quantity  ; “ temperate  smokers,”  warned  by 
the  sad  example  of  the  numerous  victims  around  them,  endeavor 
to  keep  within  bounds,  and  walk  as  near  the  precipice  as  they 
can  without  falling  over  into  hopeless  ruin.  In  order  to  do  this, 
they  limit  themselves  to  a certain  quantity  daily,  and  take  it  at, 
or  soon  after  meals,  so  that  the  stomach  may  not  be  so  much 
weakened.  A “temperate  smoker”  (though  this  term  is  like 
that  of  a temperate  robber,  who  only  takes  shillings  from  his 


MANNER  OF  SMOKING  OPIUM. 


391 


employer’s  till,  or  a temperate  blood-letter,  who  only  takes  a 
spoonful  daily  from  his  veins)  can  seldom  exceed  a mace  weight, 
or  about  as  much  of  prepared  opium  as  will  balance  a pistareen 
or  a franc  piece  ; this  quantity  will  fill  twelve  pipes.  Two  mace 
weight  taken  daily  is  considered  an  immoderate  dose,  which  few 
can  bear  for  any  length  of  time ; and  those  who  are  afraid  of  the 
effects  of  the  drug  upon  themselves  endeavor  not  to  exceed  a mace. 
Some  persons,  who  have  strong  constitutions,  and  stronger  reso- 
lution, continue  the  use  of  the  drug  within  these  limits,  for  many 
years,  without  disastrous  effects  upon  their  health  and  spirits ; 
though  most  of  even  these  moderate  smokers  are  so  much  the 
slaves  of  the  habit,  that  they  feel  too  wretched,  nerveless,  and 
imbecile,  to  go  on  with  their  business  without  the  stimulus. 

The  testimony  regarding  the  evil  effects  of  the  use  of  this  per- 
nicious drug,  which  deserves  better  to  be  called  an  “ article  of 
destruction”  than  an  “article  of  luxury,”  are  so  unanimous,  that 
few  can  be  found  to  stand  up  strongly  in  its  favor.  Dr.  Smith, 
a physician  in  charge  of  the  hospital  at  Penang,  says,  “ The 
baneful  effects  of  this  habit  on  the  human  constitution  are  par- 
ticularly displayed  by  stupor,  forgetfulness,  general  deterioration 
of  all  the  mental  faculties,  emaciation,  debility,  sallow  complex- 
ion, lividness  of  lips  and  eyelids,  languor  and  lack-lustre  of  eye, 
and  appetite  either  destroyed  or  depraved,  sweetmeats  or  sugar 
being  the  articles  that  are  most  relished.”  These  symptoms 
appear  when  the  habit  has  weakened  the  physical  powers,  but 
the  unhappy  man  soon  begins  to  feel  the  power  of  the  drug  in  a 
general  languor  and  sinking,  which  disables  him  mentally  more 
than  bodily,  from  carrying  on  his  ordinary  pursuits.  A dose  of 
opium  does  not  produce  the  intoxication  of  ardent  spirits,  and  so 
far  as  the  community  and  his  family  are  concerned,  the  smoker 
is  less  troublesome  than  the  drunkard  ; the  former  never  throws 
the  chairs  and  tables  about  the  room,  or  drives  his  wife  out  of 
doors  in  his  furious  rage  ; he  never  goes  reeling  through  the 
streets,  or  takes  lodgings  in  the  gutter ; but  contrariwise,  he  is 
quiet  or  pleasant,  and  fretful  only  when  the  effects  of  the  pipe  are 
gone.  It  is  in  the  insupportable  languor  throughout  the  whole 
frame,  the  gnawing  at  the  stomach,  pulling  at  the  shoulders,  and 
failing  of  the  spirits,  that  the  tremendous  power  of  this  vice  lies, 
compelling  the  “victimized”  slave  “to seek  it  yet  again.”  There 
has  not  yet  been  opportunity  to  make  those  minute  investigations 


392 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


respecting  the  extent  opium  is  used  among  the  Chinese,  what 
classes  of  people  use  it,  their  daily  dose,  the  proportion  of  rep- 
rebate  smokers,  and  many  other  points  which  have  been  nar- 
rowly examined  into,  in  regard  to  the  use  of  alcohol ; so  that  it  is 
impossible  to  decide  the  question  as  to  which  of  the  two  is  the 
most  dreadful  habit.  These  statistics  have,  heretofore,  been  im- 
possible to  obtain  in  China,  and  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  obtain 
them,  even  when  a person,  who  may  have  the  leisure  and  abilities, 
shall  undertake  the  task. 

Various  means  have  been  tried  by  benevolent  natives  to  dis- 
suade their  countrymen  from  using  it,  such  as  distributing  tracts 
showing  its  ruinous  effects,  compounding  medicines  for  the 
smoker  to  take,  to  aid  him  in  breaking  off  the  habit,  and  de- 
nouncing the  smoking-shops  to  government.  A painter  at  Can- 
ton made  a series  of  admonitory  pictures,  showing  the  several 
steps  in  the  downward  course  of  the  opium-smoker,  until  beggary 
and  death  ended  the  scene ; one  of  them,  showing  the  young  de- 
bauchee at  his  revels,  is  here  introduced. 


Manner  of  Smoking  Opium. 

A Chinese  scholar  thus  sums  up  the  bad  effects  of  opium, 
which  he  says  is  taken  at  first  to  raise  the  animal  spirits  and 


EFFECTS  OF  THE  USE  OF  OPIUM. 


393 


prevent  lassitude.  “ It  exhausts  the  animal  spirits,  impedes  the 
regular  performance  of  business,  wastes  the  flesh  and  blood, 
dissipates  every  kind  of  property,  renders  the  person  ill-favored, 
promotes  obscenity,  discloses  secrets,  violates  the  laws,  attacks  the 
vitals,  and  destroys  life.”  Under  each  of  these  heads,  he  lu- 
cidly shows  the  mode  of  the  process,  or  gives  examples  to  up- 
hold his  assertions.  “ In  comparison  with  arsenic,  I pronounce 
it  tenfold  the  greater  poison ; one  swallows  arsenic,  because  he 
has  lost  his  reputation,  and  is  so  involved  that  he  cannot  extricate 
himself.  Thus  driven  to  desperation,  he  takes  the  dose  and  is 
destroyed  at  once  ; but  those  who  smoke  the  drug  are  injured  in 
many  ways.  It  may  be  compared  to  raising  the  wick  of  a lamp, 
which,  while  it  increases  the  blaze,  hastens  the  exhaustion  of  the 
oil  and  the  extinction  of  the  light.  Hence,  the  youth  who  smoke 
will  shorten  their  own  days,  and  cut  off  all  hopes  of  posterity, 
leaving  their  parents  and  wives  without  any  one  on  whom  to  de- 
pend. From  the  robust  who  smoke,  the  flesh  is  gradually  con- 
sumed and  worn  away,  and  the  skin  hangs  like  a bag.  Their 
faces  become  cadaverous  and  black,  and  their  bones  naked  as  bil- 
lets of  wood.  The  habitual  smokers  doze  for  days  over  their 
pipes,  without  appetite  ; when  the  desire  for  opium  comes  on, 
they  cannot  resist  its  impulse.  Mucus  flows  from  their  nostrils, 
and  tears  from  their  eyes ; their  very  bodies  are  rotten  and 
putrid.  From  careless  observers,  the  sight  of  such  objects  is 
enough  to  excite  loud  peals  of  laughter.  The  poor  smoker,  who 
has  pawned  every  article  in  his  possession,  still  remains  idle  ; and 
when  the  periodical  thirst  comes  on,  will  even  pawn  his  wives  and 
sell  his  daughters.  In  the  province  of  Nganhwui,  I once  saw  a 
man  named  Chin,  who  being  childless,  purchased  a concubine,  and 
got  her  with  child ; afterwards,  when  his  money  was  expended 
and  other  means  all  failed  him,  being  unable  to  resist  the  desire 
for  the  pipe,  he  sold  her  in  her  pregnancy  for  several  tens  of  dol- 
lars. This  money  being  expended,  he  went  and  hung  himself. 
Alas,  how  painful  was  his  end  !”* 

The  thirst  and  burning  sensation  in  the  throat,  which  the 
wretched  sufferer  feels,  only  to  be  removed  by  a repetition  of 
the  dose,  proves  one  of  the  strongest  links  in  the  chain  which 
drags  him  to  his  ruin.  At  this  stage  of  the  habit,  his  case  is  al* 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  VII.,  page  108. 

18* 


394 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


most  hopeless ; if  the  pipe  be  delayed  too  long,  vertigo,  complete 
prostration,  and  discharge  of  water  from  the  eyes,  ensue ; if  en- 
tirely withheld,  coldness  and  aching  pains  are  felt  over  the  body, 
an  obstinate  diarrhoea  supervenes,  and  death  closes  the  scene. 
The  disastrous  effects  of  the  drug  upon  the  constitution  seem  to 
be  somewhat  delayed  or  modified  by  the  quantity  of  nourishing 
food  the  person  - can  procure,  and  consequently  it  is  among  the 
poor,  who  can  least  afford  the  pipe,  and  still  less  the  injury  done 
to  their  energies,  that  the  destruction  of  life  is  the  greatest.  The 
evils  suffered  and  crimes  committed  by  the  desperate  victims  of 
the  opium  pipe  are  dreadful  and  multiplied.  Theft,  arson,  mur- 
der and  suicide,  are  perpetrated  in  order  to  obtain  it  or  escape  its 
effects.  Some  try  to  break  off  the  fatal  habit,  by  taking  a tinc- 
ture of  the  opium  dirt  in  spirits,  gradually  diminishing  its  strength 
until  it  is  left  off  entirely ; others  mix  opium  with  tobacco,  and 
smoke  the  compound  in  a less  and  less  proportion,  until  tobacco 
alone  remains.  The  general  belief  is  that  the  vice  can  be  over- 
come without  fatal  results,  if  the  person  firmly  resolve  to  forsake 
it,  and  keep  away  from  sight  and  smell  of  the  pipe,  laboring  as 
much  as  his  strength  will  allow  in  the  open  air,  until  he  recovers 
his  spirits,  and  no  longer  feels  a longing  for  it.  Few,  very  few, 
however,  ever  emancipate  themselves  from  the  tyrannous  habit 
which  enslaves  them  ; they  are  able  to  resist  its  insidious  effects 
until  the  habit  has  become  strong,  and  the  resolution  to  break  it 
off  is  generally  delayed  until  their  chains  are  forged,  and  deliver- 
ance felt  to  be  hopeless.  The  resolution  in  their  case  has,  alas, 
none  of  the  awful  motives  to  enforce  its  observance,  which  a 
knowledge  of  the  Bible  would  give  it ; the  heathen  dieth  in  his 
ignorance. 

Opium  is  often  employed  to  commit  suicide,  by  swallowing  it 
in  spite,  when  displeased  with  others,  or  to  escape  from  death, 
oppression,  or  other  evils.  The  missionary  physicians  are  often 
called  upon  to  rescue  persons  who  have  taken  a dose,  and  been 
found  before  life  is  gone,  and  the  number  of  these  applications 
painfully  show  how  lightly  the  Chinese  esteem  life.  A compari- 
son is  sometimes  drawn  between  the  opium-smoker  and  drunk- 
ard, and  the  former  averred  to  be  less  injured  by  the  habit;  but 
the  balance  is  struck  between  two  terrible  evils,  both  of  which 
end  in  the  loss  of  health,  property,  mind,  influence,  and  life. 
Opium  imparts  no  benefit  to  the  smoker,  impairs  his  bodily  vigor, 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  OPIUM  TRAFFIC. 


395 


beclouds  his  mind,  and  unfits  him  for  his  station  in  society  ; he 
is  miserable  without  it,  and  at  last  dies  by  what  he  lives  upon. 
The  manufacture  is  beyond  the  country,  so  that  every  cent  paid 
for  the  drug  is  carried  abroad,  and  misery  in  every  shape  of 
poverty,  disease,  and  dementation  left  in  its  stead,  attended  with 
mere  transitory  pleasure  while  the  pipe  is  in  the  mouth.  Fully 
one  hundred  millions  of  dollars  have  “ oozed  ” out  of  China  within 
the  last  fifty  years  for  this  article  alone,  and  its  productive  capital 
decreased  fully  twice  that  sum. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  East  India  Company’s  charter  in 
1834,  the  contraband  trade  in  opium  off'  the  Bogue,  and  along  the 
coast  eastward,  had  assumed  a regular  character.  The  fees  paid 
for  connivance  at  Canton  were  understood,  and  the  highest  per- 
sons in  the  province  were  not  ashamed  to  participate  in  the  profits 
of  the  trade.  The  attempts  to  sell  it  along  the  eastern  coast  had 
been  mostly  successful,  and  almost  nothing  else  could  be  sold. 
In  a trip  undertaken  in  1823,  by  Mr.  James  Matheson,  he  pro- 
ceeded no  further  than  Tsiuenchau  fu  orChinchew,  in  Fuhkien, 
and  on  the  whole  made  a losing  voyage.  The  next  year,  a ship 
remained  at  Namoh,  but  the  sales  were  suspended  there  for  a 
time,  in  consequence  of  the  opposition  displayed  by  the  authori- 
ties ; vessels  were  also  sent  to  Amoy  and  Formosa,  and  met  with 
varied  success,  sometimes  selling  most  of  the  cargo,  at  others 
returning  with  it.  In  1831,  the  Jamesina,  with  Mr.  James  Innes, 
went  up  the  Min  to  Fuhchau  fu,  besides  visiting  other  places, 
in  the  course  of  the  voyage  making  sales  of  opium  to  the  amount 
of  $330,000.  One  reason,  probably,  why  the  people  at  these 
ports  were  disinclined  to  buy  cloths,  was,  that  the  stamp  placed 
upon  every  piece  imported  at  Canton,  virtually  advertised  such 
as  had  it  not  to  have  been  smuggled.  The  luck  of  the  Jamesina 
induced  Mr.  Marjoribanks,  in  1832,  to  send  the  Lord  Amherst  on 
a more  extensive  voyage  to  all  the  large  ports  along  the  coast ; 
but  the  experiment  proved  a complete  failure,  and  the  loss  over 
five  thousand  pounds.  Considerable  information  was  obtained, 
charts  of' the  harbors  and  mouths  of  the  rivers  made,  and  the 
officers  with  whom  Mr.  GutzlafF  conversed  made  acquainted  with 
their  designs  in  the  voyage. 

Soon  after  this,  the  Sylph,  a fast-sailing  vessel,  chiefly  loaded 
with  opium,  was  sent  northward  and  reached  Kinchau  in  Liau 
tung.  The  vessel  was  ashore  for  some  hours  on  this  bleak  coast 


396 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


but  happily  floated  at  high  water,  and  returned  leisurely  down 
the  coast,  stopping  at  Shanghai,  Chapu,  Pihkwan,  Tsiuenchau 
Namoh,  and  lastly,  Lintin,  after  an  absence  of  six  months,  every- 
where finding  a sale  for  her  cargo.  The  increasing  demand  at 
Namoh  and  Chinchew,  led  to  the  frequent  dispatch  of  small  vessels, 
one  taking  the  place  of  another,  and  finally  to  stationing  receiv- 
ing-ships there,  to  afford  a constant  supply.  The  local  authori- 
ties, finding  their  paper  edicts  quite  powerless  to  drive  them  away, 
followed  the  practice  of  their  fellow -officers  at  Canton,  and  winked 
at  the  trade  for  a consideration.  The  opium  was  brought  ashore 
in  chests  and  seethed  before  sending  it  into  the  country,  their  in- 
come being  too  great  to  make  them  very  earnest  in  carrying  out 
the  imperial  orders  to  put  down  the  traffic  by  seizing  the  natives 
engaged  in  it.  It  is  not,  however,  right  to  say,  as  some  do, 
that  the  venality  and  weakness  of  these  officers  invalidated  the 
authenticity  of  the  commands  they  received  from  court ; however 
flagitious  their  conduct,  in  rendering  the  orders  of  none  effect,  it 
did  not  prove  the  insincerity  of  the  emperor  and  his  ministers  in 
issuing  them.  By  the  year  1834,  the  efforts  of  the  local  authori- 
ties to  suppress  the  trade,  resulted  in  a periodical  issue  of  vain 
prohibitions  and  empty  threats  of  punishment,  which  did  not  more 
plainly  exhibit  their  own  weakness  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  than 
the  strength  of  the  appetite  in  the  smokers. 

Deferring  the  examination  of  the  results  of  the  opium  trade 
and  its  connexion  with  the  war,  a general  survey  of  the  native 
and  foreign  commerce  with  China  will  exhibit  the  extent  and 
variety  of  the  resources  of  the  empire.  The  Chinese  trade  with 
foreign  ports  in  native  vessels  is  at  present  less  extensive  than 
formerly,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  increase  of  foreign  ship- 
ping and  facilities  of  insurance,  enabling  the  native  trader  to 
send  and  receive  commodities  with  less  risk  and  more  speed  than 
by  junks.  The  facilities  and  security  of  commerce  in  a country 
are  among  the  best  indices  of  its  government  being  administered, 
on  the  whole,  in  a tolerably  just  manner,  and  on  those  principles 
which  give  the  mechanic,  farmer,  and  merchant  a good  prospect 
of  reaping  the  fruits  of  their  industry.  This  security  is  afforded 
in  China  to  a considerable  degree,  and  is  one  of  the  most  satisfac- 
tory proofs,  amidst  all  the  corruptions,  extortions,  injustice,  and 
depravity  seen  in  their  courts  and  in  society  at  large,  that  the 
people  on  the  whole  receive  and  enjoy  the  rewards  of  industry. 


NATIVE  TRADE  IN  JUNKS. 


397 


Tranquillity  may  often  be  owing  to  the  strong  arm  of  power, 
but  trade,  manufactures,  voyages,  and  large  commercial  enter- 
prises must  remunerate  those  who  undertake  them,  or  they  cease. 
The  Chinese  are  eminently  a trading  people  ; their  merchants 
are  acute,  methodical,  sagacious,  and  enterprising,  not  over-scru- 
pulous as  to  their  mercantile  honesty  in  small  transactions,  but  in 
large  dealings  exhibiting  that  regard  for  character  in  the  fulfil- 
ment of  their  obligations,  which  extensive  commercial  engage- 
ments usually  produce.  The  roguery  and  injustice  which  an 
officer  of  government  may  commit  without  disgrace  would  blast  a 
merchant’s  reputation,  and  he  enters  into  the  largest  transactions 
with  confidence,  being  guarantied  in  his  engagements  by  a sys- 
tem of  mercantile  security  and  responsibility,  which  is  more 
effectual  than  legal  sanctions. 

The  coasting  trade  is  disproportionately  small  compared  with 
the  inland  commerce,  owing  chiefly  to  the  pirates  and  the  dan- 
gers of  the  navigation.  The  large  junks  cross  the  seas,  but  those 
which  navigate  along  the  coast,  averaging  less  than  150  tons, 
measurement,  proceed  cautiously  from  one  headland  to  another, 
and  sail  chiefly  by  day.  Their  cargoes  consist  of  provisions, 
as  rice,  stockfish,  and  vegetables j also  lumber,  coal,  stones,  and 
other  bulky  articles.  Between  Kinchau  and  Kai  chau  in  Liau- 
tung,  and  Tangchau  fu,  Tientsin,  Kishan  so,  and  other  ports  on 
the  coast,  all  the  trade  is  conducted  in  coasting  vessels. 

The  foreign  ports  now  visited  by  Chinese  junks,  are  Singapore, 
Bruni,  Pontianak,  Sambas  and  other  places  in  Borneo,  Bangkok, 
Manila,  some  of  the  islands  in  the  Sulu  se^,  Banca,  Lewchew, 
Corea,  and  Nagasaki  in  Japan.  The  prohibition  of  the  Dutch 
against  the  Chinese  settling  in  Batavia  has  thrown  most  of  their 
trade  to  that  island  into  foreign  bottoms.  The  articles  carried  to 
these  places  comprise  most  of  the  manufactures  of  China — coarse 
crockery,  cottons,  cheap  silks,  and  metallic  articles  of  great  vari- 
ety, constituting  most  of  the  cargo ; the  junks  are  however  usually 
so  crowded  with  emigrants  that  there  is  little  room  for  cargo. 
During  the  war,  large  amounts  of  tea,  silk,  camphor,  and  other 
valuable  commodities  were  imported  from  China  into  Singapore 
for  foreign  markets.  Foreign  articles  are  not  introduced  into  the 
empire  to  any  great  amount  by  junks,  but  the  variety  of  articles 
of  food  or  domestic  use,  and  raw  materials  for  manufactures, 
known  under  the  general  denomination  of  Straits  Produce  is  large. 


398 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Rice  is  the  chief  import  from  Bangkok  and  Manila;  rattans,  pep- 
per and  betel  nut  from  Singapore  and  Borneo  ; biche-de-mer  from 
the  Sulu  sea ; and  copper  and  lacquered-ware  from  Japan.  Of 
the  amount  of  capital  embarked  in  this  commerce,  the  number  of 
vessels,  the  mode  in  which  it  is  carried  on,  and  the  degree  of  risk 
attending  it,  little  is  known.  It  is  likely  to  gradually  decrease 
until  it  is  quite  transferred  to  foreign  bottoms;  for  the  junks  do 
not  sail  upon  the  wind,  and  are  liable  to  be  wrecked  where  ships 
are  not  jeoparded,  so  that  the  time  is  unnecessarily  protracted 
before  returns  can  be  received,  and  the  lives  and  cargo  exposed 
to  great  risks — both  of  which  are  strong  inducements  to  employ 
ships. 

The  natural  facilijjes  for  inland  navigation  in  China  are  unu- 
sually great,  and  have  been  moreover  improved  by  art  for  travel 
and  transportation.  The  assertion,  that  there  is  a greater  amount 
of  tonnage  belonging  to  the  Chinese  than  to  all  other  nations  com- 
bined, does  not  appear  overcharged  to  those  who  have  seen  the 
swarms  of  boats  on  their  rivers,  though  it  might  not  be  found 
strictly  true.  The  foreign  commerce,  supposed  to  be  worth  about 
a hundred  millions  of  dollars  annually,  bears  but  a small  proportion 
to  the  inland  trade.  The  sugar,  oil,  and  rice  of  the  southern 
provinces,  the  tea,  silk,  cotton,  and  crockery  of  the  eastern,  the 
furs,  grain  and  medicines  of  the  northern,  and  the  metals  and 
minerals  of  the  western,  are  constantly  going  to  and  fro  and  de- 
mand myriads  of  boats ; add  thereto  the  immense  number  of 
governmental  boats  required  for  the  transportation  of  salt  and  the 
taxes  paid  in  kind,  the  passage-boats  plying  in  great  numbers 
between  contiguous  towns,  the  pleasure  and  official  barges  and 
revenue-cutters,  and  lastly,  the  far  greater  number  used  for 
family  residences ; and  the  total  of  the  inland  shipping,  it  will  be 
seen,  must  be  enormous.  It  is,  however,  impossible  to  state  the 
amount  in  any  satisfactory  manner,  or  give  an  idea  of  the  pro- 
portion between  the  different  kinds  of  boats.  The  transit  duties 
levied  on  the  produce  carried  in  these  vessels  partake  of  the  na- 
ture of  an  excise  duty,  and  afford  a very-considerable  revenue  to 
the  government,  the  greatest  so,  probably,  next  to  the  land  tax. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  the  additional  charges  for  transit  duty 
and  transportation  on  only  those  teas  brought  to  Canton  for  expor- 
tation, amounted  to  about  a million  of  dollars;  much'of  this  will 
now  be  lost  to  the  country  by  the  opening  of  other  ports.  When- 


EXPORT  OF  SPICES. 


399 


ever  a boat  loaded  with  produce  passes  the  custom-house,  the 
supercargo  presents  his  manifest,  stating  his  name  and  residence, 
the  name  of  the  boat  and  its  crew,  and  the  description  of  the  cargo, 
and  when  the  charges  are  paid,  proceeds  on  his  voyage.  The 
tariff  on  goods  at  these  places  is  light,  but  their  number  in  a 
journey  of  any  length,  and  the  liability  to  unforeseen  detention 
and  exaction  by  the  tidewaiters,  greatly  increase  the  expense  and 
delay  which  a system  of  permits  would  obviate. 

The  mode  of  conducting  the  foreign  trade  with  China  now  pre- 
sents few  of  those  peculiarities  which  formerly  distinguished  it, 
for  the  monopoly  of  the  hong-merchants  and  of  the  East  India 
Company  both  being  abolished,  native  and  foreign  traders  are 
free  to  choose  with  whom  they  will  deal.  The  articles  of  trade 
are  likely  to  increase  in  variety  and  amount,  and  a brief  account 
of  the  principal  ones,  taken  from  the  Chinese  Commercial  Guide, 
may  be  interesting  to  those  unacquainted  with  the  character  of 
this  trade. 

The  foreign  export  and  import  trade  divides  itself  into  two 
branches,  that  between  India  and  the  Archipelago  and  China,  and 
that  beyond  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  former  of  which  com- 
prises the  greatest  variety,  but  its  total  value  is  much  less. 
Alum  of  an  inferior  quality  is  sent  to  India  to  use  in  dyeing  and 
purifying  water.  Aniseed  stars,  seeds  of  the  Amomum  verum, 
cubebs,  musk  seed,  or  the  fruit  of  the  Hibiscus  abelmoschus,  and 
turmeric,  are  all  sought  after  for  their  aromatic  properties.  The 
first  is  the  small  five- rayed  pod  of  the  Illicium  anisalum  ; the  pods 
and  seeds  are  both  prized  for  their  aromatic  qualities,  and  a vola- 
tile oil,  used  in  perfumery  and  medicine  in  Europe,  is  obtained 
from  them  ; the  Asiatics  employ  them  in  cooking.  The  fruit  of 
the  Amomum  is  shaped  like  a grape,  divided  into  three  cells, 
and  containing  a number  of  blackish  seeds  ; it  is  a trifling  article 
of  commerce,  as  are  also  the  musk  seeds,  used  by  the  Arabians  to 
flavor  cotfee.  Cubebs  are  the  produce  of  a pepper  vine  ( Piper 
cubeba),  and  are  externally  distinguished  from  black  pepper  chiefly 
by  their  lighter  color,  and  a short  process  where  the  seed  is  at- 
tached to  the  stalk  ; the  pericarp  is  also  more  wrinkled.  The 
taste  is  warm  or  pungent,  and  slightly  bitter,  with  a pleasant  aro- 
matic smell ; the  Chinese  article  goes  to  India,  the  consumption 
of  Europe  being  supplied  from  Java.  Turmeric  is  the  root  of 
the  Curcuma  longa,  and  is  used  over  all  the  Archipelago  and  India 


400 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


for  its  coloring  and  aromatic  properties,  and  for  food.  The  loots 
are  uneven  and  knotty,  of  a yellowish-saffron  color ; the  smell 
resembles  ginger,  with  a bitterish  taste ; and  the  two  are  usually 
combined  in  the  composition  of  curry- powders.  Its  color  is  too 
fugacious  for  a dye,  no  mordant  having  yet  been  found  to  set  it. 

Besides  these  aromatic  articles,  cassia  and  cassia  oil  are  sent 
abroad  in  amounts  far  exceeding  the  whole  of  them,  and  the 
cassia  buds,  or  the  fleshy  receptacles  of  the  seeds  of  the  tree, 
also  form  an  article  of  commerce,  500  peculs  being  annually 
shipped  to  Europe  and  India  for  the  same  uses  as  cassia.  Cassia 
oil  is  used  for  confectionary  and  perfumery,  and  the  demand  is 
usually  much  greater  than  the  supply.  Arsenic  is  exported  to 
India  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  the  native  sulphuret  or  orpi- 
ment,  is  also  shipped  under  the  name  of  hartall,  for  use  as  a yel- 
low coloring  drug.  The  wrist  and  ankle  rings,  or  bangles  worn 
by  the  Hindus,  are  also  sent  in  large  quantities ; the  Chinese 
imitate  jade  and  chalcedony  in  their  manufacture,  in  which  the 
Hindus  do  not  succeed  so  well.  The  universal  use  and  brittle 
nature  of  these  ornaments  render  their  consumption  enormous  in 
Eastern  Asia.  Brass  leaf  is  extensively  used  in  China,  and  ex- 
ported to  India  for  making  ornamental  offerings  in  worship,  and 
tin-foil  to  a small  amount.  Bones  and  horns  are  manufactured  into 
buttons,  opium-boxes,  hair-pins,  &c.,  some  of  which  go  abroad. 
Bamboos,  fishing-rods,  and  canes,  form  an  article  of  commerce 
under  the  designation  of  whangees ; the  former  are  procured  for 
umbrella  handles,  the  latter  sell  according  to  taste  or  fashion.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  great  assortment  of  articles  comprised 
under  the  head  of  curiosities,  more  or  less  of  which  are  purchased 
by  every  trader  visiting  the  country.  Vases,  pots,  jars,  cups, 
images,  boxes,  plates,  screens,  statuettes,  &c.,  made  of  copper, 
iron,  bronze,  porcelain,  stone,  wood,  clay,  or  lacquered  ware,  of 
almost  every  shape,  size,  and  degree  of  workmanship,  constitute 
the  articles  sent  abroad  under  this  designation. 

Capoor  cutchery  is  the  root  of  a plant  sent  to  India  and  Per- 
sia for  medicinal  purposes  and  for  perfumery,  and  to  preserve 
clothes  from  insects.  It  is  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
cut  up  when  brought  to  market ; it  has  a pungent,  bitterish  taste, 
and  slightly  aromatic  smell.  Galangal  is  another  root  sent  to 
India ; there  are  two  sorts,  the  greater  and  the  smaller,  obtained 
from  different  plants,  the  best  of  which  is  the  smaller,  pro- 


METALLIC  AND  ANIMAL  ARTICLES  EXPORTED. 


401 


cured  from  the  Maranta  galanga.  This  is  of  a reddish  color, 
about  two  inches  long,  of  a firm  texture  though  light,  and  pos- 
sesses an  acrid,  peppery  taste,  and  a slight  aromatic  smell.  The 
larger  is  from  a different  plant  ( Kcempferia  galanga),  and  inferior 
in  every  respect.  Both  are  used  as  spicery,  and  to  some  degree 
in  Europe  as  well  as  India.  China  root  is  exported  solely  for 
medicine  ; the  roots  are  jointed  and  knobbed  ; when  cut,  the  sur- 
face is  smooth  and  close-grained,  and  of  a reddish  color. 

Chinaware,  or  porcelain,  once  so  extensively  exported,  is  now 
almost  confined  to  the  commonest  descriptions  of  stone-ware,  by 
far  the  greatest  portion  of  which  goes  to  India.  The  patterns 
made  by  the  Chinese  seldom  change,  while  the  foreign  manufac- 
turers can  both  consult  and  lead  the  taste  and  fancy  of  their  cus- 
tomers, and  it  is  owing  to  this,  in  some  degree,  that  the  demand 
for  the  Chinese  fine  ware  has  ceased,  though  the  Mongols,  Siam- 
ese, Hindus,  and  islanders  in  the  Archipelago  are  still  chiefly 
supplied  from  China.  Copper-ware  and  tutenague  utensils,  with 
coral  and  glass  heads,  all  form  a small  portion  of  the  trade  to 
India  ; the  Chinese  seldom  use  glass  beads  as  ornaments.  False 
pearls  are  sent  to  the  same  regions  for  ornaments,  as  well  as  em- 
ployed by  the  Chinese.  Glue  of  a tolerably  good  quality,  made 
from  ox-hides  by  themselves,  supplies  the  Chinese,  and  furnishes 
an  article  for  export  to  India.  Isinglass,  or  fish-glue,  is  made 
from  the  sounds  and  noses  of  some  sorts  of  fish,  as  the  bynni  carp, 
or  Polynemus ; it  is  much  used  in  cookery,  and  the  manufacture 
of  false  pearls. 

A kind  of  umbrella,  or  parasol,  made  of  oiled  paper,  or  cheap 
oiled  silk,  called  kittysol,  is  largely  exported  to  India  ; the  article 
is  durable,  considering  its  material,  and  its  cheapness  induces 
a large  consumption.  Tobacco  is  sent  to  the  Indian  islands  in 
considerable  quantity,  but  entirely  for  use  among  the  natives. 
Ware  made  from  ivory,  tortoise-shell,  mother-o’-pearl,  and  gold 
and  silver,  constitutes  altogether  a considerable  item  in  the  trade, 
for  the  beautiful  carving  of  the  Chinese  always  commands  a 
market.  The  workmen  easily  execute  orders,  and  imitate  new 
patterns  for  boxes,  combs,  and  buttons  of  mother-o’-pearl  or  tor- 
toise-shell, while  the  cheapness  and  beauty  with  which  silver  table 
furniture  is  made,  cause  a large  demand.  Lacquered-ware  is  not 
so  much  sent  abroad  now  as  formerly,  the  foreign  imitations  of 
the  trays  and  tables  having  nearly  superseded  the  demand  for  the 


402 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM 


Chinese  ware.  Marble  slabs  and  tiles  for  floors,  are  sent  to  India, 
Sydney,  and  elsewhere  ; they  are  about  a foot  square,  and  form  a 
durable  pavement  for  courts  and  basements,  in  a warm  climate. 

Mats  made  of  rattan  for  table- furniture,  and  of  grass  for  floors, 
are  largely  exported.  The  latter  is  manufactured  of  different 
widths  and  patterns,  and  though  the  amount  annually  sent  to  the 
United  States  and  elsewhere  is  calculated  to  exceed  half  a mil- 
lion yards,  it  forms  a very  small  proportion  to  the  home  consump- 
tion. Floor  matting  is  put  up  in  rolls  containing  fifty  mats,  or 
forty  yards.  Rattans  are  manufactured  into  chairs,  baskets,  and 
othei  articles,  but  their  bulk  interferes  with  their  exportation. 
Musk , though  still  an  article  constantly  in  demand  for  its  odor,  is 
often  and  much  adulterated,  or  its  quality  impaired  by  disease. 
It  comes  to  Canton  in  the  bags  found  on  the  animals,  which  are 
about  as  large  as  a walnut ; when  good,  it  is  of  a dark  purplish 
color,  diy  and  light,  and  generally  in  concrete,  smooth,  and  unc- 
tuous grains ; its  taste  is  bitter  and  smell  strong ; when  rubbed 
on  paper,  the  trace  is  of  a bright  yellow  color,  and  the  feel  free 
from  grittiness.  A brown  unctuous  earth  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  it,  and  the  bags  are  frequently  artificial ; the  price  is  about 
forty-five  dollars  a pound  for  the  best  quality. 

Nankeens  were  formerly  sent  abroad  in  considerable  quantities, 
but  instead  of  exporting  their  own  fabrics,  the  Chinese  now  pur- 
chase cottons  from  their  former  customers  to  a large  amount. 
There  are  few  fabrics  more  durable  than  the  nankeen,  and  it 
forms  the  principal  material  for  cheap  garments  among  the  peo- 
ple, and  is  more  or  less  exported  every  year  to  England,  Sydney, 
and  South  America.  Silk  goods  go  mostly  to  the  United  States, 
and  raw  silk  to  England.  The  supply  is  not  equal  to  the  demand, 
and  only  about  ten  thousand  bales  are  now  exported,  while  up- 
wards of  twenty  thousand  were  sent  off,  mostly  to  England,  in 
1836,  some  of  which  rated  as  high  as  $500  a pecul.  The  refuse 
raw  silk  goes  to  India.  The  exportation  to  the  United  States  for 
making  silk  thread  is  trifling.  Silk  goods  are  shipped  to  the 
United  States,  Mexico  and  South  America,  and  elsewhere,  to  the 
annual  value  of  about  a million  of  dollars ; they  consist  chiefly 
of  pongees,  handkerchiefs,  crape-shawls,  scarfs,  sarsnet,  senshaws, 
levantines  and  satins ; ribbons,  sewing-thread,  and  organzine,  or 
thrown  silk,  are  not  much  shipped.  The  silk  trade  is  more  likely 
to  increase  than  any  other  branch  of  the  commerce,  after  tea,  and 


EXPORTS  OF  MUSK,  COTTON,  AND  SILKEN  GOODS.  403 

the  Chinese  can  furnish  almost  any  amount  of  raw  and  manufac- 
turecl  silks  according  to  the  demand  for  them.  The  best  Soy  is 
made  by  boiling  beans  soft,  adding  an  equal  quantity  of  wheat  or 
barley,  and  leaving  the  mass  to  ferment ; a portion  of  salt,  and 
three  times  as  much  water  as  beans,  are  afterwards  put  in,  and 
the  whole  compound  left  for  two  or  three  months,  when  the  liquid 
is  pressed  and  strained.  The  flavor  and  ingredients  of  soy  vary 
considerably,  even  among  the  people  who  make  it,  and  much  of 
that  exported  is  supposed  to  be  more  or  less  adulterated.  Sugar 
was  formerly  largely  exported  to  India,  especially  the  common 
brown  sugar ; that  article  is  now  in  a measure  undersold  by  the 
sugars  of  Manila  and  Siam,  and  only  the  ping  fa  sugar,  and  sugar 
candy  are  sent  abroad.  The  customs  of  the  Chinese  and  Hindus 
in  their  domestic  and  social  habits  are  so  unlike,  and  they  pro- 
duce so  few  things  that  each  other  require,  that  the  trade  between 
the  two  countries  was  probably  never  very  great,  considering  the 
extent  of  their  territories  and  amount  of  population. 

Besides  the  articles  abovementioned,  there  are  many  others 
which  singly  form  very  trifling  items  in  the  trade,  but  their  total 
exportation  annually  amounts  to  many  lacs  of  dollars.  Among 
them,  fire-crackers  is  one  of  the  largest  in  amount,  chiefly  to  the 
United  States;  in  1845,  more  than  65,000  boxes  were  shipped 
to  that  country,  while  some  went  to  India  and  South  America. 
Among  other  sundries  which  are  sent  abroad,  vermilion,  gold  leaf, 
sea-shells,  preserved  insects,  fans  of  paper  and  silk,  ginger,  sweet- 
meats and  jellies,  rhubarb,  gamboge,  camphor,  grass-cloth,  split 
rattans,  fishing-lines,  joss-sticks  for  lighting  segars,  spangles, 
window-blinds,  vegetable  tallow,  and  pictures,  are  the  most  de- 
serving of  mention.  Some  of  them  may  perhaps  become  impor- 
tant articles  of  commerce,  and  all  of  them,  except  vermilion,  gam- 
boge, and  rattans,  are  the  produce  of  the  country,  and  can  be  fur- 
nished to  any  extent. 

The  imports  into  China  make  a much  longer  list  than  the  ex- 
ports, for  almost  everything  that  had,  should,  or  might  sell  there, 
is  from  time  to  time  offered  in  the  market ; and  if  the  Chinese  at 
Canton  had  had  any  inclination  or  curiosity  to  obtain  the  produc- 
tions or  manufactures  of  other  lands,  they  have  had  no  want  of 
specimens.  It  will,  of  course,  in  describing  the  articles  of  im- 
port, only  be  necessary  to  mention  those  whose  names  are  not  of 
themselves  a sufficient  description.  Opium,  rice,  raw  cotton, 


404 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


longcloths,  domestics  and  sheetings  among  manufactured  cottons, 
ginseng,  tin,  lead,  iron  in  the  form  of  bars,  rods,  and  hoop,  and 
woolen  goods,  constitute  the  great  bulk  of  the  import  trade.  The 
rice  is  brought  from  Java,  Bali,  Lombok,  and  Manila,  and  the 
government  has  shown  the  greatest  desire  to  increase  the  importa- 
tion, by  allowing  all  ships  laden  with  no  other  cargo,  to  enter  the 
port  free  of  all  tonnage  dues.  So  early  as  1832,  the  governor  of 
Canton  reduced  the  duties  upon  all  rice-laden  ships  about  three 
thousand  dollars,  a privilege  which  was  largely  availed  of  to  bring 
vessels  into  port,  whose  cargoes  had  been  transhipped  at  Lintin 
for  the  purpose  of  taking  in  rice.  The  importation  of  rice  during 
the  year  1834  was  upwards  of  fifty  millions  of  pounds. 

The  importations  from  the  Indian  Archipelago  comprise  a large 
variety  of  articles,  though  their  total  amount  and  value  are  not 
very  great.  Agar-agar  is  one  of  the  list  of  eatables  from  this 
region ; it  is  a tenacious  vegetable  glue  made  from  seaweed,  and 
when  boiled  with  sugar  forms  a sweetish  jelly,  somewhat  resem- 
bling calf’s-foot.  Betel-nut  forms  a more  important  import;  it  is 
the  fruit  of  the  areca  palm,  and  is  called  betel-nut  because  it  is 
chewed  with  the  leaf  of  the  betel  pepper  as  a masticatory.  The 
nut  is  the  only  part  brought  to  China,  the  leaf  being  raised  along 
the  whole  southern  coast ; it  resembles  a nutmeg  in  shape,  color, 
and  internal  structure,  but  is  a little  larger ; the  whole  of  the  nut 
is  chewed.  The  nuts  are  boiled  or  eaten  raw,  the  former  being 
cut  into  slices  and  boiled  with  a small  quantity  of  cutch  and  then 
dried.  Those  brought  to  China  are  simply  deprived  of  the  husk 
and  dried.  When  chewed,  a slice  of  the  nut  is  wrapped  in  the 
fresh  leaf  smeared  with  a mixture  of  gambier  colored  red  with 
cinnabar,  and  the  whole  masticated  to  a pulp  before  spitting  it  out. 
The  teeth  become  dark  red  from  using  it,  but  the  Chinese  are 
careful  to  remove  this  stain,  which  the  Malays  regard  as  beau- 
tiful. The  taste  of  the  fresh  pepper  leaf  is  herbaceous  and  aro- 
matic with  a little  pungency,  and  those  who  chew  it  become  so 
fond  of  it  that  it  is  seldom  out  of  their  mouths. 

Biche-de-mer,  i.  e.  slug  of  the  sea,  or  tripang,  is  an  important 
article  of  trade.  It  is  a marine  animal,  resembling  the  common 
garden  slug,  but  much  larger,  being  sometimes  over  a foot  long, 
and  two  or  three  inches  through ; the  common  size  is  a span  in 
length  and  two  inches  in  girth . It  inhabits  the  reefs  and  shallow 
waters  around  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Archipelago, 


IMPORTS  OF  ARTICLES  OF  FOOD. 


405 


and  is  obtained  by  the  natives  by  diving  or  spearing,  and  prepared 
by  cleansing  and  smoking  it.  In  the  market,  it  appears  hard 
and  rigid  externally,  of  a dirty  brown  coloi  and  when  soaked  in 
water  resembles  pork-rind,  and  is  like  that  in  taste  when  stewed. 
It  is  cooked  by  itself,  or  mixed  with  other  ingredients  and  dishes, 
and  is  extensively  consumed  from  a belief  that  it  possesses  pecu- 
liar strengthening,  aphrodisiac  qualities.  The  Chinese  distinguish 
nearly  thirty  sorts  of  hai  sang,  i.  e.  sea  ginseng,  or  tripang,  and 
it  is  not  unlikely  that  several  species  of  Holothurion  are  cap- 
tured and  sold  for  food  under  the  name ; in  commerce,  however, 
all  sorts  are  known  as  white  or  black,  the  prices  ranging  from 
Si, 50  up  to  $80  a pecul.  Birdsnests,  sharks’  Jins,  and  Jish- 
maws  are  three  articles  of  food  brought  to  China  from  the  Archi- 
pelago, but  not  in  such  quantities  as  tripang.  The  art  or  skill 
of  man  has  no  power  to  increase  the  supply  of  the  first  of  these 
three,  although  its  high  price  leads  him  to  run  desperate  risks 
to  get  it,  but  the  supply  of  the  two  latter  nearly  equals  the  de- 
mand. The  taste  of  the  Chinese  for  the  gelatinous  fins  of  the 
shark  has  one  good  effect  in  clearing  the  seas  of  that  ferocious  fish, 
and  to  a European  palate  the  soup  or  stew  made  from  them  is  not 
at  all  unpalatable.  It  is  not  known  what  fish  supplies  the  maws 
brought  to  Canton,  but  the  gelatinous  nature  of  the  dish  suggests 
a species  of  Polynemus.  The  total  annual  importation  of  the 
four  substances  here  mentioned  into  Canton,  in  foreign  bottoms,  is 
not  far  from  25,000  peculs  of  betel-nut,  500  peculs  of  biche-de- 
mer,  1,500  peculs  of  fishmaws,  and  between  five  and  six  of 
birds’  nests  ; their  combined  value  is  estimated  at  about  $200,000. 
Crawfurd,  in  his  work  on  the  Indian  Archipelago,  written  about 
twenty-five  years  ago,  estimated  the  amount  of  birdsnests  alone 
produced  in  the  islands,  at  243,000  pounds,  worth  about  $1,250,- 
000,  but  the  supply  is  not  now  so  abundant.  It  is  nearly  im- 
possible, however,  to  ascertain  the  total  amount  of  these  articles 
introduced  into  China,  for  so  large  a portion  of  the  trade  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  natives,  that  any  notion  of  their  consumption  derived 
from  the  insufficient  data  of  foreign  importations  would  be  ex- 
ceedingly inaccurate. 

Ambergris  is  a substance  secreted  in  the  intestines  of  the  sper- 
maceti whale,  and  brought  from  the  Archipelago  in  small  quanti- 
ties for  medicinal  purposes,  the  Chinese  having  the  not  uncommon 
idea  that  the  value  of  a thing  depends  somewhat  on  its  rarity 


406 


TIIE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


and  cost.  It  is  a solid,  opaque,  ash-colored  or  marbled,  fatty, 
inflammable  substance,  with  little  black  spots  inside  resembling 
wax,  and  gives  off  an  agreeable  odor  when  heated.  Amber  is 
found  on  various  eastern  shores,  from  Africa  to  Japan,  and  is 
much  sought  after  by  the  Chinese,  to  make  court  beads  and  other 
ornaments ; false  amber  is  also  brought  from  India,  and  sold  at 
prices  almost  as  great  as  the  genuine  article,  and  which,  from 
their  resemblance  to  it,  are  equally  good  for  such  purposes. 
Beeswax,  though  largely  produced  in  China,  is  imported  from 
Timor  and  Timorlaut,  in  Portuguese  ships,  to  incase  thin  tallow 
or  lard  candles. 

Many  drugs  and  medicines  are  brought  to  Canton  from  the 
south,  some  of  which  are  of  considerable  importance.  Assafce- 
tida  is  one  of  them,  ranking  high  in  the  materia  medica,  and  said 
to  be  sometimes  used  for  curing  persons  of  opium-smoking,  by 
mixing  the  two, — a befitting  remedy,  and  one  which  ought  to 
cure  that  destructive  habit  if  anything  nauseous  and  vile  could 
do  it.  Cow  bezoar,  and  bezoars  from  all  ruminating  animals,  al- 
ways find  a ready  market  in  China,  where  the  doctors  lay  it  up 
as  a rare  medicine,  and  are  not  unfrequently  deceived  by  an  ar- 
tificial preparation  of  pipe-clay  and  ox-gall  mixed  with  a little 
hair.  Cutch,  or  Terra  Japonica  is  a gummy  resin,  obtained  from 
a species  of  Acacia,  and  was  for  a long  time  supposed  to  be  a sort 
of  earth  found  in  Japan  ; it  is  called  cutch  from  the  Runn  of 
Cutch,  near  which  the  tree  grows.  The  best  is  friable  between 
the  fingers,  and  of  a reddish  brown  color ; the  cakes  resemble 
chocolate  in  appearance,  and  a piece  melts  in  the  mouth  with  a 
sweetish,  astringent  taste,  leaving  no  grittiness,  the  presence  of 
which  is  a test  of  impurity  or  bad  preparation.  The  Chinese  use 
it  as  a red  dye,  but  the  Indian  islanders  chew  it  with  betel-nut. 
Rose-maloes  is  a scented  gummous  oil  of  the  consistence  of  tar 
brought  from  Persia  to  China  for  medicinal  purposes. 

The  Chinese  depend  upon  their  southern  neighbors  for  many 
gum-resins,  the  majority  of  which  come  from  the  Archipelago. 
j Benzoin,  or  benjamin,  is  the  most  highly  esteemed  ; it  is  the  con- 
crete juice  of  a small  tree  cultivated  in  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  col- 
lected from  the  bark  by  incisions  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
opium,  until  the  plant  withers  and  dies.  It  comes  to  market  in 
cakes,  which  in  some  parts  of  those  islands  formerly  served  as 
standards  of  value.  Good  benzoin  is  full  of  clear  light-colored 


DRUGS,  GUM  RESINS,  AND  DYES  IMPORTED. 


407 


spots,  marbled  on  the  broken  surface,  and  giving  off  an  agree- 
able  odor  when  heated  or  rubbed  ; it  is  the  frankincense  of  the 
far  East,  and  has  been  employed  by  many  nations  in  their  reli- 
gious ceremonies ; for  what  was  so  acceptable  to  the  worshippers 
was  soon  inferred  to  be  equally  grateful  to  the  gods,  and  sought 
after  by  all  devotees  as  a delightful  perfume.  The  quantity  of 
benzoin  produced  is,  however,  small,  and  the  Arabian  frankin- 
cense or  olibanum,  is  more  commonly  seen  in  the  market,  and  is 
employed  for  the  same  purposes.  This  gum-resin  exudes  spon- 
taneously from  a large  tree  growing  in  Arabia  and  India ; the 
drops  have  a pale,  reddish  color,  a strong  and  somewhat  unpleas- 
ant smell,  a pungent  and  bitterish  taste,  and  when  chewed,  give 
the  saliva  a milky  color ; it  burns  with  a pleasant  fragrance  and 
slight  residuum.  Myrrh  and  bdellium  are  brought  to  China  from 
India  and  Persia,  both  being  employed  in  medicine  and  fumiga- 
tion ; bdellium  is  semi-pellucid,  of  a yellowish  brown  color,  unc- 
tuous, bitter  and  brittle.  Dragon’s  blood  is  the  concrete  j uice  of 
the  rattan  palm,  and  comes  to  market  in  large  lumps  formed  of 
the  tears  agglutinated  together ; when  powdered,  it  shows  a bright 
crimson,  and  if  pure  burns  entirely  away.  The  Chinese  employ 
it  as  a medicine,  varnish,  and  paint,  and  consume  it  to  a larger 
extent  than  any  other  nation.  Besides  these  five  gums,  small 
quantities  of  gum  arabic,  copal  and  gum  animi  are  found.  Dam- 
mar is  another  article  of  the  same  class  as  the  preceding,  being  a 
kind  of  indurated  pitch  flowing  spontaneously  from  pines  growing 
in  the  Archipelago,  in  such  quantities  as  to  supply  the  natives  with 
an  excellent  material  for  paying  the  seams  of  their  boats ; only  a 
little  is  brought  to  China,  for  in  their  chunam  the  Chinese  have  a 
good  material  for  such  purposes.  Small  quantities  of  coir,  ob- 
tained from  Borneo  and  other  islands,  are  also  brought  by  native 
vessels.  Cudbear  is  imported  from  England  in  small  quantities, 
gamboge  from  Siam  and  Cochinchina  to  a large  amount,  and 
cochineal  from  Mexico.  Prussian  blue  and  indigo,  made  by  the 
Chinese  themselves,  furnish  the  largest  part  of  their  dyes,  though 
the  annual  importation  of  the  three  articles  abovementioned,  is 
probably  not  less  than  $50,000.  m 

Cloves  are  consumed  but  little  by  the  Chinese,  their  average 
importation  not  exceeding  400  parcels.  Mother  cloves  is  a name 
given  to  a larger  and  inferior  description  brought  from  the  straits 
of  Malacca,  and  used  for  scents.  Pepper  is  much  more  used 


409 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


than  cloves,  the  tea  being  considered  highly  beneficial  in  fevers ; 
the  good  effects  of  it  as  a febrifuge,  seem,  however,  to  be  doubted 
lately,  for  the  importation  is  not  one  half  now  what  it  was  fifteen 
years  ago.  Camphor,  although  largely  produced  in  China  is  still 
imported  from  Borneo,  the  people  supposing  that  the  drops  and 
lumps  found  in  the  fissures  of  the  camphor  tree  in  that  island,  are 
far  more  valuable  and  powerful  than  their  own  gum ; the  propor- 
tion between  the  two,  both  in  price  and  quantity,  is  about  eighteen 
to  one.  Cardamoms,  nutmegs,  and  mace,  are  little  used  by  the  Chi- 
nese in  cookery  ; the  first  named  are  the  capsules  of  a small  shrub 
growing  in  Malabar  ; they  have  a sweet  aromatic  flavor,  and  a 
grateful  warmth  when  chewed. 

Gambier  forms  a part  of  cargoes  from  Singapore  ; it  is  ob- 
tained from  the  gambier  vine  by  boiling  the  leaves,  and  inspissat- 
ing the  decoction  ; a soapy  substance  of  a brownish  yellow  color, 
remains,  which  is  a good  and  cheap  material  for  tanning  and  dye- 
ing. Putchuck  is  a fragrant  root  brought  from  Scinde,  resembling 
rhubarb  in  color  and  smell,  and  affording  an  agreeable  perfume 
when  burned  ; the  powder  is  employed  in  making  incense  sticks, 
and  the  importation,  principally  for  this  purpose,  is  about  2000 
peculs.  Sandal-wood  is  brought  for  the  same  object  from  India, 
and  the  islands  lying  east  of  it ; but  the  best  pieces  are  selected 
for  carving  and  making  fancy  articles,  as  fans,  card-cases,  &c. 

Cornelians,  agates,  and  other  stones  of  greater  or  less  value 
are  purchased  by  the  Chinese  for  manufacturing  into  official  in- 
signia, rings,  beads,  and  other  articles  of  ornament ; they  are 
brought  chiefly  from  India  or  Central  Asia.  Pearls,  to  the 
amount  of  $300,000,  arc  annually  brought  to  Canton  ; and  coral 
is  also  a part  of  cargoes  from  the  Archipelago.  Mother -o' -pearl 
shells  and  tortoise-shell  are  brought  from  the  same  region  and  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  a large  part  of  which  is  re-exported  in  the 
shape  of  buttons,  combs,  and  other  productions  of  Chinese  skill. 
Ivory  comes  principally  from  Cochinchina  and  Africa,  via  Bom- 
bay, and  always  finds  a ready  sale  at  Canton ; the  largest  and  best 
tusks  weigh  from  16  to  25  pounds  each,  decreasing  to  five  or  six 
pounds.  The  cuttings  and  fragments  also  form  an  article  of 
trade,  as  the  workmen  can  employ  the  smallest  pieces.  Bones 
and  horns,  especially  the  long  horns  of  buffaloes,  are  worked  into 
handles,  buttons,  &c.  Rhinoceros’  horns  are  brought  from  Bir- 
mah  and  Sumatra,  and  from  Africa  through  Bombay;  they  are 


GEMS,  IVORY,  AND  METALS  IMPORTED. 


409 


highly  valued  by  the  Chinese  from  a notion  that  cups  made  from 
them  sweat  whenever  a poisonous  mixture  is  poured  into  them. 
A perfect  horn  sometimes  sells  as  high  as  $300,  but  those  that 
come  from  Africa  do  not  usually  rate  above  $30  or  $40  each. 
The  principal  use  of  these  horns  is  in  medicine  and  for  amulets, 
for  only  one  good  cup  can  be  carved  from  the  end  of  each  horn ; 
and  consequently  the  parings  and  fragments  are  all  preserved. 
The  hard  teeth  of  the  walrus,  lamantin,  and  other  cetaceous  ani- 
mals, also  form  an  article  of  import  from  the  Pacific,  under  the 
designation  of  seahorse-teeth;  they  weigh  one  or  two  pounds 
apiece,  and  the  ivory  is  nearly  as  compact,  though  not  so  white, 
as  that  of  the  elephant. 

Among  the  miscellaneous  articles  brought  from  Europe,  are 
flints  and  broken  glass  for  use  in  the  native  glass  manufacture. 
Ginseng  still  forms  a considerable  item  in  the  American  trade, 
but  the  high  prices  it  once  brought  are  no  longer  obtained,  though 
a high  duty  indicates  the  desire  of  the  Chinese  government  to  pro- 
tect the  imperial  monopoly.  Gold  and  silver  thread  is  largely 
imported  for  embroidery,  ornamenting  ladies’  dresses,  and  such 
like  purposes.  The  importation  of  metals  has  steadily  increased 
with  the  enlargement  of  the  trade  ; lead,  iron,  sheet-tin,  block- 
tin,  copper,  spelter,  tutenague,  quicksilver,  and  steel,  are  all  im- 
portant items  in  the  foreign  trade,  and  go  far  to  supply  the  na- 
tive consumption  along  the  coast.  Lead,  iron  and  quicksilver  are 
the  largest  in  the  list ; the  first  is  extensively  employed  for  lining 
tea-chests,  and  in  the  preparation  of  red  and  white  lead  for  paints ; 
the  latter  is  largely  re-exported  in  the  shape  of  vermilion,  and 
consumed  in  the  plating  of  looking-glasses.  Gold-dust  is  brought 
from  Borneo  and  melted  into  ingots,  which  are  employed  to  some 
extent  as  bullion,  but  this  metal  is  principally  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  gold  leaf.  Smaltz,  for  painting  blue  on  porcelain  and 
copper  basins,  is  almost  the  only  metallic  oxide  imported.  Salt, 
petre  was  formerly  prohibited,  under  the  idea  that  foreigners  ex- 
ported  it  for  making  their  own  powder  ; it  is  purchased  entirely 
for  government  use,  and  is  resold  by  them  to  the  people,  or  worked 
up  in  powder  manufactories. 

Sago  is  brought  from  Singapore,  but  the  consumption  "of  thq 
si  kuh  mi,  i.  e.  “ small-grain  rice,”  is  very  limited.  Another  arti- 
cle of  food  of  greater  sale  is  stockfish,  but  as  the  Chinese  have 
learned  to  cure  fish  in  this  way  without  salt,  the  foreign  importa 
yoi..  ii.  19 


410 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


tion  has  diminished  from  thousands  of  peculs  to  a mere  trifle. 
Shins  and  furs  still  come  to  Canton,  but  the  supply  is  small  and 
unequal ; the  forests  of  Manchuria  and  Siberia  furnish  the  chief 
part  of  the  fine  furs,  while  the  flocks  of  the  Mongols  produce  an 
almost  unlimited  supply  of  lambskins.  The  dress  of  the  Chinese 
is  well  adapted  for  displaying  elegant  furs,  and  the  sumptuary 
laws  compel  officers  to  wear  them  on  their  winter  caps  and  robes. 
Woods  of  various  sorts  are  imported  for  cabinet-work,  dye-stuffs, 
and  medicine.  Ebony,  amboyna-wood,  rose-wood,  mahogany, 
and  satin-wood,  are  employed  by  the  carpenters  at  Canton  to  a 
considerable  extent,  but  their  machinery  for  cutting  veneers  is 
clumsy,  and  the  people  prefer  solid  pieces  of  furniture  to  those 
which  are  inlaid.  • 

The  list  of  articles  of  foreign  manufacture  found  in  the  mar- 
kets of  Canton,  comprises  many  which  the  Chinese  do  not  pur- 
chase to  any  amount,  being  brought  there  principally  to  supply 
the  foreign  residents,  as  well  as  with  a view  to  try  the  taste  of 
the  people.  Clocks  and  watches,  cheap  jewelry,  telescopes,  cut- 
lery, snuff,  corks,  glassware,  lamps,  chandeliers,  coarse  soap  from 
India,  &c.,  are  among  the  most  saleable  imports. 

The  mode  of  conducting  the  trade  is  fully  described  in  the 
Chinese  Commercial  Guide,  where  the  forms  of  custom-house 
blanks  are  given  in  both  English  and  Chinese.  The  foreigners 
themselves  employ  clerks  called  linguists,  to  transact  all  their 
custom-house  business,  who  go  through  the  details,  and  act  also 
as  brokers  in  many  transactions.  Every  Chinese  who  intends  to 
engage  in  the  trade,  either  in  this  capacity,  or  as  a trader,  pre- 
viously learns  to  speak  English,  by  studying  manuscript  vocabu- 
laries, in  which  the  English  sounds  of  words  and  phrases  are 
written  underneath  in  the  Chinese  character,  he  obtaining  the  as- 
sistance of  more  advanced  scholars  to  correct  his  pronunciation. 
The  idioms  of  the  English  learned  in  this  viva-voce  manner,  are 
chiefly  Chinese,  which  explains  the  inverted  arrangement  of  sen- 
tences in  the  Canton-English,  as  this  jargon  is  called,  and  the 
utter  disregard  paid  to  gender,  number,  person,  time,  and  other 
proprieties,  considered  of  some  importance  in  most  languages. 
For  instance,  a shopkeeper  going  to  a foreigner  to  solicit  his  cus. 
tom,  says,  “ My  chinchin  (request)  you,  one  good  fleen  (friend), 
take  care  for  my  (patronize  me) ; ’spose  you  wanchee  any  first 
chop  ting,  my  can  catchee  for  you  ; I secure  sell  ’em  plum  cash 


MODE  OF  CONDUCTING  THE  TRADE. 


411 


(prime  cost)  ; can  do  ?”  The  foreigner,  with  great  gravity  re- 
plies,  “Just  now,  my  no  wanchee  any  ting;  any  teem  (time) 
’spose  you  got  very  number  one  good  ting,  perhaps  I come  your 
shop  look  see.”  The  native,  knowing  no  other  rules  of  speech, 
follows  his  own  tongue,  and  the  foreigner  must  imitate  the  same, 
or  be  misunderstood.  The  whole  trade  is  conducted  in  this 
meagre  gibberish,  which  the  natives  suppose,  however,  to  be  as 
copious  and  correct  English  as  foreigners  themselves  speak,  but 
which  hardly  serves  even  the  common  purposes  of  trade  and 
household  need,  much  less  enables  the  two  parties  to  exchange 
ideas  upon  recondite  subjects.  Much  of  the  misunderstanding 
and  trouble  experienced  in  daily  intercourse  with  the  Chinese 
is  doubtless  owing  to  this  imperfect  medium,  for  they  seldom  take 
the  trouble  to  ascertain  if  their  idea  of  what  is  told  them  is  the 
correct  one  ; and  mutual  vexation  and  ill-will  arise,  when  one 
party  finds  his  orders  to  have  been  heedlessly  performed,  and  the 
other  that  his  efforts  to  please  have  only  brought  maledictions  in- 
stead of  commendation.  These  petty  annoyances  have  also  had 
more  serious  results  in  strengthening  the  national  dislikes,  and 
still  further  separating  those  who  originally  intended,  perhaps,  only 
to  endure  each  other  as  long  as  they  could  make  gain  thereby. 

The  value  and  variety  of  the  imports  and  exports  which  paid 
duty  for  a single  year,  will  be  seen  from  the  following  tables, 
which  have  been  prepared  from  official  sources,  by  the  British 
consuls  at  Canton  and  Shanghai,  and  are  as  near  the  actual 
amounts  as  can  be  ascertained.  The  total  of  the  foreign  trade  at 
the  five  ports  for  the  year  1845  is  here  given  from  consular  re- 
turns, but  the  amounts  do  not  include  the  American  and  Spanish 
trade  at  Amoy,  nor  the  trade  at  some  of  the  other  ports  under 
other  flags.  The  dollar  is  reckoned  at  4s.  2 d.  sterling. 


Canton,  . 
Amoy,  . . 
Fuhchau, 


Imports  in  vessels  of  all  nations, . .$14,062,811  or  £3.016,942 
Exports  in  vessels  of  all  nations, . . $30,564,526  or  £6,622,726 

Imports  in  33  British  vessels, $707,973  or  £147,494 

Exports  in  British  vessels, $742,749  or  £154,781 

Imports  in  5 British  vessels,  $346,308 ; and  3 American,  $55,267 
Exports  in  British  vessels,  $328,608;  and  in  American,  $ 3,725 


f Imports  in  British  vessels $49,911  ; exports,  $83,976 

Ningpo,  . < Imports  in  Bremen  vessels,  . . . .$13,834;  exports,  $ 2,217 

(Imports  in  American  vessels,  ...  $ 5,414;  exports,  $ 5,357 

„ ( Imports  in  all  vessels, $5,875,104  or  £1,223,980 

SHANGHAI,  J Exports  in  aI1  vegse,9 $6,465,849  or  £1,347,052 


Estimate  of  legal  Imports  from  foreign  countries  into  Canton,  and  those  into  Shanghai  in  British  vessels  during  the  year  1845. 


412 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


CO  O O 1'  h 

1-.  CO  © O — I in 

© 

:<n  : : —•"'o'  — ' — " © 

f-H  On  oi 


04  1- 

2Sf 


© irt  04 
CDOO 
05  ^ 


OJl^OCDCi 
© 54  -^  — © 
^CO©l  W« 

; co"  co*  ©"  <xT" 
in  04 
04 


o 

<X> 

C3  1 


^ 04 

CD  as 

CO^04  § 

: i>  is 


GO  © — 
ao  © in 

O 00  CD 


CD  O O O 

— in  in 

• M05hw  • CO 

* in'  tjT 

in 


CD  — CO  04  O 

oj  co  ^ co  in  oq 

• CO  O • — . 55^ 

‘ ~ -T  * *-T  * co* 


5S 
C p£4 


o 

in' 


o — • 

* i-T  ‘ ©" 


in  in  qo  in 
04  © — 04 
• CD  — QO 
04" 


£ 


£ 
• in 


c-= 


• CD 
‘ CO" 


© CD 
• 04  04 


CO 

:S  : 


00 

• CD 

• T* 


e a 

II 


oo  o co  cd  t—  — 05  ■**  in  m 

in  © GO  ^ 00  CO  00  CO  00  GO  04 

O • • in  CD  05  04  05  • © 04  l-—  4r-  *— i 

of  * ’CD*  of 00* 04*  * 04*  — " o'  v-T 

— co  co  co  in 

CO  — 


04  CD 
^ CD 
• 00  04 


in  o in  cd 
co  04  04  ^ 

05  ^ — in 


- 4^  © 4^  © © © © © — © — 
^■^04  04  04  04  0^^^-05  — 
4^©/^^  -©^(»C4©^ 

- co** co" oT co"  tjT  05"  o'  — " in'  — " in' 

4 t*  04  — 04  — — 


CD  05  in  05 

o>  00  © tj*  in  — 

• 05  04  © -^  • ^ 

• co"  tjT  - ^T 


— in  co  in  in  © in  r-  in  © © 

04  © *D  04  CO  © 04  Tt<  © © © »— 

04  ©_^  ©_  l-  ©^  04^  ©^  CD^Tj^  — ^ C4^  G0_ 

‘ ©"  — "©"  o>"  ©"  ; — ' in"  co"  rp"  — " co"  ; 04" 

00©  — 00  — in  04  — 

T}<  H 


etf  3 £ 

E 3 o 

•D  >-C3 


in  ao  © 

© 04  4 — 
l-  GO  © 
©"  04"  04" 
CO  CO  CO 
— 04 


©04©©  — r*  04  00 

— — © © — 4"  4—  © 

— CO^rf*^  —^05^04^©  — 

in"  ©"  04"  04"  ©"  4>"  © co" 

© © © 04  © CO 

— ■**  t}< 


4^  CO  © — 00  04  4-  04©  in-^f 

04  00  GO  CO  — CO  04  COOO  -^  © 

Tt*_o4_©>  w t^qo  © in© 

5"  co"  ©"  — " ©~  . of 


fee  sd  o< 
tea  g 


— © — © © 4^ 

04  GO  in  00  ^ © 4- 

04  04  1—  in_in_©^ 

in'  m"©"  04"  ©"  in"  4-"  c 

CO  04  GO  in  CO 

^ ^ 04  — 

tn  co  3 m _T 

3 .2  3.2  - 

§ - v 
2.  * « X pu-  : 


3 wT  3 «T  co* 


0) 


<35 


s. 


C -5 
O .3 

C.  5 
•cS 

£ s 

o 

QO 


— o • 

a.  — . 


JS  ?£  g_ 

* £ rt 

„ a> 


o 


: r c « a 

mill! 

!CfifflOOQO 


*-  3 

~ v>  -r  3 
C 3 5 « 


3 2 
‘E  rt 

D-.D 


*2  S 
c g 

rt  g 

x:  S 
©© 
o 


tc 


a*Sf 

5-S^.S 


® ■£ 


h C be— 

.2  rt  C o 
i2  © m c 

c a sg  ™ c = - 


2 © rt  — .3  3 3 O O 

OHW'fafcCSOOOOffiK 


IMPORTS  AT  CANTON  AND  SHANGHAI. 


03 


r-  o 

CO  QD 

03© 

; ©"  * ©"©"  ; o 
03 


t-  03 
? G§ 


r-  ©in©©  t-  !DOifl 

© O U5  h Tf  03  © © — 

© *-^C0  © © © CO^©  © 

:cf  -K  — r o'  ofafeo 

© ^ — 


— © 03  l- 

05  — 03  © 

03  O O 03 


o o 

ao  ao 


03  © 0^05 

— CO  TOO 

• CO  00  • CO  03  — 


• O C5 
■ I-"  05* 


— 03 


O 03  05  O 00  © X 

X © 'O  t—  © 

• — — ^ • TT©!—  • CO^© 

* *— ~»-h'  * ©T-^ of  * i-T ©" 


GC 


00 


05  © O © 

— — 03  CO 

• CO  © -003 

‘ — "©"  ' of 


O CO  o 

2 § 


05  03 
• 00  CO 
• ^ 
©"©" 


-f  © — OODOOrfO}  00  ©03 

I-  l-  i—  05  03  05  1-005  © x © 

©CO  • • 05  • — © 03  X © © • © • © © 

**  * ’ x"  * 1-T  — * ~ 03"  * ©"  ' co"  ©" 


© © co  00  © 

— ■—  © — x 

• I-  03  © . — Tf 


03  CO  l—  © © © © 03  — 3—  03  ^ © © CO  © CO 

GO  03—  ©©©X©©X^XC0  © © 

© 03  l-  • © X © CO  X — ©05  03  05©  uO 


s 


in  03  © © © © 
© l-  CO  CO  — CO 
• co  rj«  03_  © © © 
m"  ©"  t-~  co"  x~ 

Tj<  CO  I— ' 

— t-  03 


t-o*©©i— ©o3^xi-©©©©©coco© 
in  in  i—  in  © t-  © co  — co  03  i—  i—  © ao  © © ao 

©_  ©^  03^  ©__  Tl^ ^ ©_  ©^ © C\  l—  CO^  ©_  l— ^ ©_  ©_  ©^ 

©~  rj«*  ~ ©"  — " x"  ©r  Tj<"(03"  ©"  to  CD  rjT  -^T  ao"  OCf 

Ml-  ©*-  CO  — *-  © 03  l-  — *-<  — 

— i-h  03  ~ 03 


in  © co  © i-  © 
in  © — co  co  — 
© © © ©_—  © 

; 03"  ©"  ao"  t-  ©"  ad* 

— ' © — ' ^ CD 

X — 03 


© — i- 
© CO  — 
© © CO 


Si 


5 35 
- co  ro 
3 00  03 


XI—  CO  © Tf<  03  © CO  X 
03©  — co~*©x  — ^ 
GC  Tj^CO_t-^X  — _X^CO  ©_ 
'i-T— "©"©"  co~  ©~  r- 

co  © co  co  t- 


© 


© © i- 
l-  CO  CO 
in  03  © 


3 _ w g 3 „ „ „ 

OJ  2 C 5 2 X O - - - 

o o o 

&.  © GU 


© — Tf«  1 

, © X 

_ ^ ^-1^0) 

J2  .2  b£  .3 

■S  S 3 C iS 

> O - cS  S > . 

a « © 

C3  CL,  o 


2 .£c  ©c 
2 CL,  ® © 


© 03 


fc-  _ 


03 


03 


“ rt  C u 
C -j© 

8 § J=  o ®" 


. 3 5 5£*.  « ' ’ -a  ~ w 

“ -C  § d 2 , w ^ ®-~T 

9-  o 2 o-c  o_ 

S o'-c-2~ 

C.P,eSpjOS0QM«!O5?? 


;| . 

I gg 

: c j« 

3 J3 
2 o 

_ ,®-c 

- •S'9 


• W 


413 


The  catty  is  1}  lb.  av.,  and  the  pecul  is  133J  lbs.  av. ; the  chang  is  nearly  4 yds.  English.  The  value  of  the  goods  has  been  com- 
puted according  to  the  average  prices  in  the  market,  including  the  duty  and  other  charges.  The  principal  imports  not  included  in 
this  table  are  opium,  treasure,  and  pearls. 


Estimate  of  all  the  Exports  to  foreign  countries  from  Canton,  and  those  from  Shanghai  in  British  vessels  during  the  year  1845. 


414 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


® ^ 2 
ea  £ o 
Sf*3 
* ► *c 
w .5 


8 


o 

: of 


r- 

© 


o 

X 

Tp 


•?*  © O* 


• 00 
* r}T 


OOlflCOCW 

TP  *->0000 

c*  o 
CD 


.5 


0 — 


o 
© 
• 1- 


.8 


8: 


C*  1>  ^ kft  0*  * 
GO  JO 
• O 

' of 


> pOJ 


Oi  *-<  C* 

o »-t  TJ» 

• TO  • fi 


;|  .«'» 


C*  O GO  Tf  o OJ  CO 

• ^ ^ S ^ 


C3  CO  0*  tHMOO^OClOO^O 

—<  tp  - 1 in  jo  o tp  gc  co 

• • © © © © ^ o< 


»f5  CO  CO  '•©  GO 
l"*  Tp  CO 
O — < 


COO^QO  - tfltOWOfflWOGOi'-CJ  - l^OCTtt  GO’^TfCikOO^ 
X O Cl  ^ ^ - t-  O)  O -O  O OJ  ^ K - X -f  w C4  OOfNOh^ 

<*44  nn  "r  rri  nr\  ?;>  rrs  nn  m f"T  tn  _•  ert  f*\»  er\  ^p  ^ qq  ^ ^ 


£ £ CO  © © TP  - GO  TP  CO  O*  © © 04  O O Tp 

^£«j  TPM^OOCiX'JOO'-iClQOXOCO  r-J£>  O*  — . CO  ^ O 00^0  uO  — < 

| ~ ^ tp*  o'  ©*  ad*  K of  tp"  of  o'  ao*  tp"  o'  -f  cd  i>  go  tp~  aT  ; co~  acf  — ~ co~  o'  of 

.5  g .2  o tp  c*  ~ c*  c*  o ~ co  tp  • hhw-  ^ 


£ ^ S .£  *3  .£ 

SoX-o:’s«o-  Si 


5 <u 
•E._G. 


OJ 


a 3 
S | 

° •’i-S 

.<3-2  fe  g 

© 3 <3 


5 ? 

a 


• n T=  w 3 ^ 

iifrirsi 

oe®  £w.jSS 


EXPORTS  AT  CANTON  AND  SHANGHAI 


415 


3,000 

1,699 

3,803,947 

2,221,181 

4,800 

ill, 269, 091  or  6,043,687 

^9  C3 a Ci 

1 in  aD•a<a0JJ,  a8  § 

: • • • S • •aoSSir  !!!•§!  !7 
• -ufaf  ~ ° > 

25 

54 

"10 

2 

2,900 

2.001 

100 

3,084 

2,416 

CO 

Cl 

cT 

c* 

12 

1 

3 

2,851 

17,457 

‘60 

” 4 
965 

CO 

$ 

1 

‘X  SO  COM  X) 

vo  m ^ coo  x>  co  ac 

• co  • »-h  <m  • .-55  • in 

CD  * * ‘ K * ^ 

CO 

C3 

cT 

rr 

p'xicj  40  aoo^  coaoinoj 

iA  — < l''  'M  o — * 

• 40  • • O • • • <M  • O • Ci  i> 

* *«  * * *«  * wf  * «-T 

o 

o_ 

cT 

p- 

GO  (MHO  ^ ^ CD  {^(Nif5  0 

. . o Cl 

• • 40^  . • —<  • • • CO  - • • CO_ 

Cl 

■<* 

00  40^0^  — CDift  O Cl  0 00  040 

^O  O (Nh  . .ifl  • • ■ TJ* 

t-  • W • • • ID  • • • • -«  O 

of  2 

1 

CO 

(MO  (M^  40  — OM 

— CO  • • -OCO CO  . • • -CO  • o>  co 

• • • o • • . • • 

s 

CO 

Cl 

(MOO  O O CO  (M  CO  CKMOOC^I^Ot* 

(M  ^ 40  O G9  CO  © O © O © CM  O O 

• T^ao  oo  • o^  • • • © . -rr  q)  tj«  — 

* K ’ of  * * ■ of  ' of  T+r 

— CO  o 

s 

00 

cT 

t* 

t- 

CO©©COGOO(M— «CO  ©r^©CO^l^(M©0 

o ^ co  © t?»  © © uo  co  ac  — © © © 

(M  ©^—  0_—  — 00^  • • . O ^ Tj«  OI  ©^aD^(M  o © 

of  o'  f-T o' ^ of  * * ■ CTi-rf  ©~  of  cf  co" 

© (M  CO  ^ <M  — 

— T}<  (M 

20,734018 

■^©©©©QD©r^©  — ©GD^r^tM^©CO 

ac  "*r  t"  04  © — m o c^'mo^xxoi^x 

©^i-  © co  © © t>  © © r-©  coj3cy^©  — __o^o_ 

-©'©  -f--K©''o'  ! : : Kco~o*-*'©rg  ©'©"x' 

Ci  CO  — o>  — 'll  © o l-  © — ^$— COi- 

*-<©^  x t-co2i  co 

cf  — " (M 

CO 

<M 

co- 

co 

o 

8 

>4 

0 

CO 

01 
l— 

a“ 

co 

co 

peculs,  436 
“ 2,495 

“ 143 

boxes,  17,194 
peculs,  1 ,035 
“ 2,672 

“ 5,389 

“ 4,191 

catties,  15,599 
peculs, 

(( 

u 

catties  232,702 
“ 25,587 

peculs,  568 
“ 139,857 

“ 42,672 

“ 600,091 

nests,  740 

boxes,  764 

value 

Nankeens, dyed  cottons 

Paper 

Quicksilver 

Preserves,  ginger,  &c. . 

Rattan  ware 

Rhubarb 

Silk,  raw 

“ coarse  and  refuse. 
“ thread  and  ribbons 

“ Tsatlee 

“ Taysaam 

“ Yuen  fa 

Silk  piece  goods 

Silk  and  cotton  stuffs.. 

Soy 

Sugar,  raw 

Sugar  candy 

Tea 

Trunks,  camphor 

Vermilion 

Sundries 

<8  « « S 

^ ^ H a P c3 
a SB  <S 

r*  C 9 C I— 

5 § ® «g  •=  e s 

•-  ~ tr  •-  ft.  2 

•-  e i*  3 ^ -D 

5 C o 

be « hG  g « « O 

§ g ° ~-c  g 

•a  o-°-g  £.2  j2 

Wtfu§  " 


a O 


tl  O 

.S-g° 

cj  c 
J3  C 4) 


^S“-'ES 

^ae-c‘£2 

— o at; 

£ ‘5  S 'is  « /2 
a g c-c 
v > 3 - 


e 

»a 
c -S  5 
a a c 
O ti>* 

— c £ = 3 

a •£  3 fcl  o 


a 2 S.S 

a .3 


c ^ _ -o 
g O g 2 


CO  “ 

o » 5 fl  ° 

a «- >«  S 
» c ~5  a ^ 
a 5-3  » to 

Sa&i; 
i-f-s  s*^ 
•“Is.- 


s 

co  JH 

vs*  2 rj  bl 

^ * «a  3 „ _ w 

S -I  ^ g1 
“ 

S ^ s 4) 


(73  »-< 

3 C-r3 

c 5 g 


;: : *o:  g ° 


— --  03  V ^3 

£ u « j:  o 

ro  = a * 


c « 

C 3 


° s ►,£ 
g-e  a si. 

a «n  r 


s § ° s w2jr 
s § ^ ==  JJ  „„-s 


, _i  x 

« 03  © -*-*  ^3 

!'Sab«§ 

s 3 ♦»  .£  "* 

i > £ c 


w *-S  .5  fcfl 

,-«  *"  — i r* 


8 ia 


. „ 9 ..- 

„ E e c --- 

« “si  2 .a** 

- — w M O 


a a 


- a a ^ 
<l>  .c  ax 

$2-3*  s § 

«E»^S 

52  ^ — , 

Cj3  2 S~? 

w o ^ > - g 

3 3 crt  .-*  K 3 

<y  3 b£‘~ 


“C  « O G S3 
u-  zr;  _ o 
O £ £ 2 8 

V -3  O 


bD 

•I  © 

SA 


“si-a^Mo 

t 85  3 5l 
C-  o o <sr  *-  3- 


416 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  contraband  trade  in  opium  is  estimated  to  amount  to  up. 
wards  of  forty  thousand  chests,  at  a sale  price  of  twenty  millions 
of  dollars ; which  with  the  pearls,  gold  and  silver  ware,  and 
precious  stones,  and  other  articles  smuggled,  the  Spanish  and  other 
trade  at  Amoy,  added  to  the  above  amounts,  will  swell  the 
total  of  the  foreign  trade  to  about  eighty-five  millions  of  dol- 
lars annually,  exclusive  of  the  Russian  trade  at  Kiakhta.  The 
consumption  of  tea  in  England  is  about  58  millions  of  pounds 
annually  ; in  the  United  States  it  is  between  16  and  18  millions; 
in  the  Netherlands,  2 millions ; Russia,  5 millions ; Germany, 
3 millions;  New  South  Wales,  4 millions;  and  Spain,  France,  and 
elsewhere,  3 millions ; the  aggregate  of  700  millions  of  pounds 
has  been  mentioned  as  the  consumption  of  China  itself,  but  this  is 
a mere  guess. 

The  prospects  for  the  rapid  extension  of  the  foreign  trade  with 
China  are  not  very  promising,  except  in  a few  articles.  The  raw 
produce  furnished  from  that  ccfuntry  is  very  trifling,  silk  and 
alum  being  the  chief;  and  there  is  little  probability  of  any  great 
increase  in  the  exportation  of  her  manufactured  articles,  except  tea 
and  silk  goods.  The  opium  trade  has  been  for  many  years  nearly 
fifteen  millions  of  dollars  in  excess  of  the  regular  exchange  of 
commodities,  and  the  drainage  of  the  country  for  this  balance  will 
probably  go  on  as  long  as  the  taste  for  this  pernicious  narcotic 
continues,  or  there  is  specie  to  pay  for  it.  To  legalize  the  opium 
trade  would  make  no  material  difference  in  the  exportation  of 
specie  as  long  as  the  balance  of  imports  so  greatly  exceeds  the 
exports.  England  may  make  every  effort  to  supply  China  with 
her  manufactures,  but  so  long  as  the  Chinese  furnish  so  little  that 
she  wants  beyond  a supply  of  tea,  it  is  difficult  to  perceive  with 
what  they  are  to  pay  for  all  the  cottons  and  woollens  it  is  hoped 
they  will  buy.  Besides  the  drain  of  the  precious  metals  in  pay- 
ment for  opium,  the  extended  use  of  that  article,  in  a comparative 
measure,  paralyzes  the  productive  powers  of  the  consumers,  and 
disables  them  from  reproducing  their  share  to  the  general  capital 
of  the  country. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


Foreign  Intercourse  with  China. 

The  notices  which  the  research  of  authors  has  collected  re- 
specting the  intercourse  between  China  and  the  west,  and  the 
principal  facts  of  interest,  are  so  well  arranged  in  the  first  three 
chapters  of  Sir  John  Davis’  work,  that  it  is  needless  to  enter 
minutely  into  their  detail.  In  truth,  the  very  terms  intercourse 
and  ambassies,  so  often  used  with  reference  to  the  nations  of  East- 
ern Asia,  indicate  a peculiar  state  of  relations  with  them ; for 
while  other  courts  send  and  receive  resident  ministers,  those  of 
China,  Japan,  Corea,  and  Cochinchina,  keep  themselves  aloof  from 
this  national  interchange  of  civilities ; they  neither  understand 
its  principles,  care  for  its  commencement,  nor  appreciate  its  ad- 
vantages. Ambassies  have  been  sent  by  most  European  nations 
to  the  two  first,  which  have  tended  rather  to  strengthen  their  as- 
sumptions of  supremacy  than  to  enlighten  them  as  to  the  real  ob- 
jects and  wishes  of  the  courts  proposing  such  courtesies.  The 
commercial  intercourse  has,  like  the  political,  either  been  forced 
upon  or  begged  of  these  governments,  constantly  subject  to  those 
vexatious  restrictions  and  interruptions,  which  might  be  expected 
firom  such  ill-defined  arrangements  ; and  though  mutually  advan- 
tageous, has  never  been  conducted  on  those  principles  of  reci- 
procity and  equality,  which  characterize  commerce  at  the  west. 
The  rulers  and  merchants  of  these  oriental  nations  are  not  yet 
sufficiently  acquainted  with  their  own  and  others’  rights  to  be 
able  or  willing  to  enter  into  close  political  and  commercial  rela- 
tions with  European  powers.  Both  magistrates  and  people  are 
ignorant  and  afraid  of  the  resources,  power,  and  designs  of  Christ- 
ian nations,  and  consequently  disinclined  to  admit  them  or  their 
subjects  to  unrestrained  intercourse.  When  western  adventurers, 
as  Pinto,  Andrade,  Weddell,  and  others  came  to  the  shores  of 
China  and  Japan  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  they  found  the 
governments  disposed  to  traffic,  but  the  conquests  subsequently* 
19* 


418 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


made  by  Europeans  in  the  neighboring  regions  of  Lucjonia,  Java, 
and  India,  and  their  cruel  treatment  of  the  natives,  led  these  two 
powers  to  apprehend  like  results  for  themselves,  if  they  did  not 
soon  take  precautionary  measures  of  exclusion  and  restriction. 
Nor  can  there  be  much  doubt  that  this  policy  was  the  safest 
measure,  in  order  to  preserve  their  independence,  and  maintain 
their  authority  over  even  their  own  subjects.  The  belief  enter- 
tained by  Europeans  at  that  period  that  the  pope  had  a right  to 
dispose  of  all  pagan  lands,  only  wanted  men  and  means  to  be 
everywhere  carried  into  effect ; and  if  the  Chinese  and  Japan- 
ese governments  had  allowed  Portuguese,  Spanish,  French,  and 
English  colonists  to  settle  and  increase  within  their  borders,  they 
would  probably  long  since  have  crumbled  to  pieces,  and  their  ter- 
ritories been  possessed  by  others.  Might  made  right  more  gene- 
rally among  nations  then  than  it  does  now  ; at  least  they  resorted 
to  force  more  summarily  than  they  do  at  present.  The  hope 
may  be  expressed,  however,  that  the  six  governments  of  Farther 
Asia  or  Chin-India,  from  Birmah  and  Siam  to  Corea  and  Japan, 
may  preserve  their  independence,  while  their  people  are  elevated 
and  Christianized,  and  thus  enabled  to  take  their  proper  place 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

The  first  recorded  knowledge  of  China  among  the  nations  of 
the  west,  does  not  date  further  back  than  Ptolemy  the  celebrated 
geographer,  who  seems  also  himself  to  have  been  indebted  to  a 
Tyrian  author  named  Marinus.  Previous  to  this  period,  how- 
ever, the  account  of  the  existence  of  the  land  of  Confucius,  and 
an  appreciation  and  demand  for  the  splendid  silks  made  there, 
had  reached  Europe,  the  country,  the  people,  and  the  fabrics  of 
that  distant  land,  all  being  invested  with  a halo  of  power  and 
wealth  which  has  not  yet  entirely  vanished.  There  are  strong 
reasons  for  supposing  the  land  of  Sinim  to  be  China,  which  would 
make  Isaiah  to  be  the  first  writer  extant  who  has  mentioned  those 
regions.  The  true  position  of  the  Sinse  and  Seres,  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  textures  called  serica  and  bombycina,  mentioned  by 
Horace,  Arrian,  and  other  writers  before  Ptolemy,  have  been 
carefully  investigated  by  Gosselin,  Vincent,  and  others,  whose 
researches  only  show  how  vague  was  the  information  then  pos- 
sessed. According  to  the  Periplus  of  Arrian,  the  city  of  Thina 
can  hardly  be  placed  further  east  than  Sf-ngan  fu,  and  perhaps  is 
not  now  in  existence  ; Ptolemy  speaks  of  a large  town  of  that 


EARLIEST  NOTICES  OF  THE  CHINESE. 


419 


name  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  which  is  probably  another 
place.  There  was  a long  and  dangerous  land  route  leading  to  this 
emporium  by  way  of  Scythia,  which,  according  to  Ptolemy, 
passed  through  Persia  to  Bactria,  and  over  mountain  defiles,  and 
rugged  paths  beset  with  perils  and  difficulties,  the  whole  journey 
occupying  the  best  part  of  a year.  “ The  character  of  the  Seres, 
too,  as  concisely  drawn  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  corresponds 
with  that  of  the  Chinese.  They  are  represented  as  studiously 
shunning  intercourse  with  other  nations,  allowing  traffic  only  at 
a frontier  station,  and  under  very  strict  precautions ; and  while 
they  sell  their  own  commodities,  they  accept  nothing  but  money 
in  return.  They  are  described  also  as  singularly  frugal,  quiet, 
and  tranquil ; finally,  as  unwarlike  and  averse  to  the  use  of  arms. 
These  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Chinese,  and  directly  oppo- 
site to  those  which  distinguish  the  other  nations  in  the  east  of 
Asia.  The  journey  of  seven  months  from  the  mountain  girdle 
of  India  was  amply  sufficient  to  enable  the  caravans  to  reach  the 
borders  and  even  the  interior  of  China,  while,  for  any  nearer 
point,  the  time  consumed  would  be  most  unaccountable.  The  ex- 
tent of  Serica,  also,  as  given  by  Ptolemy,  and  the  two  great  riv- 
ers flowing  through  it  from  west  to  east,  agree  with  the  modern 
delineations  of  the  empire.”*  Arguments  like  these  in  favor  of 
the  identity  of  the  Seres  and  the  Chinese,  drawn  from  their  cha- 
racter and  natural  productions,  are  much  stronger  than  those 
which  go  to  prove  them  to  have  inhabited  the  valley  of  the  Yar- 
kand in  fii,  inasmuch  as  the  geography  of  those  regions  was 
described  so  erroneously  as  to  defy  explanation. 

The  works  quoted  above  contain  further  extracts  and  sum- 
maries from  the  writings  of  Ptolemy  respecting  the  voyage  by 
sea,  which  show  that  he  had  a tolerably  correct  knowledge  of  the 
great  features  of  the  coast,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  to  the 
longitude  of  Canton.  It  is  a difficult  and  almost  profitless  en- 
deavor, however,  to  attempt  to  identify  the  names  of  the  places 
mentioned  in  these  early  records.  The  emporium  called  Catta- 
gara  may  have  been  Canton ; it  may  also  have  been  Fuhchau  or 
Amoy,  for  these  three  places  are  all  natural  entrepots,  and  Chi- 
nese historians  of  that  age  regarded  the  regions  south  of  the  Yang- 
tsz’  kiang  as  wholly  unsubdued,  and  knew  and  said  little  about 

* Heeren’s  Asiatic  Researches,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  285—295.  Murray’s  China, 
Vol.  I.,  p 141. 


420 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


them.  Whether  the  Seres  or  Sines  were  distinct  people  will  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  position  assigned  to  Cattigara,  and  the  length 
of  time  required  to  reach  it,  for  if  it  is  placed  no  further  east  than 
Malacca  or  Cambodia,  as  Vincent  and  d’Anville  suppose,  the 
Sinse  who  lived  there  could  hardly  have  been  the  same  people  as 
the  Seres,  who  were  only  to  be  reached  through  Central  Asia. 
Even  if  Cattigara  could  be  proved  to  be  Canton,  or  a place  in  that 
vicinity,  there  rs*  still  reason  for  supposing  the  Sime  to  be  a dis- 
tinct race,  for  it  is  highly  probable  that  this  region  was  not  sub- 
ject to  the  Han  dynasty  then  in  power.  It  is  stated,  moreover, 
by  native  writers,  that  in  the  second  century  before  Christ,  the 
Chinese  had  intercourse  with  persons  from  Cantoo,  Loo-hwang- 
chi,  and  other  southern  nations  and  places  ; Cantoo  was  then  ten 
days’  journey  from  China.* 

It  was  under  this  dynasty,  in  a.d.  61  or  65,  that  an  envoy  was 
sent  to  the  west,  and  returned  with  Budhist  books  and  priests ; and 
not  long  after,  during  the  reign  of  Trajan,  a Chinese  general,  Chang- 
kiang,  is  said  to  have  penetrated  with  an  army  to  the  Caspian, 
and  brought  back  the  vine  with  him  to  China,  a.d.  126.  The 
emperor  Marcus  Antoninus  sent  a mission  by  sea  to  the  country 
producing  the  rich  silks  so  much  prized  in  Rome  ; and  this  am- 
bassy  is  noticed  in  the  History  Made  Easy,  where  it  is  stated,  that 
“ in  the  reign  of  Hwan  tf,  people  came  from  India  and  other  west- 
ern nations,  with  tribute ; and  from  that  time  foreign  trade  was 
carried  on  with  Canton.”  De  Guignes  shows,  from  Chinese 
authors,  that  it  took  place  in  a.d.  166,  and  was  sent  by  An-tun. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  historian  Flores  states,  as  evidence  of  the 
universal  awe  and  veneration  in  which  the  power  of  Rome  was 
held  under  Augustus,  that  ambassadors  from  the  remotest  nations, 
the  Seres  and  the  Indians,  came  with  presents  of  elephants,  gems 
and  pearls — a rhetorical  exaggeration  quite  on  a par  with  the 
Chinese  account  of  the  tribute  sent  from  An-tun,  and  not  so  well 
authenticated.  Whether,  indeed,  the  Ta-tsin  kwoh  mentioned  by 
Chinese  writers,  meant  Judea,  Rome,  or  Persia,  cannot  now  be 
ascertained.  The  envoys  sent  to  that  country  reported,  “ that  be- 
yond the  territory  of  the  Tau-shf  (perhaps  the  Persians),  there 
was  a great  sea,  by  which,  sailing  due  west,  one  might  arrive  at 
the  country  where  the  sun  sets.”  Like  most  attempts  of  the  kind 


Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  I.,  page  365. 


NATURE  OF  THE  TRADE  WITH  THE  CHINESE. 


421 


in  subsequent  days,  the  mission  of  Antoninus  appears  to  have 
been  an  entire  failure,  and  to  have  returned  without  accomplish- 
ing any  practical  benefit  to  intercourse  or  trade,  between  the  two 
greatest  empires  in  the  world  ; it  was  received,  no  doubt,  at  Loh- 
yang,  then  the  capital,  with  ostentatious  show  and  patronizing 
kindness,  and  its  occurrence  inscribed  in  the  national  records,  as 
another  evidence  of  the  glory  and  fame  of  the  son  of  heaven. 

It  is  worthy  of  observation  how,  even  from  the  earliest  times, 
the  traffic  in  the  rich  natural  and  artificial  productions  of  India 
and  China,  has  been  the  great  stimulus  to  urge  adventurers  to 
come  from  Europe,  who  on  their  part  offered  little  in  exchange  be- 
side precious  metals.  The  Serica  vestis,  whether  it  was  a silken 
or  cotton  fabric,  and  other  rarities  found  in  those  regions,  bore 
such  a high  price  at  Rome  as  to  tempt  the  merchants  to  under- 
take the  longest  journeys  and  undergo  the  greatest  hardships  to 
procure  them  ; and  such  was  the  case  likewise  during  the  long 
period  before  the  discovery  of  the  cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  ex- 
istence of  this  trade  early  enabled  the  Nestorian  missionaries  to 
penetrate  into  those  remote  regions,  and  keep  up  a communica- 
tion with  their  patrons  at  home ; the  more  extended  voyages  of 
modern  commerce,  likewise  assist  benevolent  persons  in  reach- 
ing the  remotest  tribes,  and  carrying  on  their  labors,  through 
their  patrons  on  the  other  side  of  the  world,  probably  with  less 
danger  and  delay,  than  a mission  at  Cadiz  could  have  been 
directed  from  Jerusalem  in  the  days  of  the  apostles. 

The  intercourse  between  China  and  the  Greek  empire  con- 
stantly increased  until  the  rise  of  the  Mohammedan  power,  the 
products  chiefly  sought  being  silken  and  cotton  cloths,  gems, 
pearls,  and  other  articles.  The  culture  of  silk  was  introduced 
into  Europe  in  the  reign  of  Justinian.  The  fragrant  leaf  called 
malabathrum  is  another  article  of  traffic  mentioned  by  the  author 
of  the  Periplus : “ But  there  used  to  come  yearly  to  the  frontier 
of  the  Sinm,  a certain  people  called  Sesatas,  with  a short  body, 
broad  forehead,  flat  noses,  and  of  a wild  aspect.  They  come  with 
their  wives  and  children,  and  carry  great  burdens  in  mats,  which 
look  like  vine  branches.  They  stop  short  at  a certain  place  be- 
tween their  own  territory  and  that  of  Thina,  and  spend  a few 
days  in  festivity,  using  the  mats  for  lying  upon ; they  then  re- 
turn to  the  abode  of  their  countrymen  in  the  interior.  The  Sin 02 
next  repair  to  the  place  and  take  up  the  articles  which  they  left, 


422 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


and  having  drawn  out  the  stalks  and  fibres,  they  nicely  double 
the  leaves,  roll  them  into  a circular  shape,  and  thrust  into  them 
the  fibres  of  the  reeds.  Thus  three  kinds  of  malabathrum  are 
formed  ; that  from  the  larger  leaf  is  called  hadrosphaerum,  that 
from  the  middling  one  mesosphserum,  that  from  the  smaller 
microsphaerum.”* 

The  malabathrum  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  betel  leaf, 
which  can  hardly  be  the  case,  as  that  is  always  chewed  fresh  ; 
others  with  more  probability  suppose  it  to  have  been  tea,  though 
Chinese  accounts  place  its  introduction  as  late  as  a.  d.  315,  and 
add  that  it  did  not  come  into  general  use  until  the  Tang  dynasty, 
when  it  is  also  mentioned  by  two  Arab  travellers.  The  descrip- 
tion favors  the  idea  that  malabathrum  was  tea,  and  if  so,  it  shows 
that  the  native  country  of  the  tea-plant  is  the  mountainous  region 
of  Assam  and  Yunnan,  where  it  has  even  recently  been  found 
wild,  and  that  the  Chinese  traded  with  the  wild  Sesatae  for  it  be- 
fore they  began  to  cultivate  it.  Although  the  notices  of  the  in- 
tercourse between  the  nations  of  European  Asia  and  Chin-India, 
which  have  been  preserved  to  modern  times  are  few  and  dubious, 
it  may  be  safely  deduced  that  some  traffic  was  constantly  kept 
up  ; and  that  thousands  of  traders  resorted  to  the  country  of  the 
Seres  and  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  and  returned  to  tell  what 
they  had  seen,  and  sell  what  they  had  brought.  The  account 
given  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  of  the  trade  and  commercial  rela- 
tions of  Tyre,  shows  how  a great  emporium  brought  traders  from 
distant  nations  together ; and  if  the  writer  of  the  book  of  Esther 
had  given  a list  of  the  provinces  under  the  sway  of  Ahasuerus,  it 
is  not  unlikely  that  some  of  them  would  have  extended  to  the 
Imaus,  if  not  into  the  valley  of  the  Tarim,  on  the  great  highway 
to  China.  Pride  and  luxury  were  not  less  desirous  of  costly  and 
splendid  materials  to  gratify  their  desires  in  the  days  of  the  Per- 
sians and  Jews  than  they  are  now,  and  enterprising  traders  were 
also  willing  to  gratify  the  luxurious,  and  enrich  themselves  by 
bringing  them  from  the  ends  of  the  earth.  The  probability  of  a 
trade  both  around  cape  Comorin  and  across  the  deserts  of  Tar- 
tary at  that  early  period,  is  not  lessened  by  knowing  that  Solo- 
mon’s ships  were  gone  three  years  to  Ophir : wherever  that  may 
have  been,  it  shows  that  long  voyages  were  not  dreaded,  and  if 

* Murray’s  China,  Vol.  I.,  p.  153.  Heeren’s  Asiastic  Researches,  Vol.  II., 
p.  294. 


NARRATIVES  OF  TWO  ARAB  TRAVELLERS. 


423 


ivory,  apes,  peacocks,  and  algum  trees  were  worth  bringing  from 
a long  distance,  much  more  were  silks,  medicines,  and  gems. 
All  these  facts  make  it  more  likely  that  by  the  land  of  Sinim, 
Isaiah  and  his  countrymen  referred  to  the  little  known  and  dis- 
tant, but  the  rich  and  populous  countries  beyond  the  Himalaya, 
and  prophesied  the  future  introduction  of  their  inhabitants  into 
the  church. 

The  best  intimation  of  a continuance  of  the  intercourse  with 
China  from  the  time  of  Justinian  to  that  of  the  Arab  travellers, 
Wahab  and  Abuzaid,  is  the  inscription  found  at  Si-ngan  fu  (page 
291).  The  narratives  of  the  Arabs  are  dated  a.d.  850  and  877, 
and  are  everyway  trustworthy  in  their  general  statements  as  to 
the  course  pursued  in  the  voyage,  the  port  to  which  they  sailed 
in  China,  the  customs  of  the  people  there,  and  the  nature  and 
mode  of  conducting  the  trade  ; they  form,  in  fact,  the  first  authen- 
tic accounts  we  have  of  the  Chinese.  The  second  traveller  speaks 
of  the  sack  of  the  city  of  Canfu,  which  was  then  the  port  of  all 
the  Arabian  merchants,  in  which  120,000  Mohammedans,  Jews, 
Christians,  and  Parsees,  engaged  in  traffic  there,  were  destroyed. 
This  shows  the  extent  and  value  of  the  trade,  and  yet  not  a single 
journal  or  book  of  travels  beside  these,  during  a period  of  more 
than  a thousand  years,  from  the  time  of  Ptolemy  to  Marco  Polo 
and  Ibn  Batuta,  has  been  preserved  to  modern  times.  Canfu  was 
probably  Kanpu,  near  Chapu  in  Chehkiang,  and  the  Gates  of 
China,  the  Chusan  archipelago  and  its  numerous  channels.  Much 
of  the  statement  made  by  Abuzaid,  respecting  the  wealth,  extent, 
and  splendor  of  Canfu,  is  to  be  referred  to  the  city  of  Hangchau 
fu,  then  and  since,  one  of  the  greatest  cities  in  Asia,  and  of  which 
Canfu  was  the  port.  The  destruction  of  the  city  in  877,  during 
the  decline  of  the  Tang  dynasty,  no  doubt  contributed  to  direct 
part  of  the  trade  to  Canton,  which  even  then  and  long  after,  was 
comparatively  a small  place,  and  the  people  of  that  part  of  the 
country  but  little  removed  from  gross  barbarism ; it  is  stated  that 
a market  was  opened  at  Canton  in  750,  and  an  officer  appointed 
to  receive  the  imperial  duties.  In  Marco  Polo’s  time,  Canfu  or 
Ganpu  was  an  extremely  fine  port,  and  frequented  by  all  the 
ships  that  bring  merchandise  from  India.* 

Prior  to  the  time  when  the  Venetians  reached  the  confines  of 


Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  6,  42,  252;  Vol.  III.,  p.  115. 


424 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  Pacific,  the  ravages  of  the  Huns  and  other  Tartar  tribes, 
under  Gengis  and  his  successors,  in  the  regions  between  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Caspian,  and  their  inroads  into  Europe,  had  aroused 
the  fears  of  the  pope  and  other  potentates  for  their  own  safety. 
After  the  sudden  departure  of  the  hosts  of  Okkoday  in  1241,  at 
his  death,  and  their  retreat  from  Bohemia  and  Poland  to  the 
Dneiper,  the  pope  determined  to  send  two  missions  to  the  Tartars, 
one  under  Carpini,  to  the  northern  army  in  Russia,  and  another 
under  Ascelin,  to  that  stationed  in  Persia.  Carpini  was  furnished 
with  the  following  letter. 

“ Innocent,  Bishop,  Servant  of  the  Servants  of  God,  to  the  King  and  People 
of  the  Tartars. 

“ Since  not  only  men,  but  also  irrational  animals,  and  even  the  mechan 
ical  mundane  elements,  are  united  by  some  kind  of  alliance,  after  the 
example  of  superior  spirits,  whose  hosts  the  Author  of  the  universe  has 
established  in  a perpetual  and  peaceful  order,  we  are  compelled  to  wonder, 
not  without  reason,  how  you,  as  we  have  heard,  having  entered  many 
lands  of  Christians  and  others,  have  wasted  them  with  horrible  desola- 
tion, and  still,  with  continued  fury,  not  ceasing  to  extend  further  your 
destroying  hands,  dissolving  every  natural  tie,  neither  sparing  sex  nor 
age,  direct  indifferently  against  all  the  fury  of  the  sword.  We  therefore, 
after  the  example  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  desiring  to  unite  all  mankind 
in  unity  and  the  fear  of  God,  warn,  beseech  and  exhort  you,  henceforth 
to  desist  wholly  from  such  outrages,  and  especially  from  the  persecution 
of  Christians ; and  since,  by  so  many  and  so  great  offences,  you  have 
doubtless  grievously  provoked  the  wrath  of  the  Divine  majesty,  that  you 
make  satisfaction  to  him  by  suitable  penitence ; and  that  you  be  not  so 
daring  as  to  carry  your  rage  further,  because  the  omnipotent  God  has 
hitherto  permitted  the  nations  to  be  laid  prostrate  before  your  face.  He 
sometimes  thus  passes  by  the  proud  men  of  the  age  ; but  if  they  do  not 
humble  themselves,  he  will  not  fail  to  inflict  the  severest  temporal  pu- 
nishment on  their  guilt.  And  now,  behold,  we  send  our  beloved  brother 
John,  and  his  companions,  bearers  of  these  presents,  men  conspicuous  for 
religion  and  honesty,  and  endued  with  a knowledge  of  sacred  Scripture, 
whom  we  hope  you  will  kindly  receive  and  honorably  treat  as  if  they 
were  ourselves,  placing  confidence  in  what  they  may  say  from  us,  and 
specially  treat  with  them  on  what  relates  to  peace,  and  fully  intimate 
what  has  moved  you  to  this  extermination  of  other  nations,  and  what  you 
further  intend,  providing  them  in  going  and  returning  with  a safe  con- 
ductor, and  other  things  needful  for  returning  to  our  presence.  We  have 
chosen  to  send  to  you  the  said  friars,  on  account  of  their  exemplary  con- 
duct and  knowledge  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  because  they  would 


AMBASSY  FROM  THE  POPE  TO  KUYAK. 


425 


be  more  useful  to  you  as  imitating  the  humility  of  our  Savior , and  if 
we  had  thought  they  would  be  more  grateful  and  useful  to  you,  we  would 
have  sent  other  prelates  or  powerful  men.”* 

This  edition  contains  a summary  of  the  travels  and  proceed- 
ings of  Carpini  and  his  companion,  Benedict,  in  their  hazard- 
ous journey  from  Kiev,  in  1246,  across  the  plains  of  Russia  and 
Bokhara,  to  the  courts  of  Baatu  and  Kuyuk,  the  last  of  whom 
was  elected  in  place  of  Okkoday.  They  were  first  sent  forward 
by  the  commanding  officers  of  the  several  posts  to  Baatu,  where 
the  pope’s  letter  was  translated  ; when  they  were  again  dispatched 
at  the  most  rapid  rate,  on  horseback,  to  the  court  of  Kuyuk, 
where  they  arrived  almost  exhausted.  After  they  had  been  there 
a few  days,  the  election  was  decided,  and  all  ambassadors  were 
introduced  to  an  audience  to  the  khan,  when  the  pope’s  envoys 
alone  were  without  a present.  The  letter  was  read,  and  an  an- 
swer returned  in  a few  weeks,  in  the  same  style ; for  these  two 
potentates,  who,  for  once  communicated  with  each  other  by  let- 
ter, had  much  more  in  common  in  their  pretensions  to  universal 
dominion  by  the  command  of  God,  than  they  suspected.  The 
khan’s  letter  was  as  follows : — 

“ Letter  of  the  King  of  the  Tartars  to  the  Lard  Pope. 

“ The  strength  of  God,  Kuyuk  khan,  the  ruler  of  all  men,  to  the  great 
pope.  You  and  all  the  Christian  people  who  dwell  in  the  West  have 
sent  by  your  messengers  sure  and  certain  letters  for  the  purpose  of 
making  peace  with  us.  This  we  have  heard  from  them,  and  it  is  con- 
tained in  your  letter.  Therefore,  if  you  desire  to  have  peace  with  us, 
you  pope,  emperors,  all  kings,  all  men  powerful  in  cities,  by  no  means 
delay  to  come  to  us  for  the  purpose  of  concluding  peace,  and  you  will 
hear  our  answer  and  our  will.  The  series  of  your  letters  contained  that 
we  ought  to  be  baptized  and  to  become  Christians  ; we  briefly  reply,  that 
we  do  not  understand  why  we  ought  to  do  so.  As  to  what  is  mentioned 
in  your  letters,  that  you  wonder  at  the  slaughter  of  men,  and  chiefly  of 
Christians,  especially  Hungarians,  Poles,  and  Moravians,  we  shortly  an- 
swer, that  this  too  we  do  not  understand.  Nevertheless,  lest  we  should 
seem  to  pass  it  over  in  silence,  we  think  proper  to  reply  as  follows.  It  is 
because  they  have  not  obeyed  the  precept  of  God  and  of  Gengis  khan, 
and,  holding  bad  counsel,  have  slain  our  messengers  ;f  wherefore  God 

* Murray’s  Marco  Polo,  p.  49. 

•f  Allusion  is  here  made  to  Tartar  ambassadors,  whom  the  Russians  mur- 
dered before  the  battle  of  Kalka. 


426 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


has  ordered  them  to  be  destroyed,  and  delivered  them  into  our  hands. 
But  if  God  had  not  done  it,  what  could  man  have  done  to  man  ? But 
you,  inhabitants  of  the  West,  believe  that  you  only  are  Christians,  and 
despise  others ; but  how  do  you  know  on  whom  he  may  choose  to  bestow 
his  favor  ? We  adore  God,  and,  in  his  strength,  will  overwhelm  the 
whole  earth  from  the  east  to  the  west.  But  if  we  men  were  not  strength- 
ened by  God,  what  could  we  do  ?” — Murray’s  Polo,  p.  59. 

The  khan  took  the  precaution,  which  the  pope  did  not,  of  putting 
his  reply  into  an  intelligible  language,  and  when  it  was  written 
in  Tartar,  he  had  it  carefully  explained  to  the  friars,  who  trans- 
lated it  into  Latin,  and  were  soon  after  dismissed.  They  left  the 
court  on  the  13th  of  November,  1246,  and  “travelled  all  winter 
through  a wide  open  country,  being  commonly  obliged  to  sleep 
on  the  ground,  after  clearing  away  the  snow,  with  which  in  the 
morning  they  often  found  themselves  covered.”  They  reached 
Kiev  in  June,  1247  ; and  Carpini  was  rewarded  for  his  hardships 
by  being  appointed  archbishop  of  Antivari  in  Dalmatia. 

The  mission  of  Ascelin  and  his  companions  was  less  success- 
ful, and  their  conduct  less  prudent  than  that  of  Carpini.  They 
only  reached  the  headquarters  of  Baiothnoy,  one  of  the  generals 
in  command  on  the  southern  frontier,  who  seems  to  have  been 
both  displeased  and  amused  at  their  impertinence,  and  kept  them 
some  time  as  objects  of  insult  and  derision.  At  last,  a commu- 
nication was  handed  them,  purporting  to  be  from  the  grand  khan, 
asserting  his  universal  sway,  and  accompanied  by  a letter  from 
the  general  to  the  pope.  This  contained  an  order  that  if  he  de- 
sired to  remain  seated  in  his  land  and  inheritance,  he  must  come 
in  his  own  person,  and  do  homage  to  him  who  justly  ruled  the 
whole  earth.  The  friars  were  then  sent  off,  happy  to  have  thus 
escaped  the  clutches  of  the  barbarians. 

One  other  record  of  a mission  to  the  court  of  the  great  khan 
has  been  preserved,  which  contains  more  information  than  either 
Carpini’s  or  Ascelin’s,  though  its  success  was  no  greater.  Louis 
XI.,  of  France,  having  heard  that  Sartach,  the  son  of  Baatu,  then 
commanding  on  the  western  frontier,  was  a Christian,  sent  a mis- 
sion to  him,  consisting  of  the  friar  Rubruquis,  and  three  com- 
panions. They  left  Constantinople,  May  7,  1253,  and  proceeded 
to  the  Crimea,  from  whence  they  set  out  with  a present  of  wines, 
fruits  and  biscuits,  intended  for  the  khan.  In  three  days,  they 
met  the  Tartars,  who  conducted  them  first  to  Scacatai,  a chief- 


MISSION  OF  RUBRUQUIS  TO  MANGOU. 


427 


tain  under  Sartach,  by  whom,  after  considerable  delay  and  vexa- 
tion, they  were  furnished  with  everything  necessary  for  a journey 
across  the  plains  of  southern  Russia  to  the  Volga,  and  the  camp 
of  Sartach.  The  monks  attempted  to  convert  the  rude  nomads, 
but  ignorance  of  the  language,  and  suspicions  of  their  intentions, 
interposed  great  obstacles  on  both  sides.  On  arriving  at  the  end 
of  their  journey,  they  were  disappointed  at  finding  the  ruler  of 
these  warriors  a besotted  infidel,  who  expected  all  persons  admit- 
ted into  his  presence  to  bring  him  costly  presents.  A Nestorian, 
named  Cojat,  whom  Rubruquis  regarded  as  no  better  than  a he- 
retic, was  high  in  authority,  and  the  only  medium  of  communica- 
tion with  the  khan.  He  told  the  friar  to  bring  his  books  and 
vestments,  and  make  himself  ready  to  appear  before  the  khan  on 
the  morrow ; their  elegance  was  such,  that  at  the  close  of  the 
audience,  Cojat  seized  most  of  them  under  an  idle  pretext  that  it 
was  improper  to  appear  in  them  a second  time  before  Baatu  khan, 
whither  Rubruquis  and  his  companions  were  to  be  sent. 

Their  journey  was  soon  after  prosecuted,  by  following  up  the 
Volga  some  distance,  and  when  they  arrived  at  the  encampment  • 
of  Baatu  khan,  he  made  many  inquiries  about  the  resources  and 
power  of  the  French  king,  and  the  war  he  was  waging  with  the 
Saracens.  On  his  introduction,  “the  friar  bent  one  knee,  but 
finding  this  unsatisfactory,  did  not  choose  to  contend,  and  dropped 
on  both.  Misled  by  his  position,  instead  of  answering  questions, 
he  began  a prayer  for  the  conversion  of  the  khan,  with  warning 
of  the  dreadful  consequences  of  unbelief.  The  prince  merely 
smiled ; but  the  derision  which  was  loudly  expressed  by  the  sur- 
rounding chiefs,  threw  him  into  a good  deal  of  confusion.”  The 
interview  was  followed  by  an  order  to  proceed  to  the  court  of 
Mangou,  who  had  succeeded  Kuyuk  as  grand  khan.  This  long 
journey  occupied  four  months,  through  the  high  land  of  Central 
Asia,  further  eastward  than  where  Carpini  found  Kuyuk’s  court, 
and  subjected  them  to  severe  hardships.  Mangou  received  the 
mission  hardly  with  civility,  but  having  been  examined  by  some 
Nestorian  priests,  they  were  admitted  to  an  audience.  The  same 
ceremonies  were  required  as  at  Baatu’s  court,  and  inquiries  made 
as  to  the  possessions  of  the  French  king,  especially  the  number 
of  rams,  horses  and  oxen  he  owned,  which  the  friar  was  amazed 
to  learn,  were  soon  to  be  attacked  by  the  Tartars.  No  permission 
to  remain  could  be  obtained,  but  he  was  furnished  with  a house, 


428 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


and  allowed  to  tarry  till  the  cold  mitigated.  In  this  remote 
region  he  found  a European  architect,  William  Bourchier  anc 
his  wife,  from  Mentz,  besides  many  Armenians,  Saracens,  anc 
Nestorians,  all  of  whom  the  khan  received.  He  accompanied  the 
court  to  Karakorum,  where  he  nearly  became  involved  in  danger- 
ous religious  disputes,  and  on  the  approach  of  milder  weather 
was  compelled  to  return  to  Baatu  khan,  by  whom  he  was  sent  on 
in  a south-westerly  direction,  until  he  entered  Armenia,  and  thence 
found  his  way  to  Iconium  in  Asia  Minor,  having  been  abseni 
nearly  two  years. 

These  journeys  made  the  people  of  Europe  acquainted  with  the 
mighty  empire  of  the  grand  khan,  but  the  travellers  had  not  the 
aid  of  printing  to  diffuse  their  narratives,  and  it  was  perhaps 
chiefly  owing  to  the  high  standing  of  those  who  sent  them,  that 
their  relations  have  been  preserved  ; while  travellers  of  humblei 
origin  or  pretensions,  had  no  inducement  to  write  what  they  had 
seen,  and  therefore  only  told  their  story,  which  was  lost  with  the 
narrators.  The  travels  of  Marco  Polo  would  probably  never 
* have  been  given  to  the  world,  if  the  leisure  of  captivity  had  not 
induced  him  to  adopt  this  method  of  relieving  its  tedium.  Every 
examination  of  his  record  has  added  to  its  reputation  for  accu- 
racy both  in  the  position  of  the  cities  he  mentions  or  visited,  and 
in  the  events  he  details ; and  when  it  is  considered  that  he  dictated 
it  several  years  after  his  return  home  to  a fellow-prisoner,  Rus- 
ticians,  who  wrote  it  in  French,  his  accuracy  is  highly  com- 
mendable. It  is  doubtless  generally  known  that  Marco  Polo  was 
the  son  of  Nicolo  Polo,  who  with  his  brother  Matteo,  nobles  and 
merchants  of  Venice,  first  left  that  city  about  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century  on  a mercantile  voyage  to  the  Crimea,  from 
which  point  a series  of  events  led  them  eastward  as  far  as  China, 
then  lately  conquered  by  Kublai,  the  grand  khan  and  successor 
of  Mangou  khan,  whom  Rubruquis  visited.  They  were  favor- 
ably received,  and  when  they  left,  it  was  under  a promise  to  re- 
turn, which  they  did  in  1274,  bearing  letters  from  Gregory  X., 
and  accompanied  by  young  Marco,  then  about  sixteen  years  old. 
They  spent,  in  all,  about  twenty-four  years  in  the  East,  during 
three  of  which  Marco  held  a high  office  in  Chehkiang,  the  only 
recorded  instance  of  a European  holding  any  civil  office  under  the 
emperors  of  China.  Magaillans  says  that  Marco  Polo  did  not  un- 
derstand Chinese,  but  it  is  difficult  to«see  how  he  could  have  ad- 


TRAVELS  OF  MARCO  POLO. 


429 


ministered  the  affairs  of  his  prefecture  in  one  of  the  most  civil- 
ized parts  of  the  country,  without  he  both  spoke  and  read  Chinese, 
as  well  as  Mongolian.  At  the  end  of  24  years,  they  returned 
home  by  way  of  southern  Asia,  so  completely  altered  that  their 
friends  and  countrymen  did  not  know  them ; and  the  three  Polos’ 
had  some  difficulty  to  convince  them,  that  though  long  absent, 
they  had  at  last  really  returned.  The  story  is  commonly  related 
that  they  determined,  by  a public  display,  to  satisfy  their  country- 
men as  to  the  happy  results  of  their  journey.  “ All  their  relations 
and  acquaintances  were  invited  to  a magnificent  feast.  They 
then  presented  themselves  in  splendid  dresses,  first  of  crimson 
satin,  next  of  damask,  and  lastly  of  velvet  bearing  the  same 
color,  which  they  successively  threw  off  and  distributed  among 
the  company.  Returning  in  their  ordinary  attire,  Marco  produced 
the  rags  in  which  they  had  all  been  disguised,  ripped  them  open, 
and  exhibited  such  a profusion  of  diamonds,  rubies,  sapphires, 
and  precious  jewels,  as  completely  dazzled  the  spectators.  On 
the  news  of  their  wealth  and  adventures,  persons  of  all  ranks, 
ages,  and  professions,  flocked  to  the  house  with  congratulations 
and  inquiries.  Marco,  whose  society  was  courted  by  all  the  dis- 
tinguished youths,  stood  forth  as  principal  orator.  Having  often 
occasion,  in  his  enumerations  of  people  and  treasure,  to  repeat 
the  term  million,  then  not  common  in  Europe,  the  name  of  Messer 
Marco  Millione  was  applied  to  him,  first  in  jest,  but  after  in 
reality.”  His  travels  were  translated  into  the  languages  of 
Europe  soon  after  their  appearance,  and  the  various  editions  and 
versions  contain  many  discrepancies,  variations  and  additions, 
which  have  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  commentators  to  explain 
and  compare.  The  title  of  Herodotus  of  the  Middle  Ages  has 
been  applied  to  him,  and  Ritter  says,  “ if  the  name  of  Discoverer 
of  Asia  were  to  be  assigned  to  any  person,  nobody  would  better 
deserve  it.” 

In  1254,  Haitho  or  Hay  ton,  an  Armenian  prince,  undertook  a 
journey  to  the  grand  khan,  to  petition  for  an  abatement  of  the 
tribute  which  he  had  been  obliged  to  pay  the  Mongols.  He  had 
no  opportunity  to  see  much  of  the  Chinese,  and  gives  the  same 
account  of  the  haughty  tone  held  by  the  court  and  camp  of  the 
khan,  which  Carpini  does.  The  different  positions  held  by  these 
men  and  the  Polos,  led  them  naturally  to  look  upon  the  same 
people  and  events  with  very  different  feelings.  The  efforts  of 


430 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


John  de  Monte  Corvino  to  propagate  Christianity  in  China,  have 
already  been  mentioned ; they  were  undertaken  while  the  Polos’ 
were  in  those  regions,  but  no  detailed  accounts  of  his  labors  or 
travels  have  been  preserved.  The  travels  of  Ibn  Batuta,  trans- 
lated by  Professor  Lee  of  Cambridge,  speak  of  his  leaving  his 
native  city  Tangiers,  in  1324,  on  a pilgrimage.  Going  from  one 
city  to  another,  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the 
countries  between  it  and  the  Caspian,  he  at  last  reached  Delhi, 
where  he  became  a judge,  and  was  dispatched  on  an  ambassy  to 
China  by  the  sultan.  It  seems  that  a Chinese  envoy  had  arrived 
at  Delhi,  to  request  permission  for  the  natives  to  rebuild  a temple 
in  Bootan,  as  they  were  poor  and  dependent  upon  the  inhabitants 
of  the  plain,  and  had  besought  the  Chinese  government  to  inter- 
cede for  them.  Ibn  Batuta  was  sent  with  a harsh  refusal,  but 
he  was  attacked  on  his  journey,  and  obliged  to  return ; he  was 
sent  again,  and  went  to  Calicut  on  the  Malabar  coast,  where  he 
found  fifteen  Chinese  vessels  or  galleys  at  anchor,  whose  crews 
and  guard  amounted  to  a thousand  men  each.  He  embarked  his 
attendants  on  one  of  these  vessels,  but  while  he  remained  on 
shore  to  pray  for  a prosperous  voyage,  a storm  sunk  the  vessel 
and  all  on  board.  The  envoy,  after  this  second  mishap,  was 
afraid  to  return  to  his  master,  and  went  to  Sumatra,  from  whence 
he  found  his  way  to  China,  and  landed  at  Zaitun,  which  some 
have  thought  to  be  Canton,  and  others  Tsiuenchau  or  Chinchew, 
in  Fuhkien.  He  mentions  that  the  circulation  of  paper  money, 
which  Marco  Polo  thought  such  an  excellent  device  for  a king  to 
raise  funds,  had  entirely  driven  out  the  use  of  metallic  currency. 
In  every  large  town  he  found  Mohammedans,  ruled  by  officers  of 
their  own  persuasion. 

There  is  extant  a journal  written  by  Oderic,  a friar  who  tra- 
velled through  Central  Asia  and  China.  At  Zaitun,  he  found 
Minorites  who  possessed  two  monasteries,  in  one  of  which  he  de- 
posited the  bones  of  friars  who  had  suffered  martyrdom  in  India, 
whence  he  had  brought  them.  The  pagan  temples  grieved  him 
much,  and  the  power  of  the  idols  being  great,  the  Minorite 
brethren  were  enabled  to  work  miracles  to  prevent  the  further  en- 
croachments of  the  powers  of  hell.  The  influence  of  supersti- 
tion upon  their  own  minds,  rendered  most  of  the  religious  travel- 
lers into  Central  Asia  less  trustworthy  and  observant  than  they 
otherwise,  perhaps,  would  have  been  ; for,  since  they  regarded 


IBN  BATUTA,  ODERIC,  AND  OTHER  TRAVELLERS. 


431 


everything  of  a religious  sort,  as  done  under  the  direct  agency 
of  the  powers  of  darkness,  into  whose  dominions  they  were  ven- 
turing, they  were  afraid  to  examine  candidly  and  record  accu- 
rately ; and  their  own  knowledge,  too,  was  so  imperfect  and  er- 
roneous, that  they  constantly  went  astray,  because  they  referred 
much  of  what  they  saw  to  their  previous  ideas.  In  these  particulars, 
the  travels  of  Wahab  and  Abuzaid  and  of  Marco  Polo,  stand  in 
strong  contrast  to  the  details  of  Rubruquis  and  Oderic.  The  ac- 
counts of  all  these  writers  agree  in  conveying  the  impression 
that  China  w’as  then  free  to  all  travellers.  W ahab,  speaking  of 
the  regulations  practised  under  the  T ang  dynasty,  says : — 

“ If  a man  would  travel  from  one  place  to  another,  he  must  take  two 
passes  with  him,  one  from  the  governor,  the  other  from  the  eunuch  or 
lieutenant.  The  governor’s  pass  permits  him  to  set  out  on  his  journey, 
and  takes  notice  of  the  name  of  the  traveller,  and  those  also  of  his  com- 
pany, the  age  and  family  of  the  one  and  the  other ; for  everybody  in 
China,  whether  a native  or  an  Arab,  or  any  other  foreigner,  is  obliged  to 
declare  all  he  knows  of  himself,  nor  can  he  possibly  be  excused  so  doing. 
The  eunuch’s  or  lieutenant’s  pass  specifies  the  quantities  of  money  or 
goods,  which  the  traveller  and  those  with  him  take  along  with  them  ; this 
is  done  for  the  information  of  the  frontier  places  where  these  two  passes 
are  examined ; for  whenever  a traveller  arrives  at  any  of  them,  it  is 
registered  that  such  a one,  the  son  of  such  a one,  of  such  a family, 
passed  through  this  place  on  such  a day  in  such  a month  of  such  a year, 
and  in  such  company.” — Chi.  Rep.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  11. 

The  same  writer  speaks  of  the  Mabed,  a nation  conterminous 
to  China  on  the  south-west  or  west,  who  sent  ambassadors  with 
presents  every  year  to  the  emperor ; and  he  in  return  annually 
sent  the  same  to  them.  Other  missions  to  neighboring  countries 
are  also  mentioned  in  the  Chinese  annals.  The  Mongols  ruled 
the  centre  of  Asia  for  about  a century,  and  their  successors  in 
China  only  partially  adopted  the  exclusive  policy  against  the 
tribes  they  had  expelled.  It  was  only  at  the  subjugation  of  the 
empire  by  the  Manchus,  about  two  centuries  ago,  that  foreign 
trade  was  limited  to  Canton,  and  their  jealous  and  watchful  con- 
duct has  in  some  degree  been  actuated  by  a fear  of  the  same  re- 
prisals from  some  quarter,  which  the  Mongols  experienced.  The 
ill  conduct  of  the  foreign  traders  themselves,  however,  must  be 
regarded  as  the  chief  cause  of  the  jealousy  and  seclusion  with 
which  they  were  treated.  “ Their  early  conduct,”  says  Davis, 


432 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


speaking  of  the  Portuguese,  “ was  not  calculated  to  impress  the 
Chinese  with  any  favorable  idea  of  Europeans ; and  when,  in  the 
course  of  time,  they  came  to  be  competitors  with  the  Dutch  and 
the  English,  the  contests  of  mercantile  avarice  tended  to  place 
them  all  in  a still  worse  point  of  view.  To  this  day,  the  charac- 
ter of  Europeans  is  represented  as  that  of  a race  of  men  intent 
alone  on  the  gains  of  commercial  traffic,  and  regardless  altogether 
of  the  means  of  attainment.  Struck  by  the  perpetual  hostilities 
which  existed  among  these  foreign  adventurers,  assimilated  in 
other  respects  by  a close  resemblance  in  their  costumes  and 
manners,  the  government  of  the  country  became  disposed  to  treat 
them  with  a degree  of  jealousy  and  exclusion  which  it  had  not 
deemed  necessary  to  be  exercised  towards  the  more  peaceable 
and  well  ordered  Arabs,  their  predecessors.” 

These  characteristics  of  avarice  and  power  have  been  the  lead- 
ing traits  in  the  Chinese  estimate  of  foreigners  from  their  first 
acquaintance  with  them,  and  foreigners  themselves  have  done 
nothing  to  effectually  disabuse  them.  The  following  record  of 
their  first  arrival,  taken  from  a Chinese  work,  is  still  good 
authority,  in  the  opinion  of  the  natives.  “ During  the  reign  of 
Chingtih  (1506),  foreigners  from  the  west,  called  Fah-lan-lu  (or 
Franks),  who  said  they  had  tribute,  abruptly  entered  the  Bogue, 
and  by  their  tremendously  loud  guns,  shook  the  place  far  and 
near.  This  was  reported  at  court,  and  an  order  returned  to  drive 
them  away  immediately,  and  stop  the  trade.  At  about  this  time 
also,  the  Hollanders,  who  in  ancient  times  inhabited  a wild  terri- 
tory, and  had  no  intercourse  with  China,  came  to  Macao  in  two 
or  three  large  ships.  Their  clothes  and  their  hair  were  red  ; 
their  bodies  tall ; they  had  blue  eyes,  sunk  deep  in  their  head. 
Their  feet  were  one  cubit  and  two  tenths  long  ; and  they  fright- 
ened the  people  by  their  strange  appearance.”  The  term  Hung- 
mau  or  red-haired,  then  applied  to  the  Dutch,  has  since  been 
transferred  to  the  English. 

The  Portuguese  Rafael  Perestrello  sailed  in  a junk  for  China 
in  1516,  five  years  after  the  conquest  of  Malacca,  and  was  the 
first  person  who  ever  conducted  a vessel  to  China,  under  a Euro- 
pean flag.  Ferdinand  Andrade  came  the  next  year  in  four  Por- 
tuguese and  four  Malay  vessels,  and  gave  great  satisfaction  to 
the  authorities  at  Canton  by  his  fair  dealings  ; his  ships  were  al- 
lowed to  anchor  at  Sanchuen,  or  St.  John’s  I.  His  brother  Simon 


PORTUGUESE  AMBASSIES  ANB  TRADE  TO  CHINA. 


433 


came  the  following  year,  and  by  his  outrageous  conduct  entirely 
reversed  the  good  opinion  formed  of  his  countrymen  ; the  Chinese 
besieged  him  in  port,  and  drove  him  away  in  1521.  Others  of 
his  countrymen  followed  him,  and  one  of  the  earliest  ships  ac- 
companied some  Chinese  junks  along  the  coast,  and  succeeded  in 
establishing  a factory  at  Ningpo ; trade  was  also  conducted  at 
Amoy.  In  1537,  there  were  three  Portuguese  settlements  near 
Canton,  one  at  St.  John’s,  one  at  a smaller  island  called  Lampa- 
cao  (Lang-peh-kau),  lying  north-west  of  the  Grand  Ladrones,  and 
the  third  just  begun  on  Macao.  In  1542,  they  had  nearly  aban- 
doned St.  John’s  for  Lampacao,  and  ten  years  afterward,  at  the 
time  of  Xavier’s  death,  no  trade  of  any  consequence  was  carried 
on  at  the  former  place,  it  being  concentrated  at  the  latter,  where 
500  or  600  Portuguese  constantly  resided  in  1560  ; this  is  the  last 
notice  of  the  settlement,  and  it  was  afterwards  so  completely  for- 
saken for  the  more  eligible  situation  of  Macao,  that  its  exact  po- 
sition is  not  now  known.  The  new  settlement  was  commenced 
under  the  pretext  of  erecting  sheds  for  drying  goods  introduced 
under  the  appellation  of  tribute,  and  alleged  to  have  been  da- 
maged in  a storm.  In  1573,  the  Chinese  government  erected  a 
barrier  wall  across  the  isthmus  joining  Macao  to  the  island  of 
Hiangshan,  and  in  1587  established  a civil  magistracy  to  rule 
the  Chinese.  By  their  ill  conduct  at  Ningpo,  the  Portuguese 
drew  upon  them  the  vengeance  of  the  people,  who  rose  upon  them, 
and  “ destroyed  twelve  thousand  Christians,  including  800  Por- 
tuguese, and  burned  thirty-five  ships  and  two  junks.”  One  of 
their  provocative  acts  is  stated  to  have  been  going  out  in  large 
parties  into  the  neighboring  villages,  and  seizing  the  women  and 
virgins,  by  which  they  justly  lost  their  privileges  in  one  of  the 
provinces  and  ports  best  adapted  to  European  trade.  Four  years 
later,  in  1549,  they  were  also  driven  from  their  newly  formed 
settlement  at  Chinchew,  and  restricted  to  Lampaqao. 

The  Portuguese  have  sent  four  ambassies  to  the  emperor  of 
China.  The  first  envoy,  Thome  Pires,  was  appointed  by  the 
governor  at  Goa,  and  accompanied  Ferdinand  Andrade  to  Canton, 
in  1517,  where  he  was  received  and  treated  in  the  usual  style  of 
foreign  ambassadors.  When  his  mission  was  reported  at  Peking, 
the  emperor  Chingtih  was  influenced  against  it  by  a subject  of 
the  sultan  of  Malacca,  and  detained  Pires  at  Canton  three  years ; 
the  flagitious  conduct  of  Andrade’s  brother,  and  the  character 
you.  ii.  20 


434 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  the  Portuguese,  induced  the  emperor  to  appoint  a court  to  ex- 
amine whether  the  ambassy  was  legitimate  or  spurious,  and  Pires 
and  his  companions  were  adjudged  to  be  spies,  and  sent  back  to 
Canton  to  be  detained  till  Malacca  was  restored.  This  not  beinor 

O 

done,  he  and  others  suffered  death  in  September,  1523  ; other 
accounts  lead  to  the  inference  that  he  died  in  prison.  Thus  the 
innocent  were  made  to  suffer  for  the  guilty.  The  next  ambassy 
was  undertaken  in  1552  at  the  suggestion  of  Xavier,  by  the 
viceroy  of  Goa,  but  the  mission  proceeded  no  further  than  Ma- 
lacca, the  governor  of  that  place  refusing  to  allow  it  to  leave  the 
place — a significant  intimation  of  the  degree  of  subordination  and 
order  maintained  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  administration  of  their 
new  colonies.  The  third  was  also  sent  from  Goa  in  1667,  in  the 
name  of  Alfonso  VI.,  on  occasion  of  the  suspension  of  the  trade 
of  Macao  by  Kanghi ; the  expense  was  defrayed  by  that  colony, 
about  $40,000,  and  “ the  result  of  it  so  little  answered  their  ex- 
pectations, that  the  senate  solicited  his  majesty  not  to  intercede  in 
behalf  of  his  vassals  at  Macao  with  the  government  of  China, 
were  it  not  in  an  imperious  and  cogent  case.” 

A good  opportunity  and  necessity  for  this  it  was  thought  pre- 
sented itself  in  1723,  when  Magaillans  returned  to  China  carry- 
ing the  answer  of  the  pope  to  Kanghi,  to  send  an  cnvoj',  Alexan- 
der Metello,  along  with  him  to  Peking.  He  arrived  at  court  in 
May,  1727,  and  had  his  audience  of  leave  in  July,  receiving  in 
exchange  for  the  thirty  chests  of  presents  which  he  offered,  and 
which  Yungching  received  with  pleasure  “ as  evidences  of  the 
affection  of  the  king  of  Portugal,”  as  many  for  his  master,  besides 
a cup  of  wine  and  some  dishes  for  himself  sent  from  the  emperor’s 
table,  and  other  presents  for  himself  and  his  retinue,  which  were 
“valuable  solely  because  they  were  the  gifts  of  a monarch.” 
No  more  advantage  resulted  from  this  than  the  ambassy  sent  a 
century  previous,  though  it  oost  the  inhabitants  of  Macao  a like 
heavy  sum.  Another  and  last  Portuguese  ambassy  reached  Pe- 
king in  1753,  conducted  and  ended  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
its  predecessors;  all  of  them  exhibiting,  in  a greater  or  less  de- 
gree, the  spectacle  of  humiliating  submission  of  independent  na- 
tions through  their  envoys  to  a court  which  took  pleasure  in  arro. 
gantly  exalting  itself  on  the  homage  it  received,  and  studiously 
avoided  all  reference  to  the  real  business  of  the  ambassy,  that  it 
might  neither  give  nor  deny  anything. 


SPANISH  TRADE  WITH  CHINA. 


435 


The  influence  and  wealth  of  the  Portuguese  in  China  for  the 
last  century  and  a half  have  gradually  decreased,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  shortsighted  policy  of  its  authorities,  the  trade  of 
Macao  has  been  so  far  driven  away  from  the  settlement,  that 
it  is  hardly  able  to  support  itself.  In  1820,  the  opium  trade  was 
removed  on  board  ship,  and  that  being  the  principal  source  of  in- 
come, the  commerce  of  the  place  for  many  years  was  at  a low 
ebb.  The  events  which  followed  the  proceedings  of  the  English 
at  Canton  in  1839,  in  concentrating  for  a year  or  two  nearly  all 
the  foreign  community  at  Macao,  caused  a sudden  expansion  of 
trade,  and  growth  in  prosperity  at  that  time,  which  the  govern- 
ment has  since  endeavored  to  keep  up  by  making  it  a free  port, 
and  depending  upon  taxes  on  real  estate  and  other  sources  for 
the  necessary  outlays  of  the  administration.  The  imperial  com- 
missioner Kiying,  granted  some  additional  privileges  to  the  settle- 
ment in  1844,  among  others,  permitting  the  inhabitants  to  build 
and  repair  new  houses,  churches,  and  ships  without  a license, 
and  to  trade  at  the  five  ports  open  to  foreign  commerce  on  the 
same  terms  as  other  nations ; it  was  just  three  centuries  before 
this  that  the  Portuguese  were  driven  away  from  Ningpo.  The 
anchorage  of  the  Typa  was  included  in  the  jurisdiction  of  Macao, 
but  the  application  of  the  Portuguese  commissioner  respecting  the 
non-payment  of  the  annual  ground  rent  of  500  taels  to  the  Chi- 
nese met  with  a decided  refusal.  To  have  granted  this  would 
have  been  to  give  up  their  lien  upon  the  place,  for  the  Chinese 
have  always  regarded  Macao  as  a part  of  the  empire,  and  main- 
tained jurisdiction  over  their  own  subjects  residing  there,  while 
they  permit  the  Portuguese  to  make  such  regulations  and  exer- 
cise such  authority  over  their  own  people  and  other  foreigners  as 
they  choose. 

The  trade  between  the  Spaniards  and  Chinese  has  been  smaller, 
and  their  relations  less  important  than  most  other  European  na- 
tions. The  Spanish  admiral  Legaspi  conquered  Manila  and  the 
Philippines  in  1543,  and  Chinese  merchants  soon  began  to  trade 
with  that  city ; but  the  first  attempt  of  the  Spaniards  to  enter 
China,  according  to  Mendoza,  was  not  made  till  1575  by  two  Au. 
gustine  friars,  who  accompanied  a Chinese  naval  officer  on  his  re- 
turn home,  from  the  pursuit  of  a famous  pirate  named  Li-ma- 
hon,  whom  the  Spaniards  had  driven  away  from  their  new  colony. 
The  missionaries  landed  at  Tansuso,  a place  somewhere  on  the 


436 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


coast  of  Kwangtung,  and  went  up  to  the  departmental  city,  where 
they  were  courteously  received  and  entertained.  The  prefect  of 
this  place,  after  learning  their  wishes,  sent  them  to  the  governor 
at  Shauking  fu,  by  whom  they  were  examined  ; they  stated  that 
their  chief  object  was  to  form  a close  alliance  between  the  two 
nations  for  their  mutual  benefit,  stating  at  the  same  time  what 
their  countrymen  had  done  against  Limahon ; they  added,  that  a 
second  object  was  their  wisli  to  learn  the  language  of  China  and 
teach  its  inhabitants  their  religion.  The  governor  kept  them  in 
a sort  of  honorable  bondage  several  weeks,  and  at  last  sent  them 
back  to  Manila,  doubtless  by  orders  from  court,  though  he  al- 
leged as  a reason,  that  the  pirate  Limahon  was  still  at  large. 
After  the  return  of  this  mission,  the  governor  of  the  Philippines 
deemed  it  advisable  to  let  the  trade  take  its  own  course,  and 
therefore  refused  his  countenance  to  the  proposal  of  a body  of 
Franciscans  to  enter  the  country.  They  however  made  the  at- 
tempt in  a small  native  vessel,  and  passed  up  the  river  to  Tsiuen- 
chau  fu,  where  they  were  seized  and  examined  as  to  their  de- 
signs. Not  being  acquainted  with  the  language,  they  were  de- 
luded themselves,  and  misrepresented  to  the  prefect  by  a professed 
native  friend  who  understood  Portuguese  ; and  after  many  months’ 
delay  were  mortified  to  learn  that  no  permission  to  remain  would 
be  given  ; they  returned  to  Manila  in  1580,  not  at  all  disposed 
to  renew  the  enterprise.  The  king  himself,  Philip  II.,  however, 
having  received  the  suggestion  made  by  the  Chinese  admiral  to 
the  former  party,  that  their  sovereign  should  send  an  ambassy  to 
Peking,  had  already  ordered  the  governor  to  undertake  such  an 
enterprise.  He  fitted  out  a mission  therefore,  in  1580,  though 
much  against  his  judgment,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Martin  Ig- 
natius, and  associated  six  others  with  him,  and  a small  suite.  It 
gives  one  a low  idea  of  the  skill  of  navigators  at  that  day  to  learn 
that  in  this  short  trip,  the  vessel  being  carried  up  the  coast  north- 
ward of  Canton,  the  party  thought  it  better  to  land  than  to  try  to 
beat  back  to  their  destination.  The  envoy  and  all  with  him 
were  brought  before  the  Chinese  officers,  who  probably,  entirely 
misunderstanding  their  object,  imprisoned  them  ; after  consider- 
able delay,  they  were  brought  before  a higher  officer,  and  sent  on 
to  Canton,  where  they  were  again  imprisoned ; the  Portuguese 
governor  of  Macao  subsequently  obtained  their  liberati  >n,  and 
they  mostly  returned  to  Manila.  This  unlucky  attempt  if  Men- 


ARRIVAL  )F  THE  DUTCH  IN  CHINA. 


437 


doza  is  right  in  calling  it  an  ambassy,  was  the  only  one  ever 
made  by  the  Spanish  government  to  communicate  with  the  court 
of  Peking. 

The  Chinese  have  carried  on  a valuable  trade  with  Luqonia, 
at  Manila,  but  the  Spaniards  have  treated  them  with  peculiar 
severity.  They  are  burdened  with  taxes,  which  the  people  of  no 
other  nation  are  subjected  to,  and  their  immigration  is  rather 
restrained  than  encouraged.  The  harsh  treatment  of  the  Chinese 
settlers  in  Manila  excited  the  attention  and  indignation  of  one 
of  their  countrymen  many  years  ago,  and  on  his  return  to  Can- 
ton, he  exercised  all  his  influence  with  the  officers  of  his  own 
government,  making  what  he  had  seen  the  model  and  the  motive 
to  induce  them  to  treat  all  foreigners  at  Canton  in  the  same  way, 
and  succeeded  in  perfecting  the  principal  features  of  the  system 
of  espionage  and  restriction  of  the  co-hong  which  existed  for 
nearly  a century,  until  the  treaty  of  1842 ; — another  instance  of 
the  treatment  justly  requited  upon  foreigners  for  their  own  acts. 
The  Spaniards  had  permission  to  trade  at  Amoy  a^'er  all  other 
nations  had  been  restricted  to  Canton,  but  owin'  to  the  heavy 
port-charges  and  small  market  there,  they  neser  availed  of  the 
privilege.  The  same  regulations  were  extended  to  Spanish  ves- 
sels and  commerce  in  1843,  which  had  been  obtained  by  other 
powers,  and  the  trade  between  Manila  and  the  ports  of  China  has 
greatly  increased  within  the  few  last  years,  especially  in  the 
article  of  rice. 

The  Dutch  commerce  with  the  East  did  not  of  course,  com- 
mence until  after  their  successful  struggle  against  the  Spanish 
yoke,  and  as  soon  after  completing  their  independence  as  they 
had  the  means,  they  turned  their  arms  against  the  oriental  pos- 
sessions of  their  enemies,  capturing  Malacca,  the  Spice  Islands, 
and  other  places,  and  attacking  Macao.  They  appeared  before 
this  place  in  1622,  with  a squadron  of  seventeen  vessels,  but  being 
repulsed  with  the  loss  of  their  admiral  and  about  300  men,  they 
retired,  and  established  themselves  on  the  Panghu,  or  Pescadores, 
in  1624.  Their  occupation  of  this  position  was  a source  of  great 
annoyance  to  the  Chinese  authorities  in  Fuhkien,  and  to  the  Por- 
tuguese and  Spaniards.  According  to  the  custom  of  those  days, 
they  began  to  build  a fort,  and  forced  the  native  Chinese  to  do 
their  work,  treating  them  with  great  severity.  Many  of  the  la- 
borers were  prisoners,  whom  the  Dutch  had  taken  in  their  attacks 


438 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


upon  the  Chinese.  Alternate  hostilities  and  parleys  succeeded, 
the  Chinese  declaring  that  the  Dutch  must  send  an  envoy  to  the 
authorities  on  the  mainland ; they  accordingly  dispatched  Yon 
Mildert  to  Amoy,  whom  the  sub-prefect  there  forwarded  to  Fuh- 
chau,  to  the  governor.  He  decided  to  send  a messenger  to  the 
Dutch,  to  state  to  them  that  trade  would  be  allowed  if  they  would 
remove  to  Formosa,  but  this  proposition  was  refused.  However, 
after  a series  of  attacks  and  negotiations,  the  Chinese  constantly 
increasing  their  forces,  and  the  Dutch  diminishing  in  their  sup- 
plies, the  latter  acceded  to  the  proposition,  and  removed  to  the 
western  shore  of  Formosa,  where  they  erected  Fort  Zealandia  in 
1624.  It  is  recorded  that  the  Chinese  landed  five  thousand  troops 
on  one  of  the  islands  in  the  group ; and  their  determined  efforts 
in  repelling  the  aggressions  or  occupation  of  their  soil  by  the 
Dutch,  probably  nuo--d  their  reputation  for  courage,  and  prevented 
the  repetition  of  similar  acts  by  others.  It  was  doubtless  a good 
stroke  of  policy  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  to  propose  the  occu- 
pation of  the  island  of  Formosa  to  the  Dutch,  in  exchange  for  the 
Pescadores,  for  they  had  not  the  least  title  to  it  themselves,  and 
hardly  knew  its  exact  size,  or  the  character  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  Dutch  endeavored  to  extend  their  power  over  it,  yet  with 
only  partial  success  ; in  the  villages  around  Ft.  Zealandia,  they 
introduced  new  laws  among  the  inhabitants,  and  instead  of  their 
councils  of  elders,  constituted  one  of  their  chief  men  supervisor 
in  every  village,  to  administer  justice,  and  report  his  acts  to  the 
governor  of  the  island. 

The  moral  interests  of  the  natives  were  not  neglected,  and  in 
1626,  George  Candidius,  a Protestant  minister,  was  appointed  to 
labor  among  them,  and  took  great  pains  to  introduce  Christianity. 
The  natives  were  ignorant  of  letters,  their  superstitions  rested 
only  on  tradition  or  customs,  which  were  of  recent  origin,  and 
the  prospects  of  teaching  them  a better  religion  were  favorable. 
In  sixteen  months,  he  had  instructed  over  a hundred  in  the  lead- 
ing truths  of  Christianity.  The  work  was  progressing  favorably, 
churches  and  schools  were  multiplying,  the  intermarriages  of  the 
colonists  and  natives  were  bringing  them  into  closer  relationship 
with  each  other,  and  many  thousands  of  the  islanders  had  been 
baptized,  when  the  Dutch  governors  in  India,  fearful  of  offending 
the  Japanese,  who  were  then  persecuting  the  Christians  in  Japan, 
and  apprehensive  of  losing  the  trade  with  that  country  themselves, 


EFFORTS  OF  THE  DUTCH  TO  OPEN  TRADE. 


439 


restricted  these  benevolent  labors,  and  discouraged  the  further 
conversion  of  the  islanders.  Thus,  as  often  elsewhere  in  Asia, 
the  interests  of  true  religion  were  sacrificed  upon  the  altar  of 
mammon,  and  the  knowledge  of  salvation  withheld  for  money. 
A dictionary  of  the  native  language  was  compiled  by  one  of  the 
ministers,  which  remained  in  manuscript  till  it  was  printed  a few 
years  since  at  Batavia,  by  the  Dutch  government. 

During  the  struggles  ensuent  upon  the  overthrow  of  the  Ming 
dynasty,  many  thousands  of  families  emigrated  to  Formosa,  some 
of  whom  settled  under  the  Dutch,  and  others  planted  separate 
colonies  ; their  industry  soon  changed  the  desolate  island  into  a 
cultivated  country,  and  increased  the  produce  of  rice  and  sugar 
for  exportation.  The  immigration  went  on  so  rapidly  as  to  alarm 
the  Dutch,  who,  instead  of  taking  wise  measures  to  conciliate  and 
instruct  the  colonists,  tried  to  prevent  their  landing,  and  thereby 
did  much  to  irritate  them,  and  lead  them  to  join  in  any  likely  at- 
tempt to  expel  the  foreigners. 

Meanwhile,  their  trade  with  China  itself  was  trifling,  compared 
with  that  of  their  rivals,  the  Portuguese,  and  when  the  undoubted 
ascendency  of  the  Manchus  was  evident,  the  government  of  Ba- 
tavia resolved  to  dispatch  a deputation  to  Canton,  to  petition  for 
trade.  In  January,  1653,  Schedel  was  sent  in  a richly  freighted 
ship,  but  the  Portuguese  succeeded  in  preventing  any  further 
traffic,  even  after  the  envoy  had  spent  considerable  sums  in  pre- 
sents to  the  authorities,  and  obtained  the  governor’s  promise  to 
allow  his  countrymen  to  build  a factory.  Schedel  was  informed, 
however,  that  his  masters  would  do  well  to  send  an  ambassy  to 
Peking,  a suggestion  favorably  entertained  by  the  Company  in 
Europe,  who,  in  1655,  appointed  Goyer  and  Keyzer,  two  emi- 
nent merchants  at  Batavia  as  their  envoys.  The  narrative  of 
this  ambassy  was  written  with  great  minuteness  by  Nieuhoff,  the 
steward  of  the  mission,  and  made  Europeans  better  acquainted 
with  the  country  than  they  had  before  been — almost  the  only 
practical  benefit  it  produced,  for  as  a mercantile  speculation,  it 
proved  nearly  a total  loss.  Their  presents  were  received  and 
others  given  in  return ; they  prostrated  themselves  not  only  be- 
fore the  emperor  in  person,  but  made  the  kotau  to  his  name,  his 
letters,  and  his  throne,  doing  everything  in  the  way  of  humiliation 
and  homage  likely  to  please  the  new  rulers.  The  only  privilege 
tteir  subserviency  obtained  was  permission  to  send  an  ambassy 


440 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


once  in  eight  years,  at  which  time  they  might  come  in  four  ships 
to  trade.  This  ill  success  is  ascribed  with  some  reason,  to  the 
adverse  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  but  it  is  likely  too,  that  their  for- 
mer forcible  seizure  of  the  Pescadores,  and  present  occupation  of 
Formosa,  joined  to  the  ignorance  and  disregard  of  the  Manchus 
of  the  advantages  of  trade,  contributed  to  the  result. 

This  mission  left  China  in  1657,  and  very  soon  after,  the  Chi- 
nese chieftain,  Ching  Chingkung  (Koshinga,  or  Koxinga  as  his 
name  is  written  by  the  Portuguese)  began  to  prepare  an  attack 
upon  Formosa.  The  Dutch  had  foreseen  the  probability  of  this, 
and  had  been  strengthening  the  garrison  of  Zealandia  since  1650, 
while  they  were  negotiating  for  trade  with  the  Manchus  ; Ko- 
xinga, too,  had  confined  himself  to  sending  emissaries  among  his 
countrymen  on  Formosa,  to  inform  them  of  his  designs.  He  set 
about  preparing  an  armament  at  Amoy,  ostensibly  to  strengthen 
himself  against  the  Manchus,  and  continued  his  ordinary  traffic 
with  the  colony  to  lull  all  apprehensions  until  the  Dutch  council 
had  sent  away  the  admiral  and  force  dispatched  from  Java  to 
protect  them,  when  he  landed  a force  of  25,000  troops,  and  took 
up  a strong  position.  The  communication  between  the  forts 
being  cut  off,  the  governor  sent  two  hundred  and  forty  men  to 
dislodge  the  enemy,  only  half  of  whom  returned  alive;  one  of 
the  four  ships  in  the  harbor  was  burned  by  the  Chinese,  and  an- 
other sailed  away  to  Batavia  for  reinforcements.  Koxinga  fol- 
lowed up  these  successes  by  cutting  off  all  communication  between 
the  garrison  and  the  surrounding  country,  and  compelling  the 
surrender  of  the  garrison  and  caDnon  in  the  small  fort.  Fort 
Zealandia  was  closely  invested,  but  finding  himself  severely 
galled,  he  turned  the  siege  into  a blockade,  and  vented  his  rage 
against  the  Dutch  living  in  the  surrounding  country,  and  such 
Chinese  as  abetted  them.  Some  of  the  ministers  and  schoolmas- 
ters were  seized  and  crucified,  under  the  pretext  that  they  en- 
couraged their  parishioners  to  resist ; others  were  used  as  agents 
to  treat  concerning  the  surrender  of  the  fort.  Nieuhoff,  from 
whom  these  details  are  extracted,  relates  an  anecdote  of  one  of 
these  ministers  worthy  of  perusal. 

“ Among  the  Dutch  prisoners  taken  in  the  country,  was  one  Mr.  Ham- 
brocock,  a minister.  This  man  was  sent  by  Koxinga  to  the  governor,  to 
propose  terms  for  surrendering  the  fort ; and  that  in  case  of  refusal,  ven- 
geance would  be  taken  on  the  Dutch  prisoners.  Mr.  Hambrocock  came 


THE  DUTCH  LOSE  FORMOSA. 


441 


into  the  castle,  being  forced  to  leave  his  wife  and  children  behind  him  as 
hostages,  which  sufficiently  proved  that  if  he  failed  in  his  negociation, 
they  had  nothing  but  death  to  expect  from  the  chieftain.  Yet  was  he  so 
far  from  persuading  the  garrison  to  surrender,  that  he  encouraged  them 
to  a brave  defence  by  hopes  of  relief,  assuring  them  that  Koxinga  had  lost 
many  of  his  best  ships  and  soldiers,  and  began  to  be  weary  of  the  siege. 
When  he  had  ended,  the  council  of  war  left  it  to  his  choice  to  stay  with 
them  or  return  to  the  camp,  where  he  could  expect  nothing  but  present 
death ; every  one  entreated  him  to  stay.  He  had  two  daughters  within 
the  castle,  who  hung  upon  his  neck,  overwhelmed  with  grief  and  tears, 
to  see  their  father  ready  to  go  where  they  knew  he  must  be  sacrificed  by 
the  merciless  enemy.  But  he  represented  to  them  that  having  left  his 
wife  and  two  other  children  as  hostages,  nothing  but  death  could  attend 
them  if  he  returned  not : so  unlocking  himself  from  his  daughters’  arms, 
and  exhorting  everybody  to  a resolute  defence,  he  returned  to  the  camp> 
telling  them  at  parting,  that  he  hoped  he  might  prove  serviceable  to  his 
poor  fellow-prisoners.  Koxinga  received  his  answer  sternly ; then  caus- 
ing it  to  be  rumored  that  the  prisoners  excited  the  Formosans  to  rebel,  he 
ordered  all  the  Dutch  male  prisoners  to  be  slain  ; some  being  beheaded, 
others  killed  in  a more  barbarous  manner,  to  the  number  of  500,  their 
bodies  stripped  quite  naked  and  buried ; nor  were  the  women  and  children 
spared,  many  of  them  likewise  being  slain,  though  some  of  the  best  were 
preserved  for  the  use  of  the  commanders,  and  the  rest  sold  to  the  com- 
mon soldiers.  Among  the  slain  were  Messrs.  Hambrocock,  Mus,  and  Wins- 
haim,  clergymen,  and  many  schoolmasters.” — Chi.  Rep.,  Vol.  II.  p.  414. 

A force  of  ten  ships  and  seven  hundred  men  arriving  from 
Batavia,  the  besieged  began  to  act  on  the  offensive,  but  were  un- 
able to  drive  Koxinga  from  the  town,  though  they  checked  his 
operations,  and  concentrated  the  garrisons  at  Kilung  and  Tan- 
shwui  upon  one  point.  A letter  from  the  governor  of  Fuhkien  to 
Coyet,  the  Dutch  governor,  came  soon  after,  suggesting  a junction 
of  their  forces  to  drive  Koxinga  away  from  the  coast,  after  which 
both  could  easily  conquer  him  in  Formosa.  This  proposal  was 
followed,  and  no  sooner  had  the  five  vessels  gone,  than  Koxinga 
made  his  advances  so  vigorously  that  the  garrison  was  forced  to 
surrender,  after  a siege  of  nine  months,  and  the  loss  of  1600  men. 
Thus  ended  the  Dutch  rule  in  Formosa,  after  twenty-eight  years’ 
duration. 

This  loss  induced  the  council  at  Batavia  to  prosecute  their  for- 
mer enterprise  against  Amoy,  where  Koxinga  still  had  a garrison. 
Twelve  vessels  were  fitted  out  under  Bort,  who  arrived  in  1662, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Min,  where  he  was  visited  by  deputies 
20* 


442 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


from  the  governor,  and  induced  to  send  two  of  his  officers  to  ar- 
range  with  him  concerning  operations.  The  governor  was  in 
the  country,  and  the  two  officers,  on  reaching  his  camp,  soon  saw 
that  there  could  be  no  cordiality  between  their  leaders ; for  this 
proposal  of  a foreign  power  to  assist  them  against  the  Chinese 
was  too  much  like  that  of  Wu  Sankwei  to  their  chieftains  in 
1644,  for  the  Manchus  to  entertain  it.  Bort,  desirous  of  doing 
something,  commenced  a series  of  attacks  on  the  fleet  and  gar- 
risons of  Koxinga,  burning  and  destroying  them  in  a piratical 
manner,  that  was  not  less  ineffectual  towards  regaining  Formosa 
and  obtaining  privilege  of  trade  at  Canton,  than  harassing  to  the 
Chinese  on  the  coast.  He  returned  to  Batavia  in  1663,  and  was 
dispatched  to  Fuhkien  in  a few  months  with  a stronger  force,  and 
ordered  to  make  reprisals  on  both  Manchus  and  Chinese,  if  ne- 
cessary, in  order  to  get  satisfaction  for  the  loss  of  Formosa.  The 
governor  received  him  favorably,  and  after  a number  of  skir- 
mishes against  the  rebellious  Chinese,  Amoy  was  taken,  and  its 
troops  destroyed,  which  completed  the  subjugation  of  the  province 
to  the  Manchus.  As  a reward  for  this  assistance,  the  real  value 
of  which  cannot,  however,  be  easily  ascertained,  the  governor  lent 
tu>o  junks  to  the  Dutch  to  retake  Formosa,  but  Koxinga  laughed  at 
the  pitiful  force  sent  against  him,  and  Bort  sailed  for  Batavia. 

These  results  so  chagrined  the  council,  that  they  fitted  out  no 
more  expeditions,  preferring  to  dispatch  an  ambassy,  under  Van 
Hoorn,  to  Peking,  to  petition  for  trade  and  permission  to  erect 
factories.  He  landed  atFuhchau  in  1664,  where  he  was  received 
in  a polite  manner.  The  imperial  sanction  had  been  already 
received,  but  he  unwisely  delayed  his  journey  to  the  capital  until 
his  cargo  was  sold.  While  discussing  this  matter,  the  Dutch 
seized  a Chinese  vessel  bringing  bullion  from  Java  contrary  to 
their  colonial  regulations,  and  the  governor  very  properly  inti- 
mated, that  until  restitution  was  made,  no  amicable  arrangement 
could  be  completed  ; so  that  Van  Hoorn,  in  order  to  save  his  dig- 
nity, and  not  contravene  the  orders  of  his  own  government,  was 
obliged  to  allow  the  bullion  to  be  carried  off,  as  if  by  force,  by  a 
police  officer. 

These  preliminary  disputes  were  not  settled  till  nearly  a year 
after  the  arrival  of  Van  Hoorn.  He  and  his  suite  at  last  em- 
barked on  the  Min,  and  after  a tedious  journey  up  that  river, 
and  across  the  mountains  to  Hangchau  fu,  they  reached  the  canal 


VAN  HOORN  AND  VAN  BRAASl’s  AMBASSIES.  443 

and  the  capital,  having  been  six  months  on  the  way,  “ during 
which  they  saw  37  cities  and  335  villages.”  The  same  succes- 
sion of  prostrations  before  an  empty  throne,  followed  by  state  ban- 
quets, and  accompanied  by  the  presentation  and  conferring  of 
presents,  characterized  the  reception  of  this  ambassy,  as  it  had 
all  its  predecessors.  It  ended  with  a similar  farce,  alike  pleasing 
to  the  haughty  court  which  received  it,  and  unworthy  the  Chris- 
tian nation  which  gave  it ; and  the  “ only  result  of  this  grand  ex- 
pedition was  a sealed  letter,  of  the  contents  of  which  they  were 
wholly  ignorant,  but  which  did  not,  in  fact,  grant  any  of  the 
privileges  they  so  anxiously  solicited.”  They  had,  by  their  per- 
formance of  the  act  of  prostration,  caused,  their  nation  to  be  en- 
rolled among  the  tributaries  of  the  grand  khan,  and  then  were 
dismissed  as  loyal  subjects  should  be,  at  the  will  of  their  liege 
lord,  with  what  he  chose  to  give  them. 

The  Dutch  sent  no  more  ambassies  to  Peking  for  130  years, 
but  carried  on  their  trade  at  Canton  on  the  same  footing  as  other 
nations.  The  ill-success  of  Macartney’s  ambassy  in  1793,  in- 
duced Van  Braam,  the  consular  agent  at  Canton,  to  propose  a 
mission  of  salutation  and  respect  to  the  emperor  from  the  govern- 
ment of  Batavia,  on  the  occasion  of  his  reaching  the  sixtieth 
year  of  his  reign.  He  hoped,  by  conforming  to  the  Chinese  cere- 
monies, to  obtain  some  privileges  which  would  place  their  trade 
on  a better  footing,  but  one  would  have  supposed  that  the  ill  suc- 
cess of  the  former  attempts  would  have  convinced  him  that  no- 
thing was  to  be  gained  by  new  humiliations  before  a court  which 
had  just  dismissed  a well-appointed  ambassy.  The  Company  ap- 
pointed Isaac  Titsingh,  late  from  Japan,  as  chief  commissioner, 
giving  Van  Braam  the  second  place,  and  making  up  their  cortege 
with  a number  of  clerks  and  interpreters,  one  of  whom,  De 
Guignes,  wrote  the  results  of  his  researches  during  a long  resi- 
dence in  Canton,  and  his  travels  with  the  ambassy  to  Peking, 
under  the  title  of  Voyages  a Peking-  It  is  needless  to  detail  the 
annoyances,  humiliations  and  contemptuous  treatment  the  Dutch 
ambassy  experienced  on  its  overland  journey  in  midwinter,  and 
the  degrading  manner  in  which  the  emperor  received  the  envoys  : 
his  hauteur  was  a befitting  foil  to  their  servility,  at  once  ex- 
hibiting both  his  pride  and  their  ignorance  of  their  true  position 
and  rights.  They  were  brought  to  the  capital  like  malefactors, 
treated  when  there  like  beggars,  and  then  sent  back  toCanton  like 


144 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


mountebanks,  to  perform  the  three-times-three  prostration  at  all 
times  and  before  everything  their  conductors  saw  fit ; who  on  their 
part  stood  by  and  laughed  at  their  embarrassment  in  making  these 
evolutions  in  their  tight  clothes.  They  were  not  allowed  a single 
opportunity  to  speak  about  business,  which  the  Chinese  never  as- 
sociate with  an  ambassy,  but  ivere  entertained  with  banquets  and 
theatrical  shows,  and  performed  many  skilful  evolutions  them- 
selves upon  their  skates,  greatly  to  the  emperor’s  gratification, 
and  received  moreover  a present  of  broken  victuals  from  him, 
which  had  not  only  been  honored  by  coming  from  the  emperor’s 
own  table,  but  bore  marks  of  his  teeth  and  good  appetite ; “ they 
were  upon  a dirty  plate,  and  appeared  rather  destined  to  feed  a 
dog  than  form  the  repast  of  a human  creature.”  Van  Braam’s 
own  account  of  this  ambassy  is  one  of  the  most  humiliating  re- 
cords of  ill-requited  obsequiousness  before  insolent  government 
lackeys  which  any  European  was  ever  called  upon  to  pen.  The 
mission  returned  to  Canton  in  April,  1796,  without  attaining  a 
single  object,  except  saluting  the  emperor, — and  this,  in  reality, 
was  all  the  Chinese  meant  should  be  done  when  they  suggested 
it ; for,  in  order  to  understand  much  of  their  conduct  towards 
their  guests,  the  feelings  they  entertained  towards  them  must  not 
be  lost  sight  of. 

The  French  have  never  sent  a formal  mission  to  Peking  to 
petition  for  trade  and  make  obeisance,  while  through  their  mis- 
sionaries they  have  made  Europeans  better  acquainted  with 
China,  and  given  the  Chinese  more  knowledge  of  western  coun- 
tries, than  all  other  Christian  nations  together.  Since  the  war 
with  England,  France  has  sent  a well-appointed  mission  to  China, 
at  the  head  of  which  was  M.  Lagrene,  by  whom  a treaty  was 
formed  between  France  and  China. 

The  Russians  have  sent  several  ambassies  to  Peking,  and  com- 
pelled the  Chinese  to  treat  them  as  equals.  The  first  recorded 
visit  from  a Russian  was  in  1619,  but  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  the  mission  of  Evashko  Pettlin  and  his  companion,  from 
Tomsk,  across  the  desert  to  Kalgan  and  Peking,  can  be  styled  an 
ambassy.  According  to  Murray,  in  whose  compilation  there  is  a 
notice  of  it,  the  two  Cossacks  were  kindly  received,  but  having  no 
presents,  they  could  not  see  the  “ dragon’s  face,”  and  were  dis- 
missed with  a letter,  which  all  the  learning  of  Russia  at  Tobolsk 
and  Moscow  could  not  decipher.  During  tho  next  sixty  years 


FRENCH  AND  RUSSIAN  INTERCOURSE. 


445 


Russian  and  Chinese  subjects  and  soldiers  frequently  quarrelled, 
especially  along  the  banks  of  the  Sagalien,  and  the  necessity  of 
settling  these  disturbances  and  pretexts  for  trouble,  by  fixing  the 
boundary  line,  being  evident  to  both  nations,  commissioners  were 
appointed  to  meet  at  Nipchu  in  Sept.  1689,  and  form  a treaty. 
The  missionary  Gerbillon  was  mainly  instrumental  in  settling 
these  disputes,  and  perhaps  neither  party  would  have  lowered  its 
arrogant  claims,  if  it  had  not  been  through  his  influence ; the 
Chinese  were  far  the  most  difficult  to  please.* 

The  next  year,  Peter  sent  Ysbrandt  Ides  as  his  envoy  to  Pe- 
king to  exchange  the  ratification  of  the  treaty;  his  journey  across 
the  wilds  and  wastes  of  Central  Asia  took  up  more  time  than  a 
voyage  by  sea,  for  it  was  not  till  a year  and  eight  months  that 
“ he  could  return  thanks  to  the  great  God,  who  had  conducted 
them  all  safe  and  well  to  their  desired  place.”  Ides’  own  ac- 
count of  his  mission  contains  very  slight  notices  regarding  its 
object,  though  it  gives  considerable  information  concerning  the 
regions  he  travelled  through.  In  1719,  Peter  dispatched  another 
ambassy  under  Ismailoff,  to  arrange  the  trade  then  conducted  on 
a precarious  footing — an  account  of  which  was  drawn  up  by 
John  Bell,  an  Englishman.  Ismailoff  refused  to  prostrate  him- 
self, until  it  was  agreed  that  a Chinese  minister,  whenever  sent 
to  Petersburg,  should  conform  to  the  usages  of  the  Russians  ; — 
a safe  stipulation  certainly  to  a court  which  never  demeans  itself 
to  send  missions.  The  evident  desirableness  of  keeping  on  good 
terms  with  the  Russians,  led  the  Chinese  to  treat  their  envoys 
with  unusual  respect,  and  attend  to  the  business  they  came  to  set- 
tle. The  trade  was  henceforth  restricted  to  Kiakhta,  and  com- 
missioners were  appointed  by  both  powers  to  manage  its  details. 
In  1727,  a third  mission  was  sent  across  the  desert,  under  Count 
Vladislavitch,  which  succeeded  in  establishing  the  intercourse  on 
a still  better  basis,  viz.  that  a mission,  consisting  of  six  ecclesias- 
tical and  four  lay  members,  should  remain  at  Peking  to  study  the 
Chinese  and  Manchu  languages,  so  that  interpreters  could  be 
prepared,  and  communications  carried  on  more  satisfactorily  ; 
the  members  of  this  college  were  to  be  changed  decennially. 
The  narrative  of  George  Timkowski,  who  conducted  the  relief 
sent  in  1821,  gives  an  account  of  his  trip-from  Kiakhta  across  the 


Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  VIII.,  pp.  417,  506  ; Du  Halde,  Timkowski,  &c. 


446 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


desert,  together  with  considerable  information  relating  to  the 
Kalkas  and  other  Mongol  tribes  subject  to  China.  The  archi- 
mandrite, Hyacinth  Batchourin,  has  given  a description  of  Pe- 
king, but  such  works  as  the  members  of  the  Russian  college  have 
written,  are  for  the  most  part  still  in  that  language. 

The  intercourse  of  the  English  with  China,  though  it  commen- 
ced later  than  the  other  maritime  nations  of  Europe,  has  been  far 
more  important  in  its  consequences,  and  their  trade  greater  in 
amount  than  all  other  foreign  nations  combined.  This  inter- 
course has  not  been  such  as  was  calculated  to  impress  the  Chi- 
nese with  a just  idea  of  the  character  of  the  British  nation  as  a 
Christian  and  philanthropic  people ; for  the  supercargoes  and 
members  of  the  East  India  Company,  who  had  the  exclusive 
monopoly  of  the  trade  between  the  two  countries  for  nearly  two 
centuries,  systematically  opposed  every  effort  to  diffuse  Christian 
doctrine  and  general  knowledge  among  them.  During  that  long 
period,  even  if  they  had  only  maintained  an  interpreter  in  their 
factory,  whose  duties  required  him,  besides  the  common  routine 
of  his  office,  to  prepare  scientific,  geographical,  and  other  popu- 
lar treatises  in  the  Chinese  language,  for  sale  or  distribution,  the 
character  of  all  foreigners  would  have  been  far  better  in  the  eyes 
of  the  Chinese  than  it  is  at  present. 

The  first  English  vessels  were  under  the  command  of  Weddell 
who  anchored  off  Macao  in  May,  1637,  though  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  open  a trade  had  been  made  by  queen  Elizabeth  in 
1596,  by  dispatching  an  envoy  with  a letter  to  the  emperor. 
Weddell  was  sent  to  China  in  accordance  with  a “ truce  and  free 
trade”  which  had  been  entered  into  between  the  English  mer- 
chants and  the  viceroy  of  Goa,  who  gave  letters  to  the  governor  of 
Macao.  The  fleet  was  coldly  received,  and  Weddell  deluded  with 
vain  promises  until  the  Portuguese  fleet  had  sailed  for  Japan,  when 
he  was  denied  permission  to  trade.  Two  or  three  of  his  officers 
having  visited  Canton,  he  was  very  desirous  to  participate  in  the 
traffic,  and  proceeded  with  his  whole  fleet  up  to  the  Bogue  forts, 
where  this  desire  was  made  known  to  the  commanders  of  the 
forts,  who  promised  to  return  an  answer  in  a week.  Meanwhile, 
the  Portuguese,  with  their  usual  shortsightedness,  so  misrepre- 
sented them  to  the  Chinese,  that  the  commander  of  the  forts 
thought  he  would  end  the  matter  by  driving  them  away.  Having 
made  every  preparation  during  the  period  the  fleet  was  waiting, 


COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  ENGLISH  TRADE. 


447 


an  attack  was  first  made  upon  a watering-boat,  by  firing  shot  at 
it  when  passing  near  the  forts. 

“ Herewith  the  whole  fleet,”  quoting  from  Staunton’s  record, 
“ being  instantly  incensed,  did,  on  the  sudden,  display  their  bloody 
ensigns ; and,  weighing  their  anchors,  fell  up  with  the  flood,  and 
berthed  themselves  before  the  castle,  from  whence  came  many 
shot,  yet  not  any  that  touched  so  much  as  hull  or  rope  ; where- 
upon, not  being  able  to  endure  their  bravadoes  any  longer,  each 
ship  began  to  play  furiously  upon  them  with  their  broadsides ; 
and  after  two  or  three  hours,  perceiving  their  cowardly  fainting, 
the  boats  were  landed  with  about  one  hundred  men ; which  sight 
occasioned  them,  with  great  distractions,  instantly  to  abandon  the 
castle  and  fly ; the  boats’  crews,  in  the  meantime,  without  let, 
entering  the  same,  and  displaying  his  majesty’s  colors  of  Great 
Britain  upon  the  walls,  having  the  same  night  put  aboard  all  their 
ordnance,  fired  the  council-house  and  demolished  what  they  could. 
The  boats  of  the  fleet  also  seized  a junk  laden  with  boards  and 
timber,  and  another  with  salt.  Another  vessel  of  small  moment 
was  surprised,  by  whose  boat  a letter  was  sent  to  the  chief  man- 
darins at  Canton,  expostulating  their  breach  of  truce,  excusing 
the  assailing  of  the  castle,  and  withal  in  fair  terms  requiring  the 
liberty  of  trade.”  This  letter  was  shortly  replied  to,  and  after  a 
little  explanatory  negotiation,  hastened  to  a favorable  conclusion 
on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  by  what  they  had  seen,  trade  was  al- 
lowed after  the  captured  guns  and  vessels  were  restored,  and  the 
ships  supplied  with  cargoes. 

No  other  attempt  to  open  a trade  was  made  till  1664,  and  during 
the  change  of  dynasty,  which  took  place  in  the  interim,  the  trade 
of  all  nations  with  China,  probably  suffered  more  or  less  from  the 
suspension  of  manufactures,  or  the  risk  of  transporting  goods. 
The  English  had  a commercial  factory  at  Firado,  in  Japan,  from 
1613  to  1633,  and  seem  to  have  carried  on  some  trade  from  that 
place,  with  Ningpo,  while  the  Portuguese  were  established  there. 
The  East  India  Company  had  a factory  at  Bantam  in  Java,  and 
one  at  Madras,  but  their  trade  with  the  East  was  seriously  incom- 
moded by  the  war  with  the  Dutch ; when  it  was  renewed  in 
1664,  only  one  ship  was  sent  to  Macao,  but  such  were  the  exac- 
tions imposed  upon  the  trade  by  the  Chinese,  and  the  effect  of  the 
misrepresentations  of  the  Portuguese,  that  the  ship  returned  with- 
out effecting  sale.  This  did  not  discourage  the  Company,  how. 


448 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


ever,  who  ordered  their  agents  at  Bantam  to  make  inquiries  re. 
specting  the  most  favorable  port,  and  what  commodities  were  most 
in  demand.  They  mentioned  “Fuhchau  as  a place  of  great  re- 
sort, affording  all  China  commodities,  as  raw  and  wrought  silk,  tu- 
tenague,  gold,  china-root,  tea,  &c.”  A trade  had  been  opened  with 
Koxinga’s  son,  in  Formosa  and  at  Amoy,  but  this  rude  chieftain 
had  little  other  idea  of  traffic  than  a means  of  helping  himself  to 
every  curious  commodity  the  ships  brought,  and  levying  heavy 
imposts  upon  their  cargoes.  A treaty  was  indeed  entered  into  with 
him,  in  which  the  supercargoes,  as  was  the  case  subsequently  in 
1842,  stipulated  for  far  greater  privileges  and  lighter  duties  than 
Chinese  goods  and  vessels  would  have  had  in  English  ports.  Be- 
sides freedom  to  go  where  they  pleased  without  any  one  attend- 
ing them,  access  at  all  times  to  the  king,  liberty  to  choose  their 
own  clerks,  and  trade  with  whom  they  pleased,  it  was  also  agreed, 
“ that  what  goods  the  king  buys,  shall  pay  no  custom  ; that  rice 
imported  pay  no  custom  ; that  all  goods  imported  pay  three  per 
cent,  after  sale,  and  all  goods  exported  be  custom  free.”  This 
trade  did  not,  however,  continue  very  long,  chiefly  because  there 
were  few  articles  to  be  had  at  Zealandia.  The  trade  at  Amoy 
was  more  successful,  and  a small  vessel  was  sent  there  in  167T, 
which  brought  back  such  a favorable  report,  that  a factory  was 
ordered  to  be  established  the  next  year.  In  1678,  the  investments 
for  these  two  places  were  $30,000  in  bullion,  and  $20,000  in 
goods  ; the  returns  were  chiefly  in  silk  goods,  tutenague,  rhubarb, 
&c. ; the  trade  was  continued  for  several  years,  apparently  with 
considerable  profit,  though  the  Manchus  continually  increased  the 
restrictions  under  which  it  labored.  In  1681,  the  Company  or- 
dered their  factories  at  Amoy  and  Formosa  to  be  withdrawn,  and 
one  established  at  Canton  or  Fuhchau,  but  in  1685,  the  trade  was 
renewed  at  Amoy. 

The  Portuguese  managed  to  prevent  the  English  obtaining  a 
-footing  at  Canton,  until  about  1684  ; and,  as  Davis  remarks,  the 
stupid  pertinacity  with  which  they  endeavored  to  exclude  them 
from  this  port  and  trade,  is  one  of  the  most  striking  circumstances 
connected  with  these  trials  and  rivalries.  It  is  the  more  inex- 
plicable in  the  case  of  the  Portuguese,  for  they  could  carry  nothing 
to  England,  nor  could  they  force  the  English  to  trade  with  them  at 
second-hand;  theirs  was  truly  the  “dog  in  the  manger”  policy, 
and  they  have  subsequently  starved  upon  it.  In  1689,  a duty  of 


ENGLISH  TRY  TO  TRADE  AT  AMOY  AND  NINGPO. 


449 


5*.  per  pound,  was  laid  upon  tea  imported  into  England  ; and  the 
principal  articles  of  export  are  stated  to  have  been  wrought  silks 
of  every  kind,  porcelain,  lackered-ware,  a good  quantity  of  fine 
tea,  some  fans  and  screens.  Ten  years  after,  the  Court  of  Di- 
rectors sent  out  a consul’s  commission  to  the  chief  supercargo, 
who  at  that  time  was  Mr.  Catchpoole,  which  constituted  him, 
during  their  pleasure,  king’s  minister  or  consul,  for  the  whole 
empire  of  China  and  the  adjacent  islands.  In  1701,  an  attempt 
was  made  by  him  to  open  a trade,  and  he  obtained  permission  to 
send  ships  to  Chusan  or  Ningpo  ; an  investment  in  three  vessels, 
worth  £101,300,  was  accordingly  sent,  but  he  found  the  exac- 
tions of  the  government  so  grievous,  and  the  monopoly  of  the  mer- 
chants so  oppressive,  that  the  adventure  proved  a great  loss,  and 
the  traders  were  compelled  to  withdraw.  The  Company’s  hopes 
of  trade  at  that  port  must,  however,  have  been  great,  for  their 
investment  to  Amoy  that  year  was  only  £34,400,  and  to  Canton, 
£40,800  ; Catchpoole  also  established  a factory  at  Pulo  Condore, 
in  1702,  which  had  been  taken  by  the  English,  and  a fort  erected 
the  year  before  ; this  island  lies  off  the  coast  of  Cochinchina,  and 
was  a place  resorted  to  by  Chinese  junks  bound  to  the  Archipe- 
lago and  Siam.  The  whole  concern,  however,  experienced  a 
tragical  end  in  1705,  when  the  Malays  rose  upon  the  English  and 
murdered  them  all,  and  afterwards  burned  the  factory.  The 
Cochinchinese  are  said  to  have  instigated  this  treacherous  attack, 
to  regain  the  island,  which  was  claimed  by  them. 

The  trade  at  Amoy  was  continued  for  many  years  after  the 
greater  part  of  it  had  centred  in  Canton,  for  in  1723,  Captain 
Alexander  Hamilton,  who  wrote  a “ New  Account  of  the  East 
Indies,”  loaded  there.  The  distance  between  the  ports  of  Canton, 
Amoy,  and  Ningpo,  and  the  difficulties  attending  the  naviga'/'on 
up  the  Formosa  channel,  as  well  as  the  losses  and  exactions  at 
the  two  latter  places,  probably  combined  to  induce  the  Company 
to  withdraw  from  them.  The  extortions  and  grievances  suffered 
by  the  traders  at  Canton,  were  increased  in  1702  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  an  individual,  who  alone  had  the  right  of  trading  with 
them,  and  of  farming  it  out  to  those  who  had  the  means  of  doing 
so.  The  trade  seems  hardly,  even  at  this  time,  to  have  taken  a 
regular  form,  but  by  1720,  the  number  and  value  of  the  annual 
commodities  had  so  much  increased  that  the  Chinese  established 
a uniform  duty  of  four  per  cent,  on  all  goods,  and  appointed  a 


450 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


body  of  native  merchants,  who,  for  the  privilege  of  trading  with 
foreigners,  became  security  for  their  payment  of  duties  and  good 
behavior.  The  duty  on  imports  was  also  increased  to  about  16 
per  cent.,  and  a heavy  fee  -demanded  of  purveyors  before  they 
could  supply  ships  with  provisions,  besides  a heavy  measurement 
duty  and  present  to  the  collector  of  customs.  These  exactions 
seemed  likely  to  increase  unless  a stand  was  taken  against  them, 
and  the  English  succeeded  in  resisting  this  combination  of  the 
native  merchants  to  monopolize  the  trade.  This  was  done  by  & 
united  appeal  to  the  governor  in  person  in  1728,  yet  the  relief 
was  only  temporary,  for  the  plan  was  so  effectual  and  convenient 
for  the  government,  that  the  co-hong  was  erelong  re-established 
as  the  only  medium  through  which  the  foreign  trade  could  be 
conducted.  An  additional  duty  of  10  per  cent,  was  added  on  all 
exports,  which  no  efforts  were  effectual  in  removing,  until  the  ac- 
cession of  Kienlung  in  1736.  This  apparently  suicidal  practice 
of  levying  export  duties  is,  in  China,  really  a continuation  of  the 
internal  excise  or  transit  duties,  paid  upon  goods  exported  in  na- 
tive vessels  as  well  as  foreign. 

The  emperor,  in  taking  off  the  newly  imposed  duty  of  ten  per 
cent.,  required  that  the  merchants  should  hear  the  act  of  grace 
read  upon  their  knees ; but  the  foreigners  all  met  in  a body,  and 
each  one  agreed  on  his  honor  not  to  submit  to  this  slavish  posture, 
nor  make  any  concession  or  proposal  of  accommodation  without 
acquainting  the  rest.  The  emperor  also  required  the  delivery  of 
all  the  arms  on  board  ship,  a demand  afterwards  waived  on  the 
payment  of  about  £2000.  The  hong-merchants  shortly  became 
the  only  medium  of  communication  wTith  the  government,  them- 
selves being  the  exactors  of  the  duties  and  contrivers  of  the 
grievances,  and  when  complaints  were  made,  the  judges  of  the 
equity  of  their  own  acts.  In  1734,  only  one  English  ship  came 
to  Canton,  and  one  was  sent  to  Amoy,  but  the  extortions  there 
were  greater  than  at  the  other  port,  and  she  withdrew.  Two 
years  after,  another  attempt  was  made  at  Ningpo,  where  the  au- 
thorities were  so  imperious  and  obstinate,  and  the  place  promised 
so  little  in  the  way  of  trade,  that  the  ship  returned  to  Canton, 
where  she  found  that  the  recent  duty  of  ten  per  cent,  on  imports, 
and  the  present  formerly  exacted,  had  both  been  taken  off.  This 
present,  or  cumshaic  as  it  is  called,  was  demanded,  however,  by 
the  local  authorities,  and  paid  ; but  it  cannot  now  be  ascertained 


RESTRICT] ON S 1’LACED  ON  TRADE. 


451 


whether  it  was  then  applied  to  the  support  of  the  foundling  hospi- 
tal and  poor  asylum,  as  was  ascertained  to  be  the  case  in  1832. 
In  1736,  the  number  of  ships  at  Canton  was  four  English,  two 
French,  two  Dutch,  one  Dane  and  one  Swedish  vessel ; the  Por- 
tuguese ships  had  been  restricted  to  Macao  before  this  date.  The 
trade  now  profitable  to  both  parties,  had  become  regular,  and  the 
demand  in  Europe  for  tea  and  other  articles  of  Chinese  manufac- 
ture constantly  increasing. 

Commodore  Anson  arrived  at  Macao  in  1742,  and  as  the  Cen- 
turion was  the  first  British  man-of-war  which  had  visited  China, 
his  decided  conduct  in  refusing  to  leave  the  river  until  provisions 
were  furnished,  and  his  determination  in  seeking  an  interview 
with  the  governor,  no  doubt  had  a good  effect.  A mixture  of  de- 
cision and  kindness,  such  as  that  exhibited  by  Anson,  when  de- 
manding only  what  was  in  itself  right,  and  backed  by  an  array 
of  force  not  lightly  to  be  trifled  with  or  incensed,  has  always 
proved  the  most  successful  way  of  dealing  with  the  Chinese,  who 
on  their  part  need  instruction  as  well  as  intimidation.  The  con- 
stant presence  of  a ship  of  w ar  on  the  coast  of  China  would  per- 
haps have  saved  foreigners  much  of  the  personal  vexations,  and 
prevented  many  of  the  imposts  upon  trade,  which  the  history  of 
foreign  intercourse  exhibits,  making  it  in  fact  little  better  than  a 
recital  of  annoyances  on  the  part  of  a government,  too  ignorant 
and  proud  to  understand  its  own  true  interests,  and  recrimina- 
tions on  the  part  of  a few  traders,  unable  to  do  more  than  protest 
against  them. 

In  consequence  of  the  exactions  of  the  government,  and  the 
success  of  the  co-hong  in  preventing  all  direct  intercourse  between 
the  foreigners  and  local  authorities,  the  attempt  was  again  made 
to  trade  at  Amoy  and  Ningpo.  The  Hardwicke  was  sent  to 
Amoy  in  1744,  and  obliged  to  return  without  a cargo.  Messrs. 
Flint  and  Harrison  were  dispatched  to  Ningpo  in  1755,  and  wrere 
well  received ; but  when  the  ship  Holderness  subsequently  came 
to  trade,  it  was  with  difficulty  she  procured  a cargo,  and  an  im- 
perial edict  was  promulgated  soon  after  restricting  all  foreign 
ships  to  Canton.  In  1759,  the  factory  occupied  by  foreigners  at 
Ningpo  was  demolished,  and  regulations  issued  forbidding  natives 
supplying  their  ships  with  provisions ; so  that  Mr.  Flint,  who  re- 
paired there  that  year  was  unable  to  do  anything  towards  restor- 
ing the  trade.  This  gentleman  was  a person  of  uncommon  per* 


452 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


severance  and  talents,  and  had  mastered  the  difficulties  of  the 
Chinese  language,  so  as  to  act  as  interpreter  at  Canton  twelve 
years  before  he  was  sent  on  this  mission.  “ The  ungrateful  re- 
turn which  his  energy  and  exertions  in  their  service  met  with 
from  his  employers,”  justly  observes  Sir  John  Davis,  “ was  such 
as  tended  in  all  probability,  more  than  any  other  cause,  to  dis- 
courage his  successors  from  undertaking  so  laborious,  unprofit- 
able, and  even  hazardous  work  of  supererogation.” 

On  his  arrival  at  Ningpo,  Mr.  Flint,  finding  it  useless  to  at- 
tempt anything  there,  proceeded  in  a native  vessel  to  Tientsin, 
from  whence  he  succeeded  in  making  his  case  known  to  the  em- 
peror. A commissioner  was  deputed  to  accompany  him  overland 
to  Canton,  and  there  sit  in  judgment  on  the  collector  of  customs.' 
Mr.  Flint  proceeded  to  the  English  factory  soon  after  his  arrival, 
and  the  foreigners  of  all  nations  assembled  before  the  commis- 
sioner, who  informed  them  that  the  hoppo  had  been  superseded, 
and  all  duties  remitted  over  6 per  cent,  on  goods,  and  the  cum- 
shaw  and  tonnage  dues  on  ships.  The  sequel  of  Mr.  Flint’s  en- 
terprise was  too  unfortunate,  and  the  mode  the  Chinese  took  to 
bring  it  about  too  characteristic,  to  be  omitted. 

“ It  proved,  however,  that  these  fair  appearances  were  destined  only  to 
be  the  prelude  to  a storm.  Some  days  afterward,  the  governor  desired 
to  see  Mr.  Flint  for  the  purpose  of  communicating  the  emperor’s  orders, 
and  was  accompanied  by  the  council  of  his  countrymen.  When  the  party 
had  reached  the  palace,  the  hong-merchants  proposed  their  going  in  one 
at  a time,  but  they  insisted  on  proceeding  together ; and  on  Mr.  Flint 
being  called  for,  they  were  received  at  the  first  gate,  and  ushered  through 
two  courts  with  seeming  complaisance  by  the  officers  in  waiting ; but  on 
arriving  at  the  gate  of  the  inner  court,  they  were  hurried,  and  even  forced 
into  the  governor’s  presence,  where  a struggle  ensued  with  their  brutal 
conductors  to  force  them  to  do  homage  after  the  Chinese  fashion  until  they 
were  overpowered  and  thrown  down.  Seeing  their  determination  not  to 
submit  to  these  base  humiliations,  the  governor  ordered  the  people  to  de- 
sist ; and  then  telling  Mr.  Flint  to  advance,  he  pointed  to  an  order,  which 
he  called  the  emperor’s  edict,  for  his  banishment  to  Macao,  and  subsequent 
departure  for  England,  on  account  of  his  endeavoring  to  open  a trade  at 
Ningpo,  contrary  to  orders  from  Peking.  He  added  that  the  native  who 
had  written  the  petition  in  Chinese  was  to  be  beheaded  that  day,  for  trai- 
torously encouraging  foreigners,  which  was  performed  on  a man  quite  in- 
nocent of  what  these  officers  were  pleased  to  call  a crime.  Mr.  Flint  was 
soon  after  conveyed  to  Tsienshan,  a place  near  Macao,  called  Casa 


TREATMENT  OF  MR.  FLINT. 


453 


Branca  by  the  Portuguese,  where  he  was  imprisoned  two  years  and  a 
half,  and  then  sent  to  England.” — Davis'  Chinese,  Vol.  I.,  p.  64. 

Mr.  Flint  stated  to  the  Company  that  a fee  of  £250  to  the 
governor  would  set  him  at  liberty,  but  they  contented  themselves 
with  a petition.  The  punishment  Mr.  Flint  received  from  the 
Chinese  for  this  attempt  to  break  their  laws,  would  not  have  been 
considered  as  unmerited  or  unjust  in  any  other  country,  but  the 
neglect  of  the  Company  to  procure  the  liberation  of  one  who  had 
suffered  so  much  to  serve  them,  reflects  the  greatest  reproach 
upon  them. 

The  whole  history  of  the  foreign  trade  with  China,  up  to  1840, 
is  a melancholy  and  curious  chapter  in  national  intercourse  ; for 
it  is,  after  all,  the  daily  and  constant  concerns  of  traffic,  and  not 
treaties  or  ambassies,  which  constitute  national  dealings  with  such 
a people.  The  grievances  complained  of,  were  delay  in  loading 
ships,  and  plunder  of  goods  on  their  transit  to  Canton  ; the  inju- 
rious proclamations  annually  put  up  by  the  government,  accusing 
foreigners  of  horrible  crimes  ; the  extortions  of  the  underlings 
of  office  ; and  the  difficulty  of  access  to  the  high  authorities.  The 
hong-merchants,  from  their  position  as  sole  traders  and  interpret- 
ers between  the  two  parties,  were  able  to  delude  both  to  a con- 
siderable extent ; though,  being  made  responsible  for  the  acts 
and  payments  of  the  foreigners,  over  whom  they  could  exercise 
only  a partial  surveillance,  rendered  their  situation  by  no  means 
pleasant.  The  rule  on  which  the  Chinese  government  proceeded 
in  its  dealings  with  foreigners  has  been  thus  translated  by  Pre- 
mare : “ The  barbarians  are  like  beasts,  and  not  to  be  ruled  on 
the  same  principles  as  citizens.  Were  any  one  to  attempt  con- 
trolling them  by  the  great  maxims  of  reason,  it  would  tend  to  no- 
thing but  confusion.  The  ancient  kings  well  understood  this,  and 
accordingly  ruled  barbarians  by  misrule : therefore,  to  rule  bar- 
barians by  misrule  is  the  true  and  best  way  of  ruling  them.” 
The  same  rule  in  regard  to  foreign  traders  was  virtually  acted 
on  in  England,  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and  the  ideas  of 
their  power  over  those  who  visit  their  shores,  among  the  Chinese, 
are  not  unlike  those  which  prevailed  in  Europe  before  the  Refor- 
mation. The  Chinese,  at  first,  feared  and  respected  those  who 
came  to  their  shores,  and  whom  they  saw  to  be  their  superiors  in 
the  art  of  war,  and  spirit  of  enterprise  ; and  if  means  and  con- 


454 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


duct,  befitting  the  superior  knowledge  and  c.  ilization  of  their 
visitors  had  been  taken  to  enlighten  them,  such  efforts,  it  cannot 
be  supposed,  would  have  been  useless  or  unappreciated.  By  de- 
grees the  respectful  fear  of  the  Chinese  passed  into  haughty  con- 
tempt ; and  the  resolution  taken  to  exact  as  much  as  possible 
from  those  who  were  determined  to  trade,  and  of  whose  real  con- 
dition and  power,  little  or  nothing  was  known. 

A fruitful  source  of  difficulty  between  the  Chinese  and  Eng- 
lish, was  the  turbulent  conduct  of  sailors.  The  French  and  Eng- 
lish  sailors  at  Whampoa,  in  1754,  carried  their  national  hatred  to 
such  a degree,  that  they  could  not,  even  in  China,  pursue  their 
trade  without  quarrelling;  and  a Frenchman  having  killed  an 
English  sailor,  the  Chinese  stopped  the  trade  of  the  former  na- 
tion, until  the  guilty  person  was  given  up,  though  he  was  subse- 
quently liberated.  The  Chinese  allotted  two  different  islands 
in  the  river  at  Whampoa,  for  the  recreation  of  the  seamen  of 
each  nation,  in  order  that  such  troubles  might  be  avoided  in  future. 
A similar  case  occurred  at  Canton,  in  1780,  when  a Frenchman 
killed  a Portuguese  sailor  at  night,  in  one  of  the  merchants’ 
houses,  and  fled  to  the  consul’s  for  refuge.  The  Chinese  de- 
manded the  criminal,  and  after  some  days  he  was  given  up  to 
them,  and  publicly  strangled  ; this  punishment  he  no  doubt  me- 
rited, although  it  was  the  first  case  in  which  they  had  interfered, 
where  the  matter  was  altogether  among  foreigners,  and  their  suc- 
cess was  considered  as  furnishing  a bad  precedent  for  interference 
on  subsequent  occasions.  In  1784,  a native  was  accidentally 
killed  at  Whampoa,  by  a ball  left  in  a gun  when  firing  a salute 
from  the  Lady  Hughes,  an  English  ship,  and  the  Chinese  on  the 
principle  of  requiring  life  for  life,  demanded  the  man  who  had 
fired  the  gun.  Knowing  that  the  English  were  not  likely  to  give 
him  up,  the  police  seized  Mr.  Smith,  the  supercargo  of  the  ves- 
sel, and  carried  him  a prisoner  into  the  city,  having  previously 
succeeded  in  lulling  their  suspicions  by  protesting  that  they  wished 
merely  to  examine  the  gunner  concerning  the  affair.  On  the 
seizure  of  the  supercargo,  the  ships’  boats  were  ordered  up  from 
Whampoa  with  armed  crews,  to  defend  the  factories ; but  the 
Chinese  authorities  dispatched  a messenger  to  say  that  their  in- 
tention in  taking  Mr.  Smith  was  simply  to  ask  him  a few  ques- 
tions ; who,  on  his  part,  requested  the  captain  to  send  up  the  gun- 
ner or  somebody  else  from  the  ship  to  be  examined,  which  was  ac- 


CHINESE  ACTION  IN  CASE  OF  HOMICIDE. 


455 


cordingly  done.  Trusting  too  much  to  the  promises  of  the  Chi- 
nese, the  man  was  allowed  to  go  within  the  city  walls,  unattended 
by  any  of  his  countrymen,  when  Mr.  Smith  was  immediately 
liberated,  and  he  strangled  by  direct  orders  of  the  emperor,  after 
about  six  weeks’  confinement.  The  man,  probably,  underwent  no 
form  of  trial  intelligible  to  himself,  and  his  condemnation  was 
the  more  unjust,  as  by  Sect,  ccxcii.  of  the  Chinese  code,  he  was 
allowed  to  ransom  himself  by  a fine  of  about  $20.  As  a coun- 
terpart of  this  tragedy,  the  Chinese  stated,  and  there  was  reason 
for  believing  them,  that  a native,  who  had  accidentally  killed  a 
British  seaman,  about  the  same  time,  was  executed  for  the 
casualty. 

The  untoward  result  of  this  affair  served  as  a caution  and  guide 
in  dealing  with  the  local  authorities  hereafter,  for  the  Chinese  of- 
ficers regarded  it  as  incumbent  on  them  in  all  such  cases,  to  carry 
out  if  possible,  the  rule  of  life  for  life.  Their  mode  of  operations, 
however,  when  it  was  impracticable  to  get  possession  of  the 
guilty  or  accused  party,  was  well  exhibited  in  the  case  of  a homi- 
cide which  occurred  in  1807.  A party  of  sailors  had  been  drink- 
ing in  one  of  the  shops  at  Canton,  when  a scuffle  ensued,  and  the 
sailors  put  the  populace,  who  had  begun  to  insult  them,  to  flight, 
killing  one  of  the  natives  in  the  onset.  The  trade  was  imme- 
diately stopped,  and  the  hong-merchant,  who  had  secured  the  ship, 
was  held  responsible  for  the  delivery  of  the  offender.  Eleven 
men  were  arrested  by  the  Company’s  order,  and  a court  instituted 
in  their  hall  before  Chinese  judges,  Captain  Rolles  of  H.  B.  M. 
ship  Lion  being  present  with  the  committee.  The  actual  homi- 
cide could  not  be  found,  but  one  man,  named  Edward  Sheen,  was 
detained  in  custody,  which  satisfied  the  Chinese  while  he  re- 
mained in  Canton ; but  when  the  committee  wished  to  take  him 
to  Macao  with  them,  they  resisted,  until  Captain  Rolles  declared 
that  otherwise  he  should  take  the  prisoner  on  board  his  own  ship, 
which  he  actually  did.  Being  now  beyond  their  reach,  the 
authorities  gave  up  the  case,  and  explained  the  affair  to  the  su- 
preme tribunal  at  the  capital,  by  inventing  a tale,  stating  that  the 
prisoner  had  caused  the  death  of  a native  by  raising  an  upper 
window,  and  accidentally  dropping  a stick  upon  his  head  as  he 
was  passing  in  the  street  below.  This  statement  was  reported  to 
his  majesty,  as  having  been  concurred  in  by  the  English,  after  a 
full  examination  of  witnesses,  who  attested  to  the  circumstances  ; 


456 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  imperial  rescript  affirmed  the  sentence  of  the  Board  of  Pu- 
nishments, which  ordered  that  the  prisoner  should  be  set  at  liberty, 
after  paying  the  legal  fine  of  about  $20,  provided  to  pay  the 
funeral  expenses.  The  trade  was  thereupon  resumed. 

This  case  serves  to  illustrate  the  proceedings  of  the  Chinese 
government,  in  many  similar  cases  among  themselves,  where  the 
interest  or  fear  of  the  subordinate  officers  leads  them  to  make 
out  a fair  statement,  in  utter  disregard  of  truth  and  equity.  It 
should  be  stated,  however,  in  passing  our  judgment  upon  such 
conduct,  that  the  governor  and  his  colleagues  were  placed  in  an 
unpleasant  dilemma.  The  laws  peremptorily  required  life  for 
life  whenever  foreigners  were  concerned;  and  they  were  liable 
to  be  denounced  to  their  sovereign  and  degraded,  if  they  did 
not  execute  the  laws  : a thing  wholly  impracticable,  after  he  had 
been  removed  on  board  ship.  They  could  not  but  be  sensible  that 
the  man,  though  deserving  of  some  punishment,  was  not  guilty 
of  murder,  and  their  fabrication,  though  plain  to  all  the  local  of- 
ficers, still  had  a merciful  end  in  view  for  the  prisoner ; and  was 
moreover,  a safe  expedient  for  themselves,  as  the  relations  who 
were  the  only  parties  likely  to  testify  against  them,  had  been 
pacified  by  a sum  of  fifty  thousand  pounds.  Another  induce- 
ment to  hush  the  matter,  was  the  suspension  of  trade,  and  conse- 
quent general  inconvenience  to  all  parties.* 

Another  case  of  homicide  occurred  at  Whampoa,  in  1820, 
when  the  authorities  showed  their  earnest  desire  to  settle  the  af- 
fair by  assuming  that  the  butcher  of  the  ship,  who  committed 
suicide  soon  after,  was  the  guilty  person  ; they  held  an  inquest  on 
board  the  ship,  and  a corresponding  statement  was  made  out.  In 
1822,  a party  of  sailors  watering  at  Lintin  from  H.  B.  M.  ship 
Topaze  was  attacked  by  a crowd  of  natives,  and  in  the  affray  two 
Chinese  were  killed  and  many  wounded  on  both  sides.  The 
authorities  at  Canton  demanded  that  two  Englishmen  should  be 
given  up,  which  the  captain  refused  to  do,  at  the  same  time  ex- 
plaining the  affair,  and  showing  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  island 
were  blameworthy.  A long  discussion  ensued  between  the  Com- 
pany and  the  local  authorities,  which  ended  in  the  Committee 
stopping  the  trade  and  withdrawing  from  the  river,  until  the 
governor  agreed  to  release  them,  as  merchants,  from  all  partici- 

* Sir  G.  T.  Staunton’s  Translation  of  the  Penal  Code,  p.  516. 


CASE  OF  FRANCIS  TERRANOVA. 


457 


pation  or  responsibility  for  the  acts  of  British  ships  of  war.  This 
was  finally  done  and  the  trade  resumed.  One  reason  for  the 
tedious  progress  of  these  disputes  may  be  found  in  the  habitual 
tergiversation  of  the  Chinese,  which  lead  them  to  suspect  others 
of  falsehood,  in  the  same  degree  that  they  are  conscious  of  it 
themselves,  and  renders  them  unwilling  to  confess  their  mendacity 
when  charged  home  upon  them. 

The  zeal  of  the  Chinese  in  this  affair  of  the  Topaze,  was  no 
doubt  increased  by  their  success  the  year  before  in  a case  of 
homicide  on  board  the  American  ship  Emily,  caused  by  an  angry 
sailor,  named  Francis  Terranova,  throwing  a jar  at  a woman, 
which  knocked  her  overboard,  though  evidence  was  brought  for- 
ward to  show  that  she  fell  into  the  water  partly  through  her  own 
haste  or  carelessness.  The  district  magistrate  of  Pwanyu  came 
down  to  the  ship  with  the  hong-merchants  and  linguists,  and 
held  a trial  upon  the  sailor,  which  the  committee  of  American 
merchants  present  protested  against  as  unjust  and  a mere  mock- 
ery, inasmuch  as  the  magistrate  refused  to  accept  the  offered  ser- 
vices of  Dr.  Morrison  as  interpreter,  and  employed  his  own 
wretched  linguists  to  conduct  the  trial.  The  error  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, according  to  the  account  drawn  up  by  an  eye-witness,  and 
given  in  the  North  American  Review  for  January,  1835,  was  in 
allowing  the  trial  to  take  place  without  the  aid  of  a well  qualified 
interpreter,  which  they  could  probably  have  obtained  by  a little 
determination  ; and  afterwards  in  permitting  the  man  to  be  taken 
out  of  the  ship  before  he  had  had  a fair  trial. 

They  are  stated,  in  this  narrative,  to  have  told  Howqua,  “ We 
are  bound  to  submit  to  your  laws  while  we  are  in  your  waters, 
be  they  ever  so  unjust ; we  will  not  resist  them;”  and  it  was  on 
this  principle  that  they  suffered  the  unconvicted  sailor  to  be  car- 
ried to  Canton,  without  resistance  ; but  there  is  no  evidence  for 
Sir  John  Davis’  assertion  that  he  was  put  in  irons  by  the  Ameri- 
cans at  the  desire  of  his  judges,  or  that  he  was  personally  deli- 
vered up  to  them.  He  was  strangled  very  soon  after  he  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Chinese,  in  opposition  to  all  the  delays  and  forms 
of  even  their  own  laws,  no  foreigner  being  allowed  to  be  present. 
The  government  at  Washington  never  made  the  least  move  or 
remonstrance  respecting  this  tragical  affair,  but  still  left  the  com- 
merce, lives  and  property  of  American  citizens  in  China  wholly 
unprotected,  and  at  the  mercy  of  its  rulers.  We  are  not  pre- 

VOL.  II.  21 


458 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


pared  to  admit,  however,  that  because  the  natives  of  one  country 
live  in  another,  they  are  bound  thereby  to  submit  to  whatever  in- 
justice may  be  practised  or  inflicted  upon  them  ; when,  too,  as 
was  the  case  then  in  China,  they  are  regarded  as  foreigners,  and 
not  permitted  to  live  under,  or  be  judged  by  the  same  laws  as  the 
natives. 

Other  cases  of  murder  and  homicide  have  occurred  in  China 
since  the  two  last  mentioned,  but  no  one  has  been  executed  by 
the  Chinese.  One  of  them  was  a captain  Mackenzie,  who  was 
beaten  so  severely  in  a night  affray  with  some  Parsees,  in  1832, 
as  to  cause  his  death  ; both  the  parties  being  British  subjects,  the 
matter  was  settled  by  the  Committee  sending  the  Parsees  to  Bom- 
bay for  trial ; the  Chinese  making  one  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
bring  the  case  under  their  own  jurisdiction.  The  other  grew  out 
of  a fracas  between  the  crews  of  the  opium  ships  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  an  island  near  Kumsing  moon,  in  which  a man  was  killed 
on  each  side.  The  relatives  of  the  deceased  Chinese  complained 
to  their  rulers,  and  the  hong-merchants  hit  upon  an  expedient  to 
satisfy  the  forms  of  law,  by  persuading  a black  from  Macao  to 
personate  the  murderer,  and  give  himself  up  to  be  tried,  assuring 
him  of  a full  acquittal.  Some  correspondence  ensued  between 
the  authorities  and  the  Committee,  and  the  captive  was  finally  set 
at  liberty.* 

These  cases  are  brought  together  in  this  place  to  illustrate  the 
anomalous  position  which  foreigners  held  in  China,  before  the  late 
war.  They  constituted  a community  by  themselves,  subject 
chiefly  to  their  own  sense  of  honor  in  their  mutual  dealings,  but 
their  relations  with  the  Chinese  were  like  what  lawyers  call  a 
“state  of  nature.”  The  change  of  a governor-general,  of  a col- 
lector of  customs,  or  senior  hong-merchant,  involved  a new  course 
of  policy  according  to  the  personal  character  of  these  function- 
aries. The  Committee  of  the  East  India  Company  had  consid- 
erable power  over  British  subjects,  especially  those  living  in  Can- 
ton, and  could  deport  them  if  they  pleased ; but  the  consuls  of 
other  nations  had  little  or  no  authority  over  their  countrymen. 
Trade  was  left  at  the  same  loose  ends  that  politics  were,  and  the 
want  of  an  acknowledged  tariff  encouraged  smuggling,  and  kept 
up  a constant  spirit  of  resistance  and  dissatisfaction  between  the 


* Chinese  Repository.  Vol.  II.,  pp.  513 — 515. 


LOUD  MACAKTNEy’s  AMBASSY  TO  PEKING.  459 

native  and  foreign  merchants,  each  party  endeavoring  to  get  along 
as  advantageously  to  itself  as  practicable.  Nor  was  there  any 
acknowledged  medium  of  communication  between  them,  for  the 
consuls  not  being  credited  by  the  Chinese  government,  came  and 
went,  hoisted  and  lowered  their  flags,  without  the  slightest  notice 
from  the  authorities.  Trade  could  proceed,  perhaps,  without  in- 
volving the  nations  in  war,  since  if  it  was  unprofitable  it  would 
cease  ; but  w'hile  it  continued  on  such  a precarious  footing,  na- 
tional character  suffered,  and  the  misrepresentations  produced 
thereby  rendered  explanations  difficult,  inasmuch  as  neither  party 
understood  or  believed  the  other. 

The  death  of  the  unfortunate  gunner,  in  1784,  and  the  large 
debts  owed  to  the  English  by  the  hong-merchants,  which  there 
seemed  no  probability  of  recovering,  induced  the  British  govern- 
ment to  turn  its  attention  to  the  situation  of  the  king’s  subjects  in 
China  with  the  purpose  of  placing  their  relations  on  a better  foot- 
ing. The  flagitious  conduct  of  a captain  M’Clary,  who  seized  a 
Dutch  vessel  at  Whampoa,  in  1781,  which  Davis  narrates,  and 
the  inability  of  the  Company  to  restrain  such  proceedings,  also 
had  its  weight  in  deciding  the  crown  to  send  an  ambassy  to  Pe- 
king. Colonel  Cathcart  was  appointed  envoy,  in  1788,  but  his 
death  in  the  straits  of  Sunda  temporarily  deferred  the  mission, 
which  was  resumed  on  a larger  scale  in  1792,  when  the  earl  of 
Macartney  was  sent  as  ambassador,  with  a large  suite  of  able  men, 
to  place  the  relations  between  the  two  nations,  if  possible,  on  a 
well  understood  and  secure  footing.  Two  ships  were  appointed 
as  tenders,  to  accompany  his  majesty’s  ship  Lion,  64,  in  which 
he  went  out,  and  nothing  was  omitted,  either  in  the  composition 
of  the  mission,  or  the  presents  to  the  emperor,  to  insure  its  suc- 
cess. Little  is  known  regarding  its  real  impression  upon  the 
Chinese;  they  treated  it  with  great  consideration  while  it  re- 
mained in  the  country,  although  at  an  estimated  cost  of  £170,000, 
and  probably  dismissed  it  with  the  feeling  that  it  was  one  of  the 
most  splendid  testimonials  of  respect  that  a tributary  nation  had 
ever  paid  their  court.  The  English  were  henceforth  registered 
among  the  nations  who  had  sent  tribute-bearers,  and  were  con- 
sequently  only  the  more  bound  to  obey  the  injunctions  of  theii 
master. 

To  the  English,  however,  this  expedition  may  be  said  to  have 
opened  China,  so  much  interest  was  taken  in  it,  and  so  well 


460 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


calculated  were  the  narratives  of  Staunton  and  Barrow,  to  con- 
vey better  ideas  of  that  remote  country.  “ Much  of  the  lasting 
impression  which  the  relations  of  Lord  Macartney’s  ambassy 
leave  on  the  mind  of  his  reader,”  to  quote  from  a review  of  it, 
“ must  be  ascribed,  exclusive  of  the  natural  effect  of  clear,  ele- 
gant, and  able  composition,  to  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in 
that  business,  the  variety  of  their  characters,  the  reputation  they 
already  enjoyed,  or  afterwards  acquired  ; the  bustle  stir  of  a sea- 
voyage  ; the  placidity  and  success  which  finally  characterized 
the  intercourse  of  the  English  with  the  Chinese  ; the  splendor  of 
the  reception  the  latter  gave  to  their  European  guests  ; the  walks 
in  the  magnificent  gardens  of  the  ‘ son  of  heaven  ;’  the  pictur- 
esque, and  almost  romantic  navigation  upon  the  imperial  canal ; 
and  perhaps,  not  less,  for  the  interest  we  feel  for  every  grand  en- 
terprise, skilfully’-  prepared,  and  which  proves  successful,  partly 
in  consequence  of  the  happy  choice  of  the  persons,  and  the  means 
by  which  it  was  to  be  carried  into  effect.”  This  impression  of 
the  grandeur  and  extent  of  the  Chinese  empire  has  ever  since 
more  or  less  remained  upon  the  minds  of  all  readers  of  Staunton’s 
narrative ; but  truer  views  were  imparted  than  had  before  been 
entertained  concerning  its  real  civilization  and  rank  among  the 
nations. 

That  the  ambassy  produced  some  good  effect  is  undeniable, 
though  it  failed  in  most  of  the  principal  points.  It  also  afforded 
the  Chinese  an  opportunity  of  making  arrangements,  concerning 
that  future  intercourse  which  they  could  not  avoid,  even  if  they 
would  not  negotiate,  and  of  acquiring  information  concerning 
foreign  nations,  which  would  have  proved  of  great  advantage  to 
them.  Their  contemptuous  rejection,  ignorant  though  they  are 
of  the  real  character  of  these  courtesies,  of  peaceful  missions  like 
those  of  Macartney,  Titsingh,  and  others,  takes  away  much  of 
our  sympathy  for  the  calamities  which  subsequently  came  upon 
them.  With  characteristic  shortsightedness,  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment looked  upon  the  very  means  taken  to  arrange  existing  ill- 
understood  relations  as  a reason  for  considering  those  relations 
settled  to  its  liking,  and  a motive  to  still  further  exactions. 

For  many  years  subsequent  to  this  ambassy,  the  trade  went  on 
without  interruption,  though  the  demands  and  duties  were  rather 
increased  than  diminished,  and  the  personal  liberty  of  foreigners 
gradually  restricted  within  narrower  limits.  The  governmen' 


ENGLISH  TROOPS  OCCUPY  MACAO. 


461 


generally,  down  to  the  lowest  underling,  systematically  endea- 
vored to  degrade  and  insult  foreigners  in  the  eyes  of  the  populace 
and  citizens  of  Canton,  in  order,  in  case  of  any  disturbance,  to 
have  their  co-operation  and  sympathy  against  the  “ barbarian 
devils.”  The  dissolute  and  violent  conduct  of  many  foreigners 
towards  the  Chinese,  gave  them,  alas,  too  many  arguments  for 
their  aspersions  and  exactions,  and  both  parties  too,  frequently 
considered  the  other  fair  subjects  for  imposition. 

In  1802,  the  English  troops  occupied  Macao  by  order  of  the 
governor-general  of  India,  lest  it  should  be  attacked  by  the  French, 
but  the,  news  of  the  treaty  of  peace  arriving  soon  after,  they  re- 
embarked almost  as  soon  as  the  Chinese  remonstrated.  The  dis- 
cussion was  revived,  however,  in  1808,  when  the  French  again 
threatened  the  settlement,  and  the  English,  under  Admiral  Drury, 
landed  a detachment  to  assist  the  Portuguese  in  defending  it. 
The  Chinese,  who  had  previously  asserted  their  complete  juris- 
diction over  this  territory,  and  which  a little  examination  would 
have  plainly  shown,  now  protested  against  the  armed  occupation 
of  their  soil,  and  immediately  stopped  the  trade,  and  denied  pro- 
visions to  the  ships.  The  English  were  ordered  by  the  Committee 
to  go  aboard  ship,  and  the  governor  refused  to  have  the  least  com- 
munication with  the  admiral  until  the  troops  were  withdrawn. 
He  attempted  to  proceed  to  Canton  in  ships’  armed  boats,  but  was 
repulsed,  and  finally,  in  order  not  to  implicate  the  trade  any 
further,  a step  not  at  all  apprehended  in  protecting  the  Portuguese, 
he  wisely  withdrew  his  troops  and  sailed  for  India.  The  success 
of  the  native  authorities  greatly  rejoiced  them,  and  a temple  was 
built  on  the  river’s  bank  to  commemorate  their  victory,  and  a 
fort,  called  “ Howqua’s  Folly  ” by  foreigners,  erected  to  guard 
the  river  at  that  point. 

The  Chinese,  ignorant  of  the  principles  on  which  international 
intercourse  is  regulated  among  western  powers,  regarded  every 
hostile  demonstration  between  them  in  their  waters  as  directed 
towards  themselves,  and  demanding  their  interference.  They 
are  utterly  powerless  to  defend  even  themselves  against  their 
own  piratical  subjects,  as  was  manifested  in  1810  and  previously, 
and  also  in  1660,  when  Koxinga  ravaged  the  coast,  and  the  go- 
vernor of  Fuhkien  called  in  the  aid  of  the  Dutch ; and  still  they 
assume  that  they  are  able  to  protect  all  foreigners  who  “ range 
themselves  under  their  sway.”  This  was  exhibited  in  1814,  on 


462 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


occasion  of  the  British  frigate  Doris  cruising  off  the  port  of  Can- 
ton to  seize  American  vessels  during  the  war  with  that  country, 
when  the  provincial  authorities  ordered  the  Committee  to  send  the 
Doris  away,  saying,  that  if  the  English  and  Americans  had  any 
petty  squabbles  they  must  settle  them  between  themselves,  and 
not  bring  them  to  China.  The  Committee  stated  their  inability  to 
control  the  proceedings  of  men-of-war,  whereupon  the  Chinese 
began  a series  of  petty  and  vexatious  annoyances  against  the 
merchants  and  shipping,  such  as  prohibiting  the  employment  of 
native  servants,  entering  their  houses  to  seize  natives,  molesting 
and  stopping  ships’  boats  proceeding  up  and  down  the  river  on 
business,  hindering  the  loading  of  the  ships,  and  other  like  ha- 
rassing acts,  so  characteristic  of  Asiatic  governments,  when  they 
feel  themselves  powerless  to  cope  with  the  real  object  of  their 
fear  or  anger.  These  almost  hostile  measures  proceeded  at  last 
to  such  a length,  that  the  Committee  determined  to  stop  the  British 
trade  until  the  governor  would  allow  it  to  go  on  without  molesta- 
tion as  usual,  and  they  had  actually  left  Canton  for  Whampoa, 
with  all  the  factory,  and  proceeded  down  the  river  some  distance, 
before  he  showed  a sincere  wish  to  arrange  matters  amicably. 
There  had  been  several  meetings  between  the  Committee  and 
deputies  from  his  excellency  previous  to  the  former  leaving  the 
city,  but  it  was  not  until  the  Chinese  saw  them  actually  depart 
that  they  believed  them  to  be  in  earnest.  A deputation  from 
each  party  accordingly  met  in  Canton,  and  after  considerable  ne- 
gotiation, the  principal  points  in  dispute  were  gained. 

One  thing  which  the  English  justly  remonstrated  against,  was 
the  banishment  of  a linguist,  who  had  been  sent  to  Peking  with 
the  implied  permission  of  the  authorities,  to  Sung,  the  amiable 
conductor  of  Macartney’s  ambassy,  in  order  to  carry  him  a gold 
box  and  a complimentary  letter  from  the  English  ministry  on  his 
elevation  to  the  Inner  Council.  The  unfortunate  messenger  was 
banished  to  111  soon  after  his  return  to  Canton,  on  the  charge  of 
having  had  traitorous  dealings  with  foreigners,  the  statesman  was 
disgraced,  and  the  present  sent  back  ; thus  showing,  in  the  strong- 
est manner,  the  feelings  of  the  imperial  government.  The  go- 
vernor, however,  unhesitatingly  told  the  Committee  that  the  linguist 
had  been  punished  for  entirely  another  reason.  At  this  time  he 
conceded  three  important  points,  viz.  the  right  of  corresponding 
with  the  government  under  seal  in  the  Chinese  language,  the  un- 


lord  awherst’s  ambassy  to  Peking. 


463 


molested  employment  of  native  servants,  and  the  assurance  that 
the  houses  of  foreigners  should  not  be  entered  without  permission ; 
nor  were  these  stipulations  ever  retracted  or  violated.  Trade  was 
resumed  soon  after.  The  proceedings  in  this  affair,  were  con- 
ducted with  no  little  apprehension  on  both  sides,  for  the  value  of 
the  traffic  was  of  such  importance  that  neither  party  could  really 
think  of  stopping  it.  Besides  the  revenue  accruing  to  govern- 
ment from  duties  and  presents,  the  preparation  and  shipment  of 
the  articles  in  demand  for  foreign  countries  give  employment  to 
millions  of  natives  in  different  parts  of  the  empire,  and  had  caused 
Canton  to  become  one  of  the  greatest  marts  in  the  world.  The 
governor  and  his  colleagues  were  responsible  for  the  revenue  and 
peaceful  continuance  of  the  trade  ; but  through  their  ignorance 
of  the  true  principles  of  a prosperous  commerce,  and  fear  of  the 
consequences  resulting  from  any  innovation  or  change,  or  tho 
least  extension  of  privileges  to  the  few  half-imprisoned  foreign- 
ers, they  thought  their  security  lay  rather  in  restriction  than  in 
freedom,  in  a haughty  bearing  to  intimidate,  and  not  in  concilia- 
tion to  please,  their  customers.  On  the  other  hand,  the  existence 
of  the  East  India  Company’s  charter  depended  in  a good  degree 
upon  furnishing  a regular  supply  of  tea  to  the  people  of  England, 
and  therefore  the  success  of  the  Committee’s  bold  measure  of 
stopping  the  trade  depended  not  a little  upon  the  ignorance  of  the 
Chinese  of  the  great  power  a passive  course  of  action  would 
give  them. 

The  government  at  home,  on  learning  these  proceedings,  re- 
solved to  dispatch  another  ambassy  to  Peking  in  order  to  state 
the  facts  of  the  case  at  court,  and  if  possible  agree  upon  some 
understood  mode  of  conducting  trade  and  communicating  with 
the  heads  of  government.  Lord  Amherst,  who  like  Lord  Ma- 
cartney, had  been  governor-general  of  India,  was  appointed  am- 
bassador to  Peking,  and  Henry  Ellis  and  Sir  George  T.  Staunton 
associated  with  him  as  second  and  third  commissioners.  A large 
suite  of  able  men,  with  Dr.  Morrison  as  principal  interpreter,  ac- 
companied the  ambassy,  and  the  usual  quantity  and  variety  of 
presents.  The  mission  reached  the  capital  August  28th,  1816, 
but  was  summarily  dismissed  without  an  audience,  because  the 
ambassador  would  not  perform  the  kolau,  or  appear  before  his 
majesty  as  soon  as  he  arrived  ; the  intrigues  of  the  authorities  at 
Canton  with  the  high  officers  about  the  emperor  to  defeat  the  am- 


464 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


bassy  by  deceiving  their  master,  have  also  been  adduced  as  rea- 
sons for  its  failure.  The  rejection  of  this  mark  of  respect  from 
foreign  nations,  for  England  in  one  sense  stood  as  the  represen- 
tative of  Christendom,  completely  placed  the  Chinese  out  of  the 
list  of  civilized  nations,  and  showed  the  inutility  and  folly  of  this 
mode  of  approach.  There  now  remained  only  three  modes  of 
procedure  : — the  resort  to  force  to  compel  them  to  enter  into  some 
equitable  arrangement,  entire  submission  to  whatever  they  or- 
dered, or  the  withdrawal  of  all  trade,  until  they  proposed  its  re- 
sumption : the  course  of  events  continued  the  second  until  the 
first  was  resorted  to,  and  eventuated  in  laying  open  the  whole 
coast  to  the  enterprise  of  western  nations. 

The  journey  of  the  ambassy  from  Peking  to  Canton  was  per- 
formed pleasantly,  and  the  journals  of  Ellis,  Abel,  Davis,  and 
Morrison,  imparted  considerable  new  information  upon  the  habits 
and  condition  of  the  people,  and  the  productions  of  the  country. 
The  conduct  of  the  authorities  at  Canton  was  also  more  civil, 
thus  showing  that  the  ambassy  had  had  some  effect ; and  the  de- 
cided conduct  of  Lord  Amherst  in  asserting  his  right  to  the  first 
seat  at  an  interview  held  with  the  governor-general,  and  of  Cap- 
tain Maxwell  in  bringing  the  frigate  Alceste  up  to  Whampoa,  and 
silencing  the  Bogue  forts,  further  added  to  the  respect  or  fear 
shown  in  their  own  fashion  in  a desire  to  avoid  collision  and  al- 
tercation. The  effort  was  made  by  the  chief  of  the  factory  in 
1829,  to  compel  the  Chinese  to  permit  foreigners  to  live  at  Can- 
ton with  their  families,  and  armed  sailors  and  cannon  were 
brought  up  from  Whampoa  to  resist  any  attempt  to  coerce  the 
ladies  away,  but  the  governor  succeeded  in  dismissing  them  after 
an  altercation  of  several  months.  The  debts  of  two  of  the  bank- 
rupt hongs,  amounting  to  about  two  millions  of  dollars,  were  also 
settled  and  paid  by  six  instalments,  and  the  united  responsibility 
of  the  co-hong  for  the  debts  of  anv  one  of  its  members  ordered 
to  cease.  This  did  not,  however,  take  place,  nor  stop  the  needy 
or  prodigal  among  them  from  borrowing  largely  of  the  foreigners. 

At  the  close  of  the  East  India  Company’s  exclusive  rights  in 
China,  the  prospect  for  the  continuance  of  a peaceful  trade  was 
rather  dubious.  The  enterprising  Mr.  Marjoribanks,  president 
of  the  factory,  had  planned  the  experiment  of  sending  a vessel  up 
the  coast  to  ascertain  how  far  trade  could  be  carried  on,  which 
resulted  in  satisfactorily  proving  that  the  authorities  were  able 


AMERICAN  TRADE  TO  CHINA. 


465 


and  determined  to  stop  all  traffic  at  those  ports,  however  desirous 
the  people  might  be  for  it.  The  contraband  trade  in  opium  was 
conducted  in  a manner  that  threatened  erelong  to  involve  the  two 
nations,  but  the  Company’s  factory  kept  themselves  aloof  from  it, 
by  bringing  none  in  their  ships : the  same  Company,  however, 
did  everything  in  India,  to  encourage  the  growth  and  sale  of  the 
drug,  and  received  an  annual  revenue,  at  the  time  of  its  disso- 
lution, of  nearly  two  millions  sterling.  During  its  existence  in 
China,  the  East  India  Company  stood  forward  as  the  defenders 
of  the  rights  of  foreigners  and  humanity,  in  a manner  which  no 
community  of  isolated  merchants  could  have  done ; and  to  some 
extent  compelled  the  Chinese  to  treat  all  more  civilly.  As  a 
body,  it  did  little  for  the  encouragement  of  Chinese  literature,  or 
the  diffusion  of  Christian  truth  or  of  science  among  the  Chinese, 
except  the  printing  of  Morrison’s  Dictionary,  and  an  annual 
grant  to  the  Anglo-Chinese  college;  and  although  Dr.  Morrison 
was  their  official  translator  for  twenty-five  years,  the  Directors 
never  gave  him  the  empty  compliment  of  enrolling  him  in  the  list 
of  their  servants,  nor  contributed  one  penny  for  carrying  on  his 
great  work  of  translating  and  printing  the  Bible  in  Chinese. 
They  set  themselves  against  all  such  efforts,  and  during  a long 
existence,  the  natives  of  that  country  had  no  means  put  into  their 
hands  by  their  agency,  of  learning  that  there  was  any  great  dif- 
ference in  the  religion,  science,  or  civilization  of  European  na- 
tions and  their  own. 

The  trade  of  the  Americans  to  China  commenced  in  1784,  the 
first  vessel  having  left  New  York,  February  22d  of  that  year,  and 
returned  May  11th,  1785;  it  was  commanded  by  captain  Green, 
and  the  supercargo,  Samuel  Shaw,  on  his  return,  gave  a lucid 
narrative  of  his  voyage  to  chief-justice  Jay.  It  has  steadily  in- 
creased since  that  time,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  temporary 
suspension,  when  Terranova  was  judicially  murdered,  has  gone 
on  very  quietly,  though  the  citizens  of  the  United  States,  for  sixty 
years,  until  the  recent  mission  of  Mr.  Cushing,  had  no  official 
dealings  with  the  government.  The  consuls  at  Canton  were 
merely  merchants,  having  no  salary  from  their  government,  no 
funds  to  employ  interpreters  when  necessary,  or  any  power  over 
their  countrymen  ; and  came  and  went  without  the  least  notice  or 
acknowledgment  from  the  Chinese.  The  Americans  have  been 
usually  distinguished  from  the  English  among  the  citizens  of 
21* 


466 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Canton,  and  the  officers  of  government  also  understand  the  differ 
ence  between  the  two  nations ; but  they  have  seldom  come  in 
collision,  or  had  any  official  correspondence. 

The  trade  and  intercourse  of  the  Swedes,  Danes,  Prussians, 
Spaniards,  Austrians,  Peruvians,  Mexicans,  or  Chilians,  at  Can- 
ton, have  been  attended  with  no  peculiarities  or  events  of  any 
moment.  None  of  these  nations  ever  sent  “ tribute”  to  the  court 
of  the  son  of  heaven,  and  their  ships  traded  at  Canton  on  the  same 
footing  with  the  English.  The  voyage  of  Peter  Osbeck,  chaplain 
to  a Swedish  East  Indiaman  in  1753,  contains  considerable  in- 
formation relating  to  the  mode  of  conducting  the  trade  at  that 
time,  and  the  position  of  foreigners,  who  then  enjoyed  more  liberty, 
and  suffered  fewer  extortions  than  in  later  years. 

Many  of  the  names  given  to  foreign  nations  at  Canton  are  de 
rived  from  their  flags.  The  Austrians,  for  instance,  are  called 
May  Ying,  or  double-headed  eagle,  and  the  Prussians,  Tan  Ying, 
single  eagle ; the  Danes  are  known  as  Hwang  ki,  or  Yellow  flag 
people  ; and  the  Americans  as  Hwa  ki,  or  Flowery  flag  people. 
The  Russians,  French,  and  Hollanders,  have  their  proper  appella- 
tions of  Ngo-7o-sz’,  Fah-Jan-si , and  Ho-lan  ; the  Portuguese  are 
called  Si  Yang,  or  Western  Ocean  people,  a term  originally  ap- 
plied to  all  Europeans,  but  now  confined  to  them.  Spaniards  are 
called  Lui-sung,  from  Luzon,  whence  most  of  their  ships  come. 
Such  descriptive  terms  for  foreign  nations  and  places,  are  more 
congenial  to  the  genius  of  the  people  and  language,  than  the  trans- 
fer of  proper  names,  like  A-mi-li-ko  for  America,  Ying-kih-U  for 
England,  Po-Ju-sz’  for  Prussia,  &c.,  though  the  latter  are  un- 
doubtedly better.  There  is,  in  fact,  a mutual  inadaptation,  and 
these  terms  of  four  or  five  syllables,  destitute  of  all  rhyme  or  rea- 
son to  a Chinese,  if  he  reads  them  otherwise  than  phonetically, 
strike  him  quite  as  barbarous  as  Sz’chuen,  Hukwang,  Yangtsz’ 
kiang,  and  such  like,  do  an  Englishman.  The  usual  name  by 
which  all  foreigners  are  known  at  Canton,  is  fankwei,  or  “ foreign 
devils,”  an  opprobrious  epithet,  for  which  there  is  not  the  least 
excuse,  and  which  a native  seldom  uses  when  speaking  Chinese 
to  a foreigner.  Another  term,  i,  is  used  in  official  papers,  the 
proper  signification  of  which  has  given  rise  to  considerable  dis- 
cussion, some  scholars  saying  it  means  foreigner,  while  others 
translate  it  barbarian.  The  term  barbarian,  as  used  by  the  Greeks 
to  denote  all  who  did  not  speak  Greek,  or  by  Shakspeare  to  ex- 


CHINESE  NAMES  FOR  FOREIGN  NATIONS. 


467 


press  foreigners,  nearly  conveys  the  Chinese  idea  ; but  the  pre. 
sent  use  of  that  word  meaning  savages,  without  letters  or  institu- 
tions, is  too  strong.  The  ancient  Chinese  books  speak  of  four 
wild  nations  on  the  four  sides  of  the  country,-  viz.  the  fan,  t,  tih, 
man  ; the  first  two  have  been  applied  to  traders  from  abroad,  one 
by  the  common  people  in  the  phrase  fankwei,  the  other  by  officials 
as  a word  understood  to  express  some  remote  and  foreign  people. 
It  can  hardly  be  supposed  that  in  their  ignorance  of  the  position 
and  numbers  of  the  tribes  intended  by  these  terms,  they  have 
ever  attached  very  specific  ideas  to  them,  which  moreover  ex- 
plains the  discrepancy  of  those  who  have  endeavored  to  investi- 
gate their  meaning.  Other  terms,  as  “ western  ocean  men,” 
“ far-travelled  strangers,”  and  “ men  from  afar,”  have  occasion- 
ally been  substituted,  when  i was  objected  to.  When  used  as  a 
general  term,  without  an  opprobrious  addition,  it  is  as  well  adapt- 
ed as  any  to  denote  all  foreigners ; for  like  thousands  of  other 
words,  it  will  gradually  receive  new  shades  of  meaning,  as  the 
Chinese  learn  and  read  more  of  the  geography,  science,  and  le- 
ligion  of  western  lands. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


Origin  of  the  War  with  England. 

The  East  India  Company’s  commercial  privileges  ceased  in  1834 
and  it  is  worthy  of  note,  that  an  association  should  have  been 
continued  in  the  Providence  of  God,  as  the  principal  representa- 
tives of  Christendom  among  the  Chinese,  which  by  its  character, 
its  pecuniary  interests,  and  general  inclination  was  bound  in  a 
manner  to  maintain  peaceful  relations  with  them,  while  every 
other  important  Asiatic  kingdom  and  island  from  Arabia  to  Japan, 
was  at  one  time  or  other  during  that  period  the  scene  of  collision, 
war,  or  conquest  between  the  nations  and  their  visitors.  Its 
monopoly  ceased  when  western  nations  no  longer  looked  upon 
these  regions  as  objects  of  desire,  nor  went  to  Rome  to  get  a 
grant  of  the  pagan  lands  they  might  discover  and  seize ; and 
when,  too,  Christians  began  to  learn  and  act  upon  their  duty  to 
evangelize  these  ignorant  races.  China  and  Japan  were  once 
open,  but  during  a century  and  more,  no  effective  measures  were 
taken  to  translate  or  distribute  the  pure  word  of  God  in  them. 

Believing  that  the  affairs  of  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  are  or- 
dered by  their  Almighty  Governor  with  regard  to  the  fulfilment 
of  his  promises  and  the  promulgation  of  his  truth,  the  war  between 
England  and  China,  two  empires  excelling  in  power,  resources, 
population,  antiquity  and  influence,  is  not  only  one  of  great  his- 
torical interest,  but  one  whose  future  consequences  cannot  fail  to 
exercise  increasing  influence  upon  many  millions  of  mankind. 
This  war,  extraordinary  in  its  origin,  as  growing  chiefly  out  of  a 
commercial  misunderstanding  ; remarkable  in  its  course,  as  being 
waged  between  strength  and  weakness,  between  conscious  supe- 
riority and  ignorant  pride;  and  momentous  in  its  conclusion  as 
introducing,  on  a basis  of  general  good  understanding,  one  half 
of  the  world  to  the  other  half,  without  any  arrogant  demands 
from  the  victors,  or  humiliating  concessions  from  the  vanquished  ; 
demands  a more  particular  account  than  has  been  given  to  the 
previous  incidents  in  the  foreign  intercourse  with  China. 


APPOINTMENT  OF  LORD  NAPIER  TO  CANTON. 


469 


At  the  close  of  the  charter,  the  Select  Committee  announced 
to  the  authorities  at  Canton,  that  its  ships  would  no  longer  come 
to  China,  and  that  a king’s  officer  would  be  sent  out  to  manage 
the  affairs  of  the  British  trade.  The  same  notice  had  been  pre- 
viously given  in  1831,  when  the  governor-general  replied,  “ that 
in  case  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Company,  it  was  incumbent  on 
the  British  government  to  appoint  a chief  to  come  to  Canton  for 
the  general  management  of  commercial  dealings,  and  to  prevent 
affairs  from  going  to  confusion;”  but  the  present  governor  in- 
quired of  them  why  their  ships  ceased  coming  to  China,  since  tea 
was  necessary  to  England.  The  only  “ chief”  whom  the  Chi- 
nese expected  to  receive,  was  a commercial  headman,  qualified  to 
communicate  with  their  officers  by  petition,  and  send  his  petitions 
as  usual  through  the  medium  of  the  hong-merchants.  The  new 
mode  of  conducting  the  trade  in  English  vessels  now  announced, 
was  regarded  as  a trifling  matter,  affecting  the  “ outside  foreign- 
ers ” alone ; as  long  as  they  were  humbly  obedient  to  the  orders 
given  them,  and  duly  felt  the  emperor’s  kindness,  the  Chinese 
cared  very  little  whom  they  had  for  chief,  or  what  powers  were 
given  him  over  his  countrymen. 

The  English  government  justly  deemed  the  change  one  of  con- 
siderable importance,  and  concluded  that  the  oversight  of  their 
subjects  in  a foreign  land,  and  the  superintendence  of  such  large 
amounts  of  property,  required  a commission  of  experienced  men. 
The  king  therefore  appointed  the  Rt.-Hon.  Lord  Napier,  who  was 
sent  out  as  chief  superintendent  of  British  trade,  and  arrived  at 
Macao  with  his  suite,  July  15th,  J834,  where  were  associated 
with  him  in  the  commission,  John  F.  Davis  and  Sir  G.  B.  Ro- 
binson, formerly  servants  of  the  Company,  and  a number  of 
secretaries,  surgeons,  chaplain,  interpreters,  &c.,  whose  united 
salaries  amounted  to  £18,200.  On  arriving  at  Canton,  the  tide- 
waiters  officially  reported  that  three  “ foreign  devils  ” had  landed, 
and  the  news  was  speedily  transmitted  to  the  governor,  and  cir- 
culated among  the  people.  As  soon  as  he  had  learned  that  Lord 
Napier  had  reached  Macao,  the  governor  ordered  the  hong- mer- 
chants to  go  down,  and  intimate  to  him  that  he  must  remain  there 
until  he  received  the  legal  permission  to  come  to  Canton  ; for 
having  received  no  orders  from  court  how  he  should  treat  the 
English  superintendent,  he  thought  it  the  safest  plan  to  resist  any 
infringement  of  the  old  regulations- 


470 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Lord  Napier  had  been  ordered  to  report  himself  to  tne  go. 
vernor  at  Canton  by  letter  ; and  a short  extract  from  his  instruc- 
tions will  show  the  intentions  of  the  English  government  in  con- 
stituting  the  commission,  and  the  incorrect  views  entertained  of 
the  notions  of  the  Chinese  respecting  foreign  intercourse,  and 
the  character  they  gave  to  the  English  authorities.  Lord  Pal- 
merston says, 

“ In  addition  to  the  duty  of  protecting  and  fostering  the  trade  of  his 
majesty’s  subjects  with  the  port  of  Canton,  it  will  be  one  of  your  princi- 
pal objects  to  ascertain,  whether  it  may  not  be  practicable  to  extend  that 

trade  to  other  parts  of  the  Chinese  dominions It  is  obvious  that 

with  a view  to  the  attainment  of  this  object,  the  establishment  of  direct 
communications  with  the  port  of  Peking  would  be  desirable ; and  you 
will  accordingly  direct  your  attention  to  discover  the  best  means  of  prepar- 
ing the  way  for  such  communications ; bearing  constantly  in  mind,  how- 
ever, that  peculiar  caution  and  circumspection  will  be  indispensable  on 
this  point,  lest  you  should  awaken  the  fears  or  offend  the  prejudices  of 
the  Chinese  government ; and  thus  put  to  hazard  even  the  existing  op- 
portunities of  intercourse  by  a precipitate  attempt  to  extend  them.  In 
conformity  with  this  caution  you  will  abstain  from  entering  into  any 
new  relations  or  negoriations  with  the  Chinese  authorities,  except  under 
very  urgent  and  unforeseen  circumstances.  But  if  any  opportunity  for 
such  negotiations  should  appear  to  you  to  present  itself,  you  will  lose  no 
time  in  reporting  the  circumstance  to  his  majesty’s  government,  and  in 
asking  for  instructions ; but,  previously  to  the  receipt  of  such  instructions, 
you  will  adopt  no  proceedings  but  such  as  may  have  a general  tendency 
to  convince  the  Chinese  authorities  of  the  sincere  desire  of  the  king  to 
cultivate  the  most  friendly  relations  with  the  emperor  of  China,  and  to 
join  with  him  in  any  measures  likely  to  promote  the  happiness  and  pros- 
perity of  their  respective  subjects.” 

His  excellency’s  messengers  arrived  too  late  to  detain  the  Brit- 
ish superintendent  at  Macao,  and  a military  officer  was  dispatched 
to  intercept  him,  who  passed  him  on  the  way  ; so  that  the  first 
intimation  the  latter  received  of  the  governor’s  disposition,  was  in 
an  edict  addressed  to  the  hong-merchants,  from  which  two  para- 
graphs are  extracted. 

“ On  this  occasion,  the  barbarian  eye,  Lord  Napier,  has  come  to  Can- 
ton without  having  at  all  resided  at  Macao  to  wait  for  orders ; nor  has  he 
requested  or  received  a permit  from  the  superintendent  of  customs,  but 
has  hastily  come  up  to  Canton  : — a great  infringement  of  the  established 
laws ! The  custom-house  waiters  and  others  who  presumed  to  admit  him 


lord  napier’s  dilemma. 


47l 

to  enter,  are  sent  with  a communication  requiring  their  trial.  But  in 
tender  consideration  for  the  said  barbarian  eye  being  a new  comer,  and 
unacquainted  with  the  statutes  and  laws  of  the  celestial  empire,  I will  not 

strictly  investigate As  to  his  object  in  coming  to  Canton,  it  is  for 

commercial  business.  The  celestial  empire  appoints  officers,  civil  ones 
to  rule  the  people,  military  ones  to  intimidate  the  wicked.  The  petty  af- 
fairs of  commerce  are  to  be  directed  by  the  merchants  themselves ; the 

officers  have  nothing  to  hear  on  the  subject If  any  affair  is  to  be 

newly  commenced,  it  is  necessary  to  wait  till  a respectful  memorial  be 
made,  clearly  reporting  it  to  the  great  emperor,  and  his  mandate  be  re- 
ceived ; the  great  ministers  of  the  celestial  empire  are  not  permitted  to 
have  intercourse  by  letters  with  outside  barbarians.  If  the  said  barbarian 
eye  throws  in  private  letters,  I,  the  governor,  will  not  at  all  receive  or  look 
at  them.  With  regard  to  the  foreign  factory  of  the  Company,  without  the 
walls  of  the  city,  it  is  a place  of  temporary  residence  for  foreigners  com- 
ing to  Canton  to  trade ; they  are  permitted  only  to  eat,  sleep,  buy  and  sell 
in  the  factories ; they  are  not  allowed  to  go  out  to  ramble  about.”* 

How  unlike  were  these  two  documents.  Both  were  directed 
to  the  same  individual,  and  placed  him  in  an  unpleasant  dilem- 
ma. The  governor,  well  acquainted  with  his  own  official  posi- 
tion, said  it  was  requisite  to  wait  for  an  imperial  mandate  before 
commencing  a new  affair,  and  refused  to  receive  a letter  from  a 
foreign  officer ; by  so  doing,  he  certainly  did  not,  in  his  own 
opinion,  overstep  or  transgress  what  he  had  been  taught  to  con- 
sider right  dealings  with  them.  Had  he  acted  otherwise,  he 
would  have  laid  himself  open  to  severe  animadversion,  and  per- 
haps punishment,  from  his  superiors  ; and  in  saying  that  the 
superintendent  should  report  himself,  and  apply  for  a permit  be- 
fore coming  to  Canton,  he  was  only  requiring  what  the  members 
of  the  Company  had  always  done  when  they  returned  from  their 
summer  vacation  at  Macao.  Lord  Napier,  unaware,  perhaps,  of 
the  rules,  thought  he  had  the  same  liberty  to  come  to  Canton  with- 
out announcing  himself,  that  other  and  private  foreigners  had  ; 
but  whoever  did  so,  really  infringed  the  regulations,  which  re- 
quired permission  to  be  obtained  by  every  person  before  residing 
in  Canton,  and  an  officer  of  his  rank  would  have  pleased  the  Chi- 
nese authorities  better  by  observing  them.  His  lordship  had 
thought  of  this  contingency  before  leaving  England,  and  had  re- 
quested “that  in  case  of  necessity,  he  might  have  authority  to 

* Correspondence  relating  to  China  (Blue  Book),  p.  4.  Chinese  Repos- 
itory, Vol.  III.,  p.  188;  Vol  XI.,  p.  188 


472 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


treat  with  the  government  at  Peking this  request  being  denied, 
he  desired  that  his  appointment  to  Canton  might  be  announced  at 
the  capital ; this  not  being  granted,  he  wished  that  a communica- 
tion from  the  home  authorities  might  be  addressed  to  the  govern- 
or of  Canton ; but  this  was  deemed  inexpedient,  and  he  was  di- 
rected to  come  to  Canton,  and  report  himself  by  letter .”  These 
requests  were  surely  reasonable,  and  involved  no  loss  of  dignity, 
but  the  court  of  St.  James  chose  to  send  out  a superintendent  of 
trade,  an  officer  partaking  of  both  ministerial  and  consular  powers, 
and  ordered  him  to  act  in  a certain  manner,  involving  a partial 
violation  of  the  regulations  of  the  country  where  he  was  going, 
without  providing  for  the  alternative  of  his  rejection. 

To  Canton,  therefore,  he  came,  and  the  next  day  reported  him- 
self by  letter  to  the  governor,  sendfng  it  by  his  secretary,  Mr.  As- 
tell,  to  the  city  gates.  His  lordship  had  been  instructed  not  to 
have  anything  to  do  with  the  hong-merchants ; and  therefore 
when  they  waited  upon  him  the  morning  of  his  arrival,  with  the 
edict  they  had  been  sent  down  to  Macao  to  “enjoin  upon  him,” 
he  courteously  dismissed  them,  as  he  says  in  a letter  to  Lord 
Palmerston,  with  an  intimation  that  “ he  would  communicate  im- 
mediately with  the  viceroy  in  the  manner  befitting  his  majesty’s 
commission  and  the  honor  of  the  British  nation.”  The  account 
of  the  reception  of  his  communication  is  taken  from  the  same  dis- 
patch. 

“ On  the  arrival  of  the  party  at  the  city  gates,  the  soldier  on  guard  was 
dispatched  to  report  the  circumstance  to  his  superior.  In  less  than  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  an  officer  of  inferior  rank  appeared,  whereupon  Mr. 
Astell  offered  my  letter  for  transmission  to  the  viceroy,  which  duty  this 
officer  declined  ; adding  that  his  superior  was  on  his  way  to  the  spot.  In 
the  course  of  an  hour,  several  officers  of  nearly  equal  rank  arrived  in 
succession,  each  refusing  to  deliver  the  letter  on  the  plea  that  higher  of- 
ficers would  shortly  attend.  After  an  hour’s  delay,  during  which  time 
the  party  were  treated  with  much  indignity,  not  unusual  on  such  occa- 
sions, the  linguists  and  hong-merchants  arrived,  who  entreated  to  become 
the  bearers  of  the  letter  to  the  viceroy.  About  this  time,  an  officer  of 
rank,  higher  than  any  of  those  who  had  preceded  him,  joined  the  party, 
to  whom  the  letter  was  in  due  form  offered,  and  as  formally  refused. 
The  officer  having  seen  the  superscription  on  the  letter,  argued,  ‘ that  as 
it  came  from  the  superintendent  of  trade,  the  hong-merchants  were  the 
proper  channels  of  communication but  this  obstacle  appeared  of  minor 
importance  in  their  eyes,  upon  ascertaining  that  the  document  was  styled 


REJECTION  OF  LORD  NAPIER’S  LETTER. 


473 


a letter,  and  not  a petition.  The  linguists  requested  to  be  allowed  a copy 
of  the  address,  which  was  of  course  refused. 

“ About  this  time,  the  kwang-hieh,  a military  officer  of  the  rank  of  co- 
lonel, accompanied  by  an  officer  a little  inferior  to  himself,  arrived  on  the 
spot,  to  whom  the  letter  was  offered  three  several  times  and  as  often  re- 
fused. The  senior  hong-merchant  Howqua,  after  a private  conversation 
with  the  colonel,  requested  to  be  allowed  to  carry  the  letter  in  company 
with  him,  and  ascertain  whether  it  would  be  received.  This  being  con- 
sidered as  an  insidious  attempt  to  circumvent  the  directions  of  the  super- 
intendents, a negative  was  made  to  this  and  other  overtures  of  a similar 
tendency.  Suddenly,  all  the  officers  took  their  departure,  for  the  purpose, 
as  it  was  afterwards  ascertained,  of  consulting  with  the  viceroy.  Nearly 
three  hours  having  been  thus  lost  within  the  city,  Mr.  Astell  determined 
to  wait  a reasonable  time  for  the  return  of  the  officers,  who  shortly  after- 
wards reassembled ; whereupon  Mr.  Astell  respectfully  offered  the  let- 
ter in  question  three  separate  times  to  the  colonel,  and  afterwards  to  the 
other  officers,  all  of  whom  distinctly  refused  even  to  touch  it ; upon  which 
the  party  returned  to  the  factory.” — Chi.  Rep.,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  27. 

The  governor  reported  this  occurrence  at  court,  in  a memorial, 
in  which,  after  stating  that  his  predecessor  had  instructed  the 
Company’s  supercargoes  to  make  arrangements  that  “ a iaipan 
(or  supercargo,  for  the  word  is  applied  to  all  foreign  consuls) 
acquainted  with  affairs  should  still  be  appointed  to  come  to  Canton 
to  control  and  direct  the  trade,”  he  goes  on  to  mention  Lord  Na- 
pier’s arrival  at  Macao  with  his  family,  his  coming  up  to  Canton, 
and  the  orders  which  had  been  issued  to  the  hong-merchants,  to 
convey  to  him  the  regulations  of  the  Chinese  government.  He 
then  adds, 

“ The  said  barbarian  eye  would  not  receive  the  hong-merchants,  but 
afterwards  repaired  to  the  outside  of  the  city  to  present  a letter  to  me, 
your  majesty’s  minister,  Lu.  On  the  face  of  the  envelope,  the  forms  and 
style  of  equality  were  used ; and  there  were  absurdly  written  the  charac- 
ters, Ta  Ying  kwoh  (i.  e.  Great  English  nation).  Now  it  is  plain  on 
the  least  reflection,  that  in  keeping  the  central  and  outside  [people]  apart, 
it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  maintain  dignity  and  sovereignty. 
Whether  the  said  barbarian  eye  has  or  has  not  official  rank,  there  are  no 
means  of  thoroughly  ascertaining.  But  though  he  be  really  an  officer 
of  the  said  nation,  he  yet  cannot  write  letters  on  equality  with  the  frontier 
officers  of  the  celestial  empire.  As  the  thing  concerned  the  national 
dignity,  it  was  inexpedient  in  the  least  to  allow  a tendency  to  any  approach 
or  advance,  by  which  lightness  of  esteem  might  be  occasioned.  Accord- 
ingly, orders  were  given  to  Han  Shanking,  the  colonel  in  command  of 


474 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  military  forces  of  this  department,  to  tell  him  authoritatively,  that,  by 
the  statutes  and  enactments  of  the  celestial  empire,  there  has  never  been 
intercourse  by  letters  with  outside  barbarians ; that,  respecting  commer- 
cial matters,  petitions  must  be  made  through  the  medium  of  the  hong- 

merchants,  and  that  it  is  not  permitted  to  offer  or  present  letters 

On  humble  examination,  it  appears  that  the  commerce  of  the  English  bar- 
barians has  hitherto  been  managed  by  the  hong-merchants  and  taipans ; 
there  has  never  been  a barbarian  eye  to  form  a precedent.  Now,  it  is 
suddenly  desired  to  appoint  an  officer,  a superintendent,  which  is  not  in 
accordance  with  old  regulations.  Besides,  if  the  said  nation  has  formed 
this  decision,  it  still  should  have  stated  in  a petition,  the  affairs  which, 
and  the  way  how,  such  superintendent  is  to  manage,  so  that  a memorial 
might  be  presented,  requesting  your  majesty’s  mandate  and  pleasure  as 
to  what  should  be  refused,  in  order  that  obedience  might  be  paid  to  it,  and 
the  same  be  acted  on  accordingly.  But  the  said  barbarian  eye,  Lord 
Napier,  without  having  made  any  plain  report,  suddenly  came  to  the  bar- 
barian factories  outside  the  city  to  reside,  and  presumed  to  desire  inter- 
course to  and  fro  by  official  documents  and  letters  with  the  officers  of  the 
central  flowery  land  ; this  was,  indeed,  far  out  of  the  bounds  of  reason.” 
— Chi.  Rep.,  vol.  III.,  p.  327. 

The  governor,  though  not  altogether  correct  in  one  or  two  state- 
ments, here  intimates  that  the  intention  of  his  government  in  re- 
questing a taipan  to  come  to  Canton  was  only  to  have  a responsi- 
ble officer  with  whom  to  communicate.  In  refusing  to  receive  an 
eye  or  superintendent,  therefore,  he  did  not,  in  his  own  view  of 
the  case,  suppose  that  he  was  refusing,  nor  did  he  or  the  court  at 
Peking,  intend  to  refuse,  the  residence  of  a supercargo;  for  they 
were  desirous  to  have  responsible  heads  appointed  over  the  com- 
merce and  subjects  of  every  nation  trading  at  Canton.  These  oc- 
currences were  discussed  by  ex-president  Adams,  in  his  lecture 
upon  the  war  with  China,  delivered  in  1841,  and  the  rejection  of 
Lord  Napier’s  letter  and  mission  was  considered  a sufficient  rea- 
son for  war,  and  the  real  cause  of  the  subsequent  contest.  He 
says  rightly  enough  in  his  lecture,  after  showing  the  impolicy  of 
allowing  the  Chinese  ideas  of  supremacy  over  other  nations,  and 
rapidly  reviewing  the  treatment  of  Macartney’s  ambassy,  that 
when  the  supercargoes  of  the  E.  I.  Company  presented  repre- 
sentations or  remonstrances  on  behalf  of  British  subjects  to  the 
governor,  it  was  through  the  medium  of  the  hong-merchants,  and 
in  the  form  of  petitions. 

But  the  venerable  lecturer  is  in  error,  when  he  adds,  “That 


MOTIVES  OF  THE  GOVERNOR’S  CONDUCT. 


476 


this  mode  of  communication  was  to  cease  from  the  time  of  the  ex 
piration  of  the  exclusive  privileges  of  the  Company,  was  equally 
well  known  to  the  British  and  Chinese  governments.”  Whether 
he  refers  to  the  supercargoes,  or  to  the  medium  and  form  of  con. 
ducting  the  correspondence,  by  the  phrase  “ mode  of  communica- 
tion,” is  not  very  clear,  though  the  context  favors  the  latter. 
The  question  of  the  supremacy  of  the  Chinese  over  foreign  na- 
tions was  not  debated  in  the  contest  between  the  governor  and 
Lord  Napier;  at  least,  not  by  the  latter.  The  former  was  not 
blameworthy  for  endeavoring  to  carry  the  laws  of  his  own  coun- 
try into  execution  ; and  the  latter  was  doing  his  best  to  obey 
the  instructions  of  his  own  sovereign.  The  question  of  the  pro- 
priety of  those  laws,  involving  as  they  did  the  supremacy  of  the 
emperor  over  the  English,  or  the  feasibility  of  those  instructions, 
could  only  be  debated  and  settled  by  their  principals.  Whether 
this  assumption  was  a proper  ground  of  complaint  and  hostilities, 
is  altogether  another  argument.  When  Lord  Napier’s  letter  was 
rejected,  he  should  have  referred  home  to  his  own  government  for 
further  instructions,  and  would  undoubtedly  have  done  so,  if  the 
English  ministry  had  intended  to  settle  the  question  of  supremacy  ; 
but  he  did  not  do  so,  nor  did  they  refer  to  it,  or  remonstrate 
against  the  unhandsome  treatment  their  representative  received. 
The  two  ambassadors  already  sent  to  the  Chinese  court,  the  pre- 
sents they  brought,  and  the  supposed  success  obtained  on  this  oc. 
casion,  all  combined  to  impress  the  emperor  and  his  ministers 
more  strongly  with  the  idea  that  they  really  did  exercise  an  ac- 
knowledged supremacy  over  the  English. 

The  refusal  of  Lord  Napier  to  confer  with  the  hong-merchants, 
and  of  the  governor  to  receive  any  communication  except  a peti- 
tion, placed  the  two  parties  in  an  awkward  position.  In  his  let- 
ter, the  former  stated  the  general  objects  of  his  coming  to  Canton, 
and  requested  that  his  excellency  would  accord  him  an  interview 
in  order  that  their  future  intercourse  might  be  arranged;  and  con- 
sidering the  desirableness  of  giving  him  accurate  views,  the  party 
at  the  gate  would  doubtless  have  acted  wisely  in  permitting  the 
hong-merchants  to  take  it  to  him.  The  governor  was  both  irri- 
tated and  alarmed  at  the  contumacy  of  the  newly  arrived  eye,  and 
vented  his  anger  upon  the  unfortunate  hong-merchants,  giving 
them  order  upon  order  to  “ enjoin”  upon  his  lordship,  which  he 
would  not  receive.  They  had  two  or  three  interviews  with  him 


476 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


after  the  rejection  of  the  letter,  but  as  they  now  said  it  would  not 
be  received  unless  superscribed  pin,  or  petition,  they  were  dis- 
missed. Having  heard  that  there  was  a party  among  the  British 
residents  in  Canton,  who  disapproved  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
superintendent,  they  vainly  endeavored  to  call  a meeting  of  the 
disaffected  on  the  10th  of  August,  but  his  lordship  called  a meet- 
ing of  his  countrymen  next  day,  and  found  that  they  generally 
approved  of  his  conduct.  By  his  recommendation,  a Chamber  of 
Commerce  was  formed,  through  which  all  communications  with 
the  Chinese  authorities  were  subsequently  made.  His  lordship 
in  a dispatch  of  the  14th,  thus  reviews  his  position  in  consequence 
of  the  rejection  of  his  letter,  and  the  subsequent  conduct  of  the 
governor.  After  recommending  the  renewal  of  the  effort  to  open 
better  understood  relations  with  the  court  of  Peking  by  a demand 
from  the  emperor  to  allow  the  same  privileges  to  all  foreigners 
residing  in  China,  which  Chinese  received  in  foreign  countries, 
and  showing  the  good  effects  likely  to  result  to  both  parties  from 
such  a course,  he  goes  on  to  say  : — 

“ My  present  position  is,  in  one  point  of  view,  a delicate  one,  because 
the  trade  is  put  in  jeopardy,  on  account  of  the  difference  existing  between 
the  viceroy  and  myself.  I am  ordered  by  his  majesty,  to  ‘ go  to  Canton, 
and  there  report  myself  by  letter  to  the  viceroy.’  I use  my  best  endeavors 
to  do  so ; but  the  viceroy  is  a presumptuous  savage,  and  will  not  grant 
the  same  privileges  to  me  that  have  been  exercised  constantly  by  the 
chiefs  of  the  Committee.  He  rakes  up  obsolete  orders,  or  perhaps  makes 
them  for  the  occasion : but  the  fact  is,  the  chiefs  used  formerly  to  wait  on 
the  viceroy  on  their  return  from  Macao,  and  continued  to  do  it  until  the 
viceroy  gave  them  an  order  to  wait  upon  him,  whereupon  they  gave  the 
practice  up.  Had  I even  degraded  the  king’s  commission  so  far  as  to 
petition  through  the  hong-merchants  for  an  interview,  it  is  quite  clear  by 
the  tenor  of  the  edicts  that  it  would  have  been  refused.  Were  he  to  send 
an  armed  force,  and  order  me  to  the  boat,  I could  then  retreat  with  honor, 
and  he  would  implicate  himself ; but  they  are  afraid  to  attempt  such  a 
measure.  What  then  remains  but  the  stoppage  of  the  trade,  or  my  retire- 
ment ? If  the  trade  is  stopped  for  any  length  of  time,  the  consequences 
to  the  merchants  are  most  serious,  as  they  are  also  to  the  unoffending 
Chinese.  But  the  viceroy  cares  no  more  for  commerce,  or  for  the  com- 
fort and  happiness  of  the  people,  as  long  as  he  receives  his  pay  and  plun- 
der, than  if  he  did  not  live  among  them.  My  situation  is  different ; I can- 
not hazard  millions  of  property  for  any  length  of  time  on  the  mere  score 
of  etiquette.  If  the  trade  shall  be  stopped,  which  is  probable  enough  in 
the  absence  of  the  frigate,  it  is  possible  I may  be  obliged  to  retire  to  Ma- 


VIEWS  OF  THE  TWO  PARTIES. 


47> 

cao  to  let  it  loose  again.  Then  has  the  viceroy  gained  his  point,  and  the 
commission  is  degraded.  Now,  my  lord,  I argue,  that  whether  the  com- 
mission retires  by  force  of  arms,  or  by  the  injustice  practised  on  the  mer- 
chants, the  viceroy  has  comrnitted  an  outrage  on  the  British  crown,  which 
should  be  equally  chastised.  The  whole  system  of  government  here  is 
that  of  subterfuge,  and  shifting  the  blame  from  the  shoulders  of  the  one  to 

the  other I shall  not  go,  however,  without  publishing  in  Chinese, 

and  disseminating  far  and  wide  ihe  base  conduct  of  the  viceroy  in  oppress- 
ing the  merchants,  native  as  well  as  foreign ; and  of  my  having  taken 
the  step  out  of  pure  compassion  to  them.  I can  only  once  more  implore 
your  lordship  to  force  them  to  acknowledge  my  authority  and  the  king’s 
commission,  and  if  you  can  do  that,  you  will  have  no  difficulty  in  opening 
the  ports  at  the  same  time.” — Chi.  Rep.,  Yol.  XV.,  p.  68. 

Such  were  the  sentiments  and  desires  which  filled  the  mind  of 
the  English  superintendent.  He  is  not  quite  right  in  saying  that 
the  governor  would  not  grant  him  the  same  privileges  as  had 
been  accorded  to  the  chiefs  of  the  Committee  ; for  the  present 
question  was  not  about  having  an  interview,  but  regarding  the 
superscription  of  his  letter  ; and  the  chiefs  of  the  Company  had 
always  sent  their  sealed  communications  through  the  hong-mer- 
chants as  petitions.  The  governor,  finding  himself  unable  to 
bring  the  “ barbarian  eye  ” to  reason  and  due  submission,  and  get 
him  to  retire  to  Macao,  stopped  the  English  trade  on  the  16th, 
and  two  days  after  issued  an  explanatory  paper  in  reply  to  the 
report  that  his  orders  on  that  subject  had  been  carried  into  effect. 
This  document  sets  forth  his  determination  to  uphold  the  old  re- 
gulations, and  a few  sentences  are  here  introduced  as  a contrast 
with  the  preceding  dispatch  of  Lord  Napier’s.  The  previous 
conviction  of  the  governor  in  the  undoubted  supremacy  of  his 
own  master  over  all  foreign  nations  which  had  sent  ambassies, 
and  his  own  official  position  making  him  responsible  for  success- 
fully maintaining  the  laws  over  foreigners,  must  be  borne  in 
mind.  After  repeating  his  previous  remarks  regarding  the  im- 
propriety of  Lord  Napier’s  coming  to  Canton,  without  previously 
reporting  himself,  he  says : — 

“ To  refer  to  England : — should  an  official  personage  from  a foreign 
country  proceed  to  the  said  nation  for  the  arrangement  of  any  business, 
how  could  he  neglect  to  have  the  object  of  his  coming  announced  in  a 
memorial  to  the  said  nation’s  king,  or  how  could  he  act  contrary  to  the 
requirements  of  the  said  nation’s  dignity,  doing  his  own  will  and  pleasure  ! 


478 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Since  the  said  barbarian  eye  states  that  he  is  an  official  personage,  he 
ought  to  be  more  thoroughly  acquainted  with  these  principles.  Before, 
when  he  offered  a letter,  I,  the  governor,  saw  it  inexpedient  to  receive  it, 
because  the  established  laws  of  the  celestial  empire  do  not  permit  minis- 
ters and  those  under  authority  to  have  private  intercourse  by  letter  with 
outside  barbarians;  but  have,  hitherto,  in  commercial  affairs,  held  the 
merchants  responsible ; and  if  perchance,  any  barbarian  merchant  should 
have  any  petition  to  make  requesting  the  investigation  of  any  affair,  [the 
laws  require]  that  by  the  said  taipan,  a duly  prepared  petition  should  be 
in  form  presented,  and  an  answer  by  proclamation  awaited.  There  has 
never  been  such  a thing  as  outside  barbarians  sending  in  a letter.” 

He  then  says,  that  there  has  never  been  any  official  correspon- 
dence to  and  fro  between  the  native  officers  and  the  barbarian 
merchants  ; which  appears  to  be  incorrect  in  the  translation,  for 
the  chiefs  of  the  Company  had  communicated  with  the  governor 
and  had  interviews  with  him  in  1814,  and  at  other  times  : but  he 
means  a correspondence  of  equality,  which  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment had  indeed  never  yielded.  The  idea  of  supremacy  never 
leaves  him.  He  then  refers  to  the  trade  in  a strain  peculiarly 
Chinese. 

“ The  hong-merchants,  because  the  said  barbarian  eye  will  not  adhere 
to  the  old  regulations,  have  requested  that  a stop  should  be  put  to  the 
said  nation’s  commerce.  This  manifests  a profound  knowledge  of  the 
great  principles  of  dignity.  It  is  most  highly  praiseworthy.  Lord  Na- 
pier’s perverse  opposition  necessarily  demands  such  a mode  of  procedure, 
and  it  would  be  most  right  immediately  to  put  a stop  to  buying  and  sell- 
ing. But  considering  that  the  said  nation’s  king  has  hitherto  been  in  the 
highest  degree  reverently  obedient,  he  cannot  in  sending  Lord  Napier  at 
this  time  have  desired  him  thus  obstinately  to  resist.  The  some  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  commercial  duties  yearly  coming  from  the  said  country 
concern  not  the  celestial  empire  the  extent  of  a hair  or  a feather’s  down. 
The  possession  or  absence  of  them  is  utterly  unworthy  of  one  careful 
thought.  Their  broadcloths  and  camlets  are  still  more  unimportant,  and 
of  no  regard.  But  the  tea,  the  rhubarb,  the  raw  silk  of  the  Inner  Land, 
are  the  sources  by  which  the  said  nation’s  people  live  and  maintain  life. 
For  the  fault  of  one  man,  Lord  Napier,  must  the  livelihood  of  the  whole 
nation  be  precipitately  cut  off!  I,  the  governor,  looking  up  and  embody- 
ing the  great  emperor’s  most  sacred,  most  divine  wish,  to  nurse  and  ten- 
derly cherish  as  one,  all  that  are  without,  feel  that  I cannot  bring  my 
mind  to  bear  it ! Besides,  all  the  merchants  of  the  said  nation  dare  dan- 
gers, crossing  the  seas  myriads  of  miles  to  come  from  far.  Their  hopes 
rest  wholly  in  the  attainment  of  gain  by  buying  and  selling.  That  they 


LORD  NAPIER  APPEALS  TO  THE  PEOPLE. 


479 


did  not  attend  when  summoned  by  the  hong-merchants  to  a meeting  for 
.consultation,  was  because  they  were  under  the  direction  of  Lord  Napier ; 
it  assuredly  did  not  proceed  from  the  several  merchants’  own  free  will. 
Should  the  trade  be  wholly  cut  off  in  one  morning,  it  would  cause  great 
distress  to  many  persons,  who,  having  travelled  hither  by  land  and  sea, 
would  by  one  man,  Lord  Napier,  be  ruined.  They  cannot  in  such  case 
but  be  utterly  depressed  with  grief.  ....  I hear  the  said  eye  is  a man 
of  very  solid  and  expansive  mind  and  placid  speech.  If  he  consider,  he 
can  himself  doubtless  distinguish  right  and  wrong : let  him  on  no  account 

permit  himself  to  be  deluded  by  men  around  him Hereafter,  when 

the  said  nation’s  king  hears  respecting  these  repeated  orders  and  official 
replies,  [he  will  know]  that  the  whole  wrong  lies  on  the  barbarian  eye ; 
it  is  in  nowise  owing  to  any  want  on  the  part  of  the  celestial  empire  of 
extreme  consideration  for  the  virtue  of  reverential  obedience  exercised  by 
the  said  nation’s  king.” — Chi.  Rep.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  235. 

He  consequently  gives  further  indulgence  before  stopping  the 
trade,  and  sent  a deputation  to  Lord  Napier*  consisting  of  two 
prefects  and  the  colonel  of  the  department,  to  inquire  why  he  had 
come  to  Canton,  what  business  he  was  appointed  to  perform,  and 
when  he  would  retire  to  Macao.  The  letter  was  again  handed 
them,  but  the  superscription  still  remained,  and  they  refused  to 
touch  it.  They,  however,  learned  enough  to  be  able  to  inform 
their  master  what  he  wished  to  know : the  real  point  of  dispute 
between  the  two  could  only  be  settled  between  their  sovereigns, 
and  as  Lord  Napier’s  dispatch  intimates,  by  force  alone.  The 
governor  by  this  deputation,  showed  a desire  to  make  some  ar- 
rangement with  the  superintendent,  and  the  trade  would  probably 
have  been  shortly  reopened,  had  not  the  latter,  two  days  after,  re- 
sorted to  the  unusual  and  injudicious  measure  of  appealing  to  the 
people  in  order  to  explain  the  reasons  why  the  governor  had 
stopped  the  trade,  and  brought  distress  on  them.  The  paper 
was  a short  one,  simply  detailing  the  principal  events  which  had 
transpired  since  his  arrival,  and  laying  the  whole  blame  upon  the 
“ ignorance  and  obstinacy  ” of  the  governor  in  refusing  to  receive 
his  letter ; closing  with,  “ the  merchants  of  Great  Britain  wish 
to  trade  with  all  China  on  principles  of  mutual  benefit ; they  will 
never  relax  in  their  exertions  till  they  gain  a point  of  equal  im- 
portance to  both  countries  ; and  the  viceroy  will  find  it  as  easy 
to  stop  the  current  of  the  Canton  river,  as  to  carry  into  effect  the 
insane  determination  of  the  hong.” — Ibid.,  p.  237. 

Whether  this  proceeding  was  justifiable,  taking  all  circum- 


480 


THE  MIDDLE  KINO  DOM. 


stances  into  consideration,  is  very  doubtful ; it  would  never  have 
been  permitted  in  another  country,  where  no  occasion  for  such 
an  appeal  would  probably  have  arisen.  In  many  of  the  proceed- 
ings between  the  Chinese  and  foreigners,  based  as  they  were 
upon  incorrect  ideas,  the  rules  of  diplomacy  elsewhere  observed 
formed  no  guide ; but  as  a particular  step,  the  publication  of  this 
statement  was  very  unwise.  The  people  were  highly  excited 
and  divided  in  their  opinions,  and  the  governor  was  irritated  to  the 
highest  pitch.  He  issued  several  orders  to  the  hong-merchants, 
blaming  them  for  permitting  Lord  Napier  to  come  to  Canton,  and 
making  one  of  them,  Hingtai,  responsible  for  it,  since  it  was  his 
business,  as  the  security  for  the  ship  Fort  William,  to  have  pre- 
vented his  lordship  availing  himself  of  her  launch  to  come  up 
the  river.  The  linguist  who  transacted  the  business  of  the  ship, 
and  the  pilot  who  brought  her  up  the  river  several  weeks  before, 
were  likewise  involved,  and  all  three  imprisoned.  We  feel  little 
sympathy  for  officers  who  resort  to  such  injustice  to  shield  them- 
selves, or  escape  from  the  consequences  of  their  own  acts ; but 
this  treatment  was  a part  of  the  official  responsibility  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  hong  monopoly,  and  it  was  not  deemed  strange  by  the 
Chinese. 

The  governor  and  his  colleagues  stopped  the  English  trade  on 
the  2d  of  September,  in  a long  proclamation  containing  many 
inaccurate  statements  and  absurd  reasonings,  in  which  he  forbade 
both  natives  or  foreigners  to  give  aid  or  comfort  to  Lord  Napier. 
He  declares  that  ho  had  lowered  himself  to  regard  the  barbarian 
disposition,  and  adds,  “ that  the  said  barbarian  eye  has  listened 
1o  what  has  been  told  him  as  if  he  were  entangled  in  a net.  He 
is  indeed  stupid,  blinded,  and  ignorant.  It  is  impossible  to  make 
him  comprehend  reason.  If  such  a misled,  extravagant  man  be 
at  Canton  in  control  of  the  trade,  the  mercantile  people  also  will 
hereafter  be  unable  to  enjoy  mutual  quiet.”  The  traffic  between 
the  natives  and  the  English  merchants  was  in  a good  degree  sus- 
pended on  the  publication  of  this  order,  and  the  servants  in  Lord 
Napier’s  house  all  left ; communication  with  the  shipping  at 
Whampoa  was  also  interdicted,  so  that  in  reality  the  entire  fo- 
reign trade  was  stopped.  A guard  of  Chinese  troops  was  also 
placed  near  the  Company’s  hong,  but  no  personal  distress  was 
felt  on  account  of  the  interdict.  The  superintendent  immediately 
ordered  up  H.  B.  M.  frigates  Andromache  and  Imogene,  to  pro- 


TRADE  STOPPED  AND  FRIGATES  ENTER  THE  RIVER.  481 


tect  the  shipping  and  persons  of  British  subjects,  and  the  two  ves- 
sels accordingly  came  up  the  river,  and  anchored  at  Whampoa  on 
the  11th.  In  their  passage  through  the  Bogue,  both  vessels  re- 
turned the  fire  from  the  forts,  with  little  damage  to  either ; and  on 
anchoring,  a lieutenant  and  boat’s  crew  were  dispatched  to  Can- 
ton to  protect  the  English  factory.  These  decisive  proceedings 
troubled  the  governor  and  his  colleagues  not  a little,  who,  on  their 
part,  prepared  for  stronger  measures  by  blocking  up  the  river,  and 
stationing  troops  on  the  hills  about  Whampoa  and  on  the  banks, 
but  were  much  relieved  when  they  found  that  the  ships  quietly 
remained  at  their  anchorage,  instead  of  forcing  their  way  further 
up  the  river. 

Lord  Napier  protested  against  the  violent  proceedings  of  the 
governor  in  stopping  the  trade,  and  sent  it  to  him  through  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  and  hong- merchants  ; a reply  was  issued 
by  his  excellency,  while  the  ships  were  coming  up  the  river,  de- 
precating the  presence  of  the  superintendent  in  Canton.  The 
close  confinement  which  his  lordship  had  been  obliged  to  observe 
since  his  arrival  in  July,  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  season, 
had,  in  addition  to  the  harassing  nature  of  his  position,  seriously 
impaired  his  health,  and  on  the  14th  of  September,  he  announced 
his  determination  to  retire  to  Macao,  until  reference  could  be 
made  to  England.  A correspondence  ensued  between  the  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce  and  the  hong-merchants,  relating  to  the  exit  of 
the  two  ships,  so  that  it  was  not  till  the  21st  that  Lord  Napier 
embarked  in  a native  passage-boat  for  Macao.  A letter  had  been 
sent  to  Captain  Blackwood  of  the  Imogene,  requesting  him  to 
take  both  ships  down  to  Lintin,  and  it  was  not  until  the  Chinese 
heard  of  their  arrival  at  that  anchorage,  that  they  would  proceed 
with  their  prisoner,  as  they  in  reality  regarded  him,  detaining 
him  five  days  on  a journey  of  less  than  a hundred  miles.  The 
sufferings  and  annoyances  he  experienced  on  the  passage  down 
were  too  much  for  his  debilitated  frame,  and  he  died  at  Macao  in 
a fortnight  after  his  arrival,  just  three  months  since  landing.  He 
was  buried  with  the  honors  due  to  his  rank  in  the  Protestant 
burying-ground,  from  whence  his  remains  were  disinterred  to  be 
taken  to  England  on  Lady  Napier’s  return.  His  countrymen  af- 
terwards subscribed  about  $2,200  to  erect  a monument  to  his  me- 
mory, and  the  sculpture  was  received  in  China,  but  never  put  up. 

As  soon  as  Lord  Napier  had  left,  the  communication  betweeq 
vox,,  it.  22 


482 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Canton  and  Whampoa  was  opened,  and  the  trade  resumed. 
When  the  ships  anchored  at  Whampoa,  the  governor  memorial- 
ized the  emperor  upon  the  precautionary  measures  he  had 
adopted  to  resist  them  ; but  his  majesty  was  highly  indignant, 
and  degraded  and  suspended  all  who  had  been  in  any  way  re- 
sponsible for  their  entrance-  Upon  receiving  a second  memorial, 
announcing  “that  Lord  Napier  had  been  driven  out,  and  the  two 
ships  of  war  dragged  over  the  shallows  and  expelled,”  he  revoked 
his  censure,  and  restored  most  of  those  whom  he  had  before  de- 
graded. Before  his  Majesty’s  rescripts  were  received,  the  go- 
vernor had  vented  his  indignation  upon  ten  of  the  civil  and  mili- 
tary officers  connected  with  the  affair,  by  subjecting  them  to 
torture  in  order  “ to  ascertain  if  they  were  guilty  of  illicit  con- 
nexion with  foreigners.”  He  also  sent  the  police  to  arrest  the 
natives  connected  with  the  printing  and  publication  of  Lord 
Napier’s  statement  to  the  people  ; who  seized  several  workmen 
engaged  in  printing  religious  tracts,  and  imprisoned  after  severely 
bambooing  them ; they  and  their  employer  were  equally  guiltless 
of  all  participation  in  the  preparation  of  the  document,  but  the 
officers  must  have  a scapegoat. 

The  drama  was  closed  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese,  by  an  im- 
perial mandate  : “ The  English  barbarians  have  an  open  market 
in  the  Inner  Land,  but  there  has  hitherto  been  no  interchange  of 
official  communications.  Yet  it  is  absolutely  requisite  that  there 
should  be  a person  possessing  general  control,  to  have  the  special 
direction  of  affairs ; wherefore  let  the  governor  immediately  order 
the  hong-merchants  to  command  the  said  separate  merchants, 
that  they  send  a letter  back  to  their  country  calling  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  another  person  as  taipan,  to  come  for  the  control 
and  direction  of  commercial  affairs,  in  accordance  with  the  old 
regulations.” 

Throughout  the  whole  of  this  affair,  the  principles  on  which 
the  Chinese  acted  are  plainly  seen ; in  their  view,  to  have  granted 
official  intercourse  by  letter,  would  have  been  to  give  up  the 
whole  question,  to  consider  the  king  of  England  as  no  longer  a 
tributary,  and  so  release  him  and  his  subjects  from  their  alle- 
giance. ■ It  would  not  only  permit  them  to  come  into  their  borders 
qs  equals,  subject  to  no  laws  or  customs,  but  also  open  the  door 
for  resistance  to  their  authority,  armed  opposition  to  their  control, 
and  finally,  possession  of  their  territory,  'fhe  governor  not  ob- 


emperor’s  SUPREMACY  OVER  ENGLAND.  483 

scurely  hints  at  this,  in  his  edict  stopping  the  trade,  when  speak- 
ing of  the  necessity  of  restraining  the  barbarian  eye,  he  says, 
“ With  regard  to  territory,  it  would  also  have  its  consequences.” 
These  would  be  the  probable  results  of  allowing  such  a mode  of 
address  from  the  Kalkas,  Tibetans,  or  other  tributaries  on  the 
north,  and  the  emperor  and  his  court  felt  the  importance  of  its 
concession.  The  Manchus,  the  Mongols,  and  all  the  Chinese  and 
Tartar  races,  acknowledge  one  emperor  or  grand  khan,  who 
alone  can  be  the  vicegerent  of  heaven,  and  he  is  the  emperor  of 
China : there  can  no  more  be  two  such  khans,  two  such  vicege- 
rents, than  there  can  be  two  suns  in  the  heavens,  or  two  popes  at 
Rome.  They  suppose  all  foreigners  who  come  for  traffic,  come 
with  tribute,  to  “ range  themselves  under  the  renovating  influ- 
ence of  the  glorious  sun  of  the  celestial  empire  otherwise, 
why  should  they  come  at  all  ? 

It  is  both  ridiculous  and  pitiable  that  the  Chinese  should  have 
had  notions  so  incorrect  and  dangerous,  for  it  led  them  to  misin- 
terpret every  act  of  foreigners,  and  as  in  the  present  instance,  to 
bring  down  upon  themselves  much  trouble  and  disaster.  Every- 
thing in  their  intercourse  with  Europeans,  since  the  Portuguese 
first  came  to  their  shores,  had  conspired  to  strengthen  their  opi- 
nion that  foreigners  were  crafty,  domineering,  avaricious  and  con- 
tumacious, and  must  be  kept  down  in  every  possible  way  to  insure 
their  own  safety.  The  last  memorial  of  governor  Lu,  and  the 
emperor’s  rescript  reprieving  the  degraded  officers,  both  show 
that  they  had  in  their  own  opinion,  by  compelling  the  British  su- 
perintendent to  retire,  successfully  resisted  and  overcome  an  in- 
sidious attempt  to  conquer  the  country  ; can  we  be  surprised, 
therefore,  at  their  gratification  ? The  indignation  of  the  emperor 
at  the  local  officers,  on  hearing  of  the  forcible  entrance  of  the 
ships  of  war  was  mixed  with  great  apprehension,  “ lest  there  were 
yet  other  ships  staying  at  a distance,  ready  to  bring  in  aid  to  him.” 
Ignorant  as  he  was  of  the  true  character  of  the  ambassies  which 
had  been  received  at  Peking,  he  was  still  more  likely  to  take 
alarm  at  any  attempt  to  open  an  equal  intercourse,  and  disposed 
to  resist  it  as  he  would  a forcible  occupation  of  his  territory,  of 
which  it  was,  in  his  view,  only  the  precursor. 

That  these  were  the  feelings  of  the  rulers  at  Peking,  and  the 
motives  of  their  policy  in  treating  the  commission  as  they  did, 
cannot  be  doubted  ; and  we  must  know  what  views  and  fears  ac. 


484 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


tuated  them  in  order  to  understand  their  proceedings.  If  the 
position  of  England  in  the  eyes  of  the  Chinese  had  been  fully 
known  in  London,  the  unequal  contest  Lord  Napier  undertook 
would  have  been  avoided,  or  would  have  been  waged  against  the 
court  and  imperial  government.  It  was  not  amiss,  however,  that 
the  opportunity  of  receiving  or  rejecting  the  offer  of  an  amicable 
intercourse  sho>  Id  be  given  the  Chinese  ; but  through  the  inap- 
plicable instructions  which  his  lordship  received,  and  which  he 
felt  bound  to  obey  as  much  as  governor  Lu  did  his  orders,  this 
offer  was  not  made  to  the  weaker  and  ignorant  party  in  such  a 
way  as  not  to  unnecessarily  alarm  its  fears,  while  it  fully  ex- 
plained the  real  position  and  intentions  of  England,  and  through 
her  all  Christendom,  in  seeking  intercourse  with  China.  The 
governor  and  his  colleagues  felt  that  their  character,  office,  and 
existence,  all  depended  upon  the  expulsion  of  the  English  super- 
intendent and  his  ships ; and  they  consequently  resorted  to  every 
expedient  to  harass,  restrain,  and  oppose  them,  stopping  their 
provisions,  taking  away  their  servants,  and  suspending  the  trade 
of  their  countrymen,  in  order  to  compel  them  to  depart.  Con- 
scious of  their  weakness,  they  did  not  dare  to  come  to  personal 
encounter,  and  seize  his  lordship  to  carry  him  out  of  the  port ; 
they  were  disinclined  or  afraid  to  spill  blood  and  risk  life,  and 
therefore  resorted  to  contemptible  annoyances  and  vicarious  pu- 
nishments. His  lordship,  on  the  other  hand,  could  see  nothing  so 
unprecedented  in  the  mere  reception  of  a letter  ; and  though  the 
two  parties  were  at  issue,  the  reasons  and  grounds  of  the  mutual 
misunderstanding  do  not  seem  to  have  been  fully  known  at  the  time 
to  either.  The  Chinese  certainly  were  ignorant  of  the  wishes  of 
the  English  ; and  few  foreigners  supposed  that  that  government 
regarded  this  peaceful  mission  as  a scheme  of  conquest,  or  as 
the  effort  of  an  independent  officer  to  intrude  into  the  emperor’s 
dominions  against  his  wish. 

The  residents,  generally,  on  the  spot  saw  the  principal  point  of 
difficulty,  and  in  a petition  to  the  king  in  council,  dated  Dec.  4, 
1834,  signed  by  a large  part  of  British  subjects  in  China,  recom- 
mend a commissioner  to  be  sent  to  one  of  the  northern  ports 
with  a small  fleet  to  arrange  the  matter  of  future  intercourse.  In 
this  petition,  they  trace  the  disabilities  and  restrictions  under 
which  British  commerce  now  labors,  to  a long  acquiescence  in 
the  arrogant  assumption  of  supremacy  over  the  monarchs  and 


PETiTION  OF  MERCHANTS  TO  THE  KING. 


485 


people  of  other  countries,  claimed  by  the  emperor  of  China  for 
himself  and  his  subjects and  conclude,  “ that  no  essentially 
beneficial  result  can  be  expected  to  arise  out  of  the  negotiations 
in  which  such  pretensions  are  not  decidedly  repelled.”  The 
recommendations  of  the  petitioners  were  disregarded  in  England, 
and  the  dispatches  of  Mr.  Davis,  who  succeeded  Lord  Napier, 
rather  recommended  an  appeal  to  Peking  to  settle  the  difficulties, 
the  failure  of  which  could  only  justify  a resort  to  coercive  meas- 
ures. The  cabinet  disapproved  of  the  spirit  of  Lord  Napier’s 
dispatches,  and  intimated  to  him  that  it  was  “ not  by  force  and 
violence  that  his  majesty  intended  to  establish  a commercial  in- 
tercourse between  his  subjects  and  China,  but  by  conciliatory 
measures.”  It  is  highly  probable,  however,  if  a contrary  course 
had  been  pursued,  and  a commissioner  well  escorted,  immediately 
appointed  to  Peking  to  arrange  the  terms  of  future  intercourse, 
the  subsequent  war  would  have  been  averted,  though  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  the  arrogancy  of  the  imperial  court  would  have  re- 
jected all  overtures,  until  compelled  to  treat  by  force. 

The  emperor,  as  if  sensible  that  there  might  be  some  ground 
for  complaint,  ordered  the  governor  to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of 
. the  hong-merchants,  lest  they  exacted  illegal  duties,  and  incurred 
debts  to  foreigners  which  they  could  not  repay.  It  was  a diffi- 
cult course  for  the  Chinese  government  to  carry  on  a line  of  po- 
licy with  respect  to  foreign  intercourse,  which  would  at  once 
maintain  its  own  proud  assumptions,  avoid  the  risk  of  a rupture, 
“ squeeze  ” all  the  money  possible  out  of  the  trade,  and  repress 
the  complaints  of  the  merchants.  This  had  been  done  with  con- 
siderable success  while  the  Company’s  monopoly  existed,  but  it 
could  not  much  longer  be  continued. 

The  trade  was  conducted  with  quiet  and  regularity  during  the 
next  season,  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  parties.  That  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, Dutch,  and  other  nations  had  all  been  really  stopped  with 
that  of  the  English,  but  the  suspension  was  at  a dull  season  of  the 
year.  The  consuls  of  these  nations  took  no  official  part  in  the 
dispute,  though  they  had  some  ground  for  complaint  in  the  sus- 
pension of  their  trade,  and  the  imprisonment  of  their  countrymen. 
The  Chinese  shopkeepers,  not  connected  with  the  hong  monopoly, 
known  as  “ outside  merchants,”  having  been  interdicted  trading 
at  all  with  foreigners,  went  to  the  governor’s  palace  in  a large 
body,  and  soon  obtained  a removal  of  the  restriction.  The  hong- 


486 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


merchants  themselves  instigated  this  decree,  for  these  shopkeep. 
ers  were  deriving  large  profits  from  their  business,  while  they 
were  almost  free  from  the  extortions  which  the  monopolists  suf- 
fered. All  the  extraordinary  expenses  incurred  by  the  provincial 
exchequer  in  the  late  affair  were  required  of  these  unfortunate 
men ; and  they  must  get  it  out  of  the  trade  in  the  best  way  they 
could,  with  the  conviction,  that  the  better  they  did  it  and  the  more 
they  got,  so  much  the  oftener  would  they  be  called  on,  and  com- 
pelled to  pay  the  more.  Amelioration  could  not  be  expected  from 
such  a system ; for  as  soon  as  the  foreigners  began  to  complain, 
the  hong-merchants  were  impelled  by  every  motive  to  misrepre- 
sent  their  complaints  to  the  governor,  and  quash  every  effort  to 
obtain  redress.  The  situation  of  foreigners  at  Canton  at  this  time 
was  not  inaptly  likened  by  a writer  on  the  subject,  to  the  inmates 
of  the  Zoological  Garden  in  Regent’s  Park.  “ They  (the  ani- 
mals) have  been  free  to  play  what  pranks  they  pleased,  so  that 
they  made  no  uproar,  nor  escaped  from  confinement.  The  keep- 
ers looked  sharply  after  them  and  tried  to  keep  them  quiet,  be- 
cause annoyed  by  the  noise  they  made,  and  responsible  for  the 
mischief  they  might  commit  if  they  got  at  liberty.  They  might 
do  what  was  right  in  their  own  eyes  with  each  other.  The  au- 
thorities of  China  do  not  expect  from  wild  and  restless  barbarians 
the  decorum  and  conduct  exemplified  in  their  own  great  family.” 
The  peculiar  position  of  the  relations  with  the  Chinese,  and  the 
value  of  the  trade,  present  and  prospective,  was  so  great,  that 
these  events  called  out  a host  of  pamphleteers,  both  in  England 
and  the  East.  The  members  of  the  Company  naturally  recom- 
mended a continuance  of  the  peaceable  system,  urging  that  fo- 
reigners should  obey  the  laws  of  the  empire  where  they  lived,  and 
not  interfere  with  the  restrictions  put  upon  them.  Others  recom- 
mended the  forcible  possession  of  an  island  on  the  coast,  to  which 
Chinese  traders  would  immediately  resort,  and  which  was  to  be 
held  only  so  long  as  the  emperor  refused  to  open  his  ports  and 
allow  a fair  traffic  with  his  people.  Others  deprecated  the  resort 
to  force  until  a commissioner  to  Peking  had  been  appointed  with 
a suitable  escort,  and  after  explaining  the  designs  and  wishes  of 
his  government,  demand  the  same  privileges  for  foreigners  in 
China  that  the  Chinese  enjoyed  abroad  ; and  then,  in  the  event  of 
a refusal,  compel  acquiescence.  Some  advised  letting  things 
take  their  own  course,  and  conducting  trade  as  it  could  be  both 


TRADE  CONTINUED  AS  BEFORE. 


487 


at  Canton  and  on  the  coast,  until  circumstances  compelled  the 
Chinese  to  act : “ that  which  we  now  require  is,  not  to  lose  the 
enjoyment  of  what  we  have  got,”  said  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
on  hearing  the  finale  of  Lord  Napier’s  experiment,  and  his  ad- 
vice was  followed  in  most  respects.  A few  thought  it  would  be 
the  wiser  way  to  disseminate  juster  ideas  of  the  position,  power, 
and  wishes  of  England  and  all  foreign  nations  among  the  Chi 
nese  in  their  own  language,  in  a way  that  both  people  and  mo- 
narch  could  understand,  before  attempting  any  further  measures ; 
they  argued  very  properly  that  ignorance  on  these  points  would 
vitiate  every  attempt  to  bring  about  a better  state  of  things,  that 
although  the  Chinese  were  greatly  to  blame  for  their  uncompro- 
mising arrogance,  it  was  also  their  great  misfortune  that  they 
really  had  had  little  opportunity  to  learn  the  truth,  and  acquire 
correct  information  respecting  their  visitors.  All  these  sugges- 
tions looked  forward  to  no  long  continuance  of  the  present  unde- 
fined, anomalous,  relations,  and  all  of  them  contained  much  per- 
tinent advice,  and  many  valuable  items  of  information  ; but  it  was 
a question  not  more  difficult  than  important  what  course  of  pro- 
cedure was  the  best.  Amid  all  the  advice  they  received,  and  the 
risk  there  was  of  failing  in  whatever  was  attempted,  the  British 
ministry  did  what  most  men  would  have  done, — wait  till  the  way 
was  clearer. 

The  British  superintendents  lived  in  Macao  pending  the  ac- 
tion of  their  government,  merely  keeping  a clerk  at  Canton  to 
sign  manifests.  They  issued  a paper  of  recommendations  to  En- 
glish subjects,  stating  in  it  that  prudence  dictated  entire  silence 
on  the  part  of  every  one,  while  they  hoped  too,  that  unusual  care 
would  be  taken  not  to  give  the  Chinese  any  new  ground  of  com- 
plaint.  Mr.  Davis,  on  a review  of  the  events  of  the  season, 
expressed  his  gratification  to  Lord  Palmerston  at  the  peaceable 
manner  in  which  the  tea  had  been  shipped.  After  his  departure, 
Sir  George  B.  Robinson,  bart.,  succeeded  to  the  office  of  chief 
superintendent,  and  exercised  its  duties  at  Macao  and  Lintin,  until 
the  office  was  abolished.  Mr.  Astell  and  Captain  Elliot  filled  the 
offices  of  second  and  third  superintendents,  A.  R.  Johnston  was 
secretary,  J.  R.  Morrison  and  Rev.  C.  Gutzlaff,  Chinese  trans- 
lators, &c.  During  this  season,  the  foreign  residents  made  their 
first  united  effort  to  impart  the  blessings  of  knowledge  to  the  Chi- 
nese, by  the  institution  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 


488 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Knowledge  among  the  Chinese.  A meeting  of  British  subjects 
was  also  held  in  March,  to  make  arrangements  for  a hospital  at 
Whampoa  or  elsewhere  for  the  relief  of  British  subjects. 

The  trade  on  the  coast  in  small  vessels  was  now  almost  entirely 
confined  to  opium.  Two  attempts  wTere  made  to  penetrate  the 
country  in  1835,  by  Mr.  Gordon  of  Calcutta,  under  orders  of  the 
Bengal  government,  to  learn  how  the  tea-plant  was  cultivated,  but 
they  were  mainly  unsuccessful.  He  landed  at  first  near  Tsiuen- 
chau  fu,  and  hired  sedan-chairs  to  take  his  party  to  the  Ankoi 
(or  Ngankf)  hills,  about  forty  miles  from  the  coast.  Mr.  Gutzlaff 
accompanied  him  as  interpreter,  and  their  reception  furnished 
an  additional  instance  of  the  friendliness  of  the  people.  Some 
of  the  villagers  lighted  them  on  their  way,  and  all  received  them 
kindly,  even  the  officers,  on  learning  their  object,  offered  no  se- 
rious obstruction.  The  second  attempt  by  the  same  gentleman  to 
reach  the  Bohea  hills,  by  ascending  the  river  Min,  was  forcibly 
stopped  by  a detachment  of  troops  near  Min-tsing  firing  upon  the 
boat  containing  the  party,  and  compelling  it  to  return.  In  this 
excursion,  the  people  manifested  the  same  willingness  to  hold  in- 
tercourse, but  when  under  the  surveillance  of  their  rulers,  a not 
unfounded  fear  of  being  implicated  kept  them  aloof. 

The  result  fully  proved  the  impossibility  of  entering  the  coun- 
try in  an  open  manner  without  the  permission  of  the  rulers  ; in- 
tercourse with  the  people,  limited  as  it  was,  also  showed  that  the 
name  and  character  of  foreigners  were  generally  associated  with 
the  opium  trade,  and  that  this  contraband  traffic  was  becoming 
a strong  argument  in  the  minds  of  the  better  class  of  Chinese 
against  the  extension  of  all  trade.  The  dwellers  immediately 
on  the  coast  were  eager  for  an  extension  of  the  traffic,  because  it 
brought  them  large  gains,  and  the  officers  at  the  principal  ports 
were  desirous  of  participating  in  the  emoluments  of  their  fellows 
at  Canton ; but  those  who  had  the  good  of  the  country  at  heart, 
and  there  are  many  such  in  China,  thought  that  the  extension  of 
foreign  trade  would  bring  with  it  unmitigated  evil,  chiefly  from 
the  increased  use  of  opium.  That  was  the  only  article  which 
would  sell,  and  every  effort  was  made  to  diffuse  it  along  the 
coast  by  both  natives  and  foreigners. 

The  chief  superintendent  remained  at  Lintin  on  board  a small 
cutter  among  the  opium  and  other  ships  anchored  there,  during 
the  season  of  1835-36,  and  was  so  well  satisfied  with  his  position 


SIR  G.  B.  ROBINSON  S REMARKS  ON  OPIUM  TRADE.  489 


that  he  recommended  his  government  to  purchase  a small  ship  for 
the  permanent  accommodation  of  the  commission  there  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  Chinese  officers,  and  also  to  vest  its  powers  in  a 
single  individual,  and  not  in  a joint  Board.  He  also  remarked 
respecting  the  opium  trade,  and  expressed  his  conviction  that  there 
was  little  hope  of  establishing  a proper  understanding  with  the 
Chinese  government,  except  by  a resort  to  force  and  the  occupa- 
tion of  an  island  off  the  mouth  of  the  river : — 

“ I see  no  grounds  to  apprehend  the  occurrence  of  any  fearful  events 
on  the  north-east  coast,  nor  can  I learn  what  new  danger  exists.  I am 
assured,  from  the  best  authority,  that  the  scuffles  between  different  par- 
ties of  smugglers  and  mandarins,  alike  engaged  and  competing  in  the 
traffic,  are  not  more  serious  or  frequent  than  in  this  province.  In  no  case 
have  Europeans  been  engaged  in  any  kind  of  conflict  or  affray  : and  while 
this  increasing  and  lucrative  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  the  parties  whose 
vital  interests  are  so  totally  dependent  on  its  safety  and  continuance,  and 
by  whose  prudence  and  integrity  it  has  been  brought  into  its  present  in- 
creasing and  flourishing  condition,  I think  little  apprehension  may  be  en- 
tertained of  dangers  emanating  from  imprudence  on  their  part.  Should 
any  unfortunate  catastrophe  take  place,  what  would  our  position  at  Can- 
ton entail  upon  us  but  responsibility  and  jeopardy,  from  which  we  are  now 
free  ? On  the  question  of  smuggling  opium,  I will  not  enter  in  this 
place,  though,  indeed,  smuggling  carried  on  actively  in  the  government 
boats  can  hardly  be  termed  such.  Whenever  his  majesty’s  government 
directs  us  to  prevent  British  vessels  engaging  in  the  traffic,  we  can  en- 
force any  order  to  that  effect,  but  a more  certain  method  would  be  to  pro- 
hibit the  growth  of  the  poppy  and  the  manufacture  of  opium  in  British 
India ; and  if  British  ships  are  in  the  habit  of  committing  irregularities 
and  crimes,  it  seems  doubly  necessary  to  exercise  a salutary  control  over 
them  by  the  presence  of  an  authority  at  Lintin.” 

Taking  all  things  into  consideration,  this  is  a remarkable  dis- 
patch to  be  sent  by  the  representative  of  a Christian  government 
writing  from  the  midst  of  a fleet  of  smugglers  on  the  shores  of  a 
pagan  country.  “ The  scuffles  caused  by  the  introduction  of  opi- 
um are,”  he  remarks,  “ not  more  serious  or  frequent  on  the  coast 
than  about  Canton though  even  there,  probably,  not  one  half 
which  did  occur  were  known  ; but  Europeans  never  engaged  in 
any  of  them.  They  only  brought  the  cause  and  object  of  these  col- 
lisions where  the  people  could  get  it,  and  then  quietly  looked  on 
to  see  them  fight  about  it.  The  “ prudence  and  integrity  ” of  the 
merchants  were  engaged  in  cherishing  it  to  a high  degree  of  pros- 
22* 


490 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


perity,  and  they  were  not  likely  to  act  imprudently.  The  orders 
of  the  supreme  government  for  its  officers  on  the  coast  to  stop  the 
traffic  were  utterly  powerless,  through  the  cupidity  and  venality 
of  those  officers  and  their  underlings ; yet  their  almost  complete 
failure  to  execute  them  does  not  impugn  the  sincerity  of  the  court 
in  issuing  them.  There  is  not  the  least  evidence  to  show  that  the 
court  of  Peking  was  not  sincere  in  its  desire  to  suppress  the  trade 
from  the  first  edict  in  1800  till  the  war  broke  out  in  1840.  The 
excuse  that  the  government  smuggled  because  its  revenue  cruisers 
engaged  in  it,  and  the  provincial  authorities  winked  at  it,  is  no 
more  satisfactory,  in  a large  view  of  the  case,  than  is  the  success- 
ful bribery  of  custom-house  officers  in  England  or  elsewhere  a 
proof  of  the  corruption  of  the  treasury  department.  The  tempta- 
tion of  an  “increasing  and  lucrative”  trade  was  as  strong  to  the 
unenlightened  pagan  Chinese  smuggler  as  it  was  to  the  Christian 
merchants  and  monopolists  who  placed  the  poisonous  drug  con- 
stantly within  their  reach.  It  would  have  been  far  more  frank 
on  the  part  of  the  British  superintendent  to  have  openly  defended 
a traffic  affording  a revenue  of  more  than  two  millions’  sterling 
to  his  own  government,  and  suggested  that  such  an  “ increasing 
and  lucrative  ” business  should  not  be  impeded,  than  to  say  that 
he  could  stop  British  ships  engaging  in  it  as  soon  as  he  received 
orders  to  that  effect. 

The  existence  of  the  commission  at  the  outer  anchorages  was 
fully  known  to  the  authorities  at  Canton,  but  no  movement 
towards  reopening  the  intercourse  was  made  by  either  party. 
Lord  Palmerston  instructed  the  superintendent  not  to  communi- 
cate with  the  government  through  the  hong-merchants,  nor  to 
give  his  written  communications  the  name  of  petitions.  By  a 
dispatch  received  in  Dec.,  1836,  Sir  George  Robinson  was  di- 
rected to  hand  the  papers  of  his  office  to  Charles  Elliot,  r.  n.,  as 
the  office  and  salary  of  chief  superintendent  was  abolished,  and 
the  whole  commission  placed  on  a more  economical  footing,  its 
annual  salaries  being  reduced  to  about  £10,000.  Captain  Elliot 
set  about  reopening  the  communication  with  the  Chinese  officers 
in  the  same  way  that  the  supercargoes  of  the  E.  I.  Company  had 
conducted  it,  on  the  day  that  he  assumed  office.  In  his  dispatch, 
he  explained  the  reasons  of  his  conduct,  upon  the  grounds  that  he 
had  no  right  to  direct  official  communication  with  the  governor, 
and  that  the  remarkable  movements  of  the  Chinese,  and  the  criti- 


PROPOSAL  TO  LEGALIZE  OPIUM. 


491 


cal  state  of  uncertainty  in  respect  to  the  whole  foreign  trade,  ren. 
dered  it  highly  desirable  to  be  at  Canton.  A new  governor,  Tang 
Tingching,  had  superseded  Lu,  who  willingly  responded  to  the 
proposition  of  Captain  Elliot,  by  sending  a deputation  of  three 
officers  to  Macao  with  the  hong-merchants,  to  make  some  inquiries 
before  memorializing  the  emperor.  In  his  report,  the  governor 
avoided  all  reference  to  Lord  Napier,  and  requested  his  majesty’s 
sanction  to  the  present  request  as  being  in  accordance  with  the 
orders  that  the  English  merchants  should  send  home  to  have  a 
supercargo  come  out  to  manage  them.  It  was  of  course  granted  ; 
and  the  British  commission,  having  received  a “ red  permit  ” from 
the  collector  of  customs,  returned  to  Canton,  April  12th,  1837, 
after  an  absence  of  about  thirty  months.  In  his  note  to  the  go- 
vernor upon  receiving  the  imperial  sanction,  Captain  Elliot  says, 
“ The  undersigned  respectfully  assures  his  excellency,  that  it  is 
at  once  his  duty  and  his  anxious  desire,  to  conform  in  all  things 
to  the  imperial  pleasure ; and  he  will  therefore  heedfully  attend 
to  the  points  adverted  to  in  the  papers  now  before  him.”  This 
language  was  much  too  strong,  and  his  excellency  afterwards 
called  upon  the  superintendent  to  do  as  he  had  promised. 

The  remarkable  movements  of  the  supreme  government  re- 
ferred to  by  Captain  Elliot,  grew  out  of  a memorial  from  Hit 
Nai-tsi,  president  of  the  Sacrificial  Court,  and  formerly  salt  com- 
missioner and  judge  at  Canton,  proposing  the  legalization  of  the 
opium  trade.  The  memorialist  states  it  to  be  his  conviction  that 
it  is  impossible  to  stop  the  traffic  or  use  of  the  drug ; if  the 
foreign  vessels  be  driven  from  the  coast,  they  will  go  to  some 
island  near  by,  where  the  native  craft  will  go  off  to  them ; and 
if  the  laws  be  made  too  severe  upon  those  who  smoke  the  drug, 
they  will  be  disregarded.  By  legalizing  it,  he  says  the  drain  of 
the  precious  metals  will  be  stopped,  the  regular  trade  rendered 
more  profitable  and  manageable,  and  the  consumption  of  the  drug 
regulated.  He  proposes  instant  dismissal  from  office  as  the  pe- 
nalty for  all  functionaries  convicted  of  smoking,  while  their  present 
ineffectual  attempts  to  suppress  the  trade,  which  resulted  in  ge- 
neral contempt  for  all  law,  would  cease,  and  consequently  the  dig- 
nity of  government  be  better  maintained.  The  trade  on  the  coast 
would  be  concentrated  at  Canton,  and  the  fleet  at  Lintin  broken 
up,  thereby  bringing  all  foreigners  more  completely  under  control. 

This  unexpected  movement  at  the  capital  caused  no  little  stir 


492 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


at  Canton,  and  the  hong-merchants  presently  advertised  the  fo- 
reigners that  soon  there  would  no  longer  be  any  need  for  keeping 
receiving-ships  at  Lintin.  Captain  Elliot  wrote  in  his  dispatch, 
that  he  thought  legalization  had  come  too  late  to  stop  the  trade  on 
the  coast,  and  that  the  “ feeling  of  independence  created  among 
British  subjects  from  the  peculiar  mode  of  conducting  this  branch 
of  the  trade,”  would  erelong  lead  to  graver  difficulties,  and  acts 
of  violence  requiring  the  armed  interference  of  his  government. 
The  impression  was  general  at  Canton,  that  the  trade  would  be 
legalized,  and  increased  preparations  were  accordingly  made  in 
India  to  extend  the  cultivation.  The  governor  and  his  colleagues 
recommended  its  legalization  on  the  grounds  that  the  “ tens  of 
millions  of  precious  money,  which  now  annually  ooze  out  of  the 
empire,  will  be  saved,”  the  duties  be  increased,  the  evil  practices 
of  transporting  contraband  goods  by  deceit  and  violence  suppressed, 
numberless  quarrels  and  litigations  arising  therefrom,  and  the 
crimes  of  worthless  vagrants,  diminished.  They  also  delude 
themselves  with  the  idea  that  if  the  officers  were  dismissed  as 
soon  as  convicted,  the  intelligent  part  of  society  would  not  indulge 
their  depraved  appetites,  but  let  the  “ victims  of  their  own  self- 
sacrificing  folly,”  the  poor  opium  smokers,  be  found  only  among 
the  lower  classes.  In  connexion  with  this  report,  the  hong-mer- 
chants replied  to  various  inquiries  respecting  the  best  mode  of 
carrying  on  the  opium  trade,  in  case  it  should  be  legalized,  and 
their  mode  of  conducting  trade  generally;  adding,  that  it  was 
beyond  their  power  to  control  the  smuggling  trade,  or  restrain  the 
exportation  of  sycee,  and  showed  that  the  balance  of  trade  would 
naturally  leave  the  country  in  bullion.  Both  these  papers  are 
fairly  drawn  up,  and  their  perusal  cannot  fail  to  elevate  the  cha- 
racter of  the  Chinese  for  consideration,  carefulness,  and  business- 
like procedure. 

There  were  other  statesmen,  however,  who  regarded  Hii 
Nai-tsi’s  memorial  as  a dangerous  step  in  the  downward  path,  and 
sounded  the  alarm.  Among  these,  the  foremost  wasChu  Tsun,  a 
cabinet  minister,  who  sent  in  a counter  memorial  couched  in  the 
strongest  terms.  He  advised  that  the  laws  be  more  strictly  main- 
tained, and  cited  instances  to  show  that  when  the  provincial  au- 
thorities earnestly  set  about  it  they  could  put  the  trade  down  ; that 
the  people  would  soon  learn  to  despise  all  laws  if  those  against 
opium-smoking  were  suspended  ; and  that  recreant  officers  should 


CHU  TSUN  OPPOSES  THE  PROPOSITION. 


493 


be  superseded  and  punished.  His  indignation  warms  as  he  goes 
on  : “ It  has  been  represented  that  advantage  is  taken  of  the  laws 
against  opium,  by  extortionate  underlings  and  worthless  vagrants, 
to  benefit  themselves.  Is  it  not  known,  then,  that  when  govern- 
ment enacts  a law  there  is  necessarily  an  infraction  of  that  law  ? 
And  though  the  law  should  sometimes  be  relaxed  and  become 
ineffectual,  yet  surely  it  should  not  on  that  account  be  abolished  ; 
any  more  than  we  should  altogether  cease  to  eat  because  of  stop- 
page of  the  throat.  The  laws  which  forbid  the  people  to  do  wrong 
may  be  likened  to  the  dikes  which  prevent  the  overflowing  of 
water.  If  any  one,  urging  then,  that  the  dikes  are  very  old  and 
therefore  useless,  we  should  have  them  thrown  down,  what  words 
could  express  the  consequences  of  the  impetuous  rush  and  all- 
destroying  overflow ! Yet  the  provincials,  when  discussing  the 
subject  of  opium,  being  perplexed  and  bewildered  by  it,  think 
that  a prohibition  which  does  not  utterly  prohibit,  is  better  than  one 
which  does  not  effectually  prevent  the  importation  of  the  drug. 

If  we  can  but  prevent  the  importation  of  opium,  the 

exportation  of  dollars  will  then  cease  of  itself,  and  the  two  offences 
will  both  at  once  be  stopped.  Moreover,  is  it  not  better,  by  con- 
tinuing the  old  enactments,  to  find  even  a partial  remedy  for  the 
evil,  than  by  a change  of  the  laws  to  increase  the  importation  still 
further  ?” 

He  then  proceeds  to  show  that  the  native  article  could  not  com- 
pete with  the  foreign,  for  it  would  not  be  as  well  manufactured, 
and  moreover  “ all  men  prize  what  is  strange,  and  undervalue 
whatever  is  in  ordinary  use.”  Its  cultivation  would  occupy  rich 
and  fertile  land  now  used  for  nutritive  grains : “ to  draw  off  in 
this  way  the  waters  of  the  great  fountain  requisite  for  the  produc- 
tion of  food  and  raiment,  and  to  lavish  them  upon  the  root  whence 
calamity  and  disaster  spring  forth,  is  an  error  like  that  of  the 
physician,  who,  when  treating  a mere  external  disease  drives  it 
inwards  to  the  heart  and  centre  of  the  body.  Shall  the  fine  fields 
of  Kwangtung,  which  produce  their  three  crops  every  year,  be 
given  up  for  the  cultivation  of  this  noxious  weed  1”  He  says  the 
question  does  not  concern  property  and  duties,  but  the  welfare 
and  vigor  of  the  people  ; and  quotes  from  the  History  of  Formosa 
a passage  showing  the  way  in  which  the  natives  there  were  ener- 
vated by  using  it,  and  adds  that  the  purpose  of  the  English  in  in- 
troducing opium  into  the  country  has  been  to  weaken  and  enfee- 


494 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


ble  it.  Kanghi  long  ago  (1717)  remarked,  he  observes,  “ There 
is  cause  for  apprehension,  lest  in  the  centuries  or  milleniums  to 
come,  China  may  be  endangered  by  collisions  with  the  various 
nations  of  the  west,  who  come  hither  from  beyond  the  seas.”  And 
now  in  less  than  two  centuries,  “ we  see  the  commencement  of 
that  danger  which  he  apprehended.” 

The  suggestion  of  Hu  Nai-tsi  to  allow  it  to  the  people  and  inter- 
dict the  officers,  is  called  bad  casuistry,  “like  shutting  a woman’s 
ears  before  you  steal  her  earrings.”  He  shows  that  this  distinc- 
tion will  be  vain,  for  it  will  be  impossible  to  say  who  is  of  the 
people  and  who  are  officers,  for  all  the  latter  are  taken  from  the 
body  of  the  former.  The  permission  will  induce  people  to  use  it 
who  now  refrain  from  fear  of  the  laws  ; for  even  the  proposal  has 
caused  “ thieves  and  villains  on  all  hands  to  raise  their  heads  and 
open  their  eyes,  gazing  about  and  pointing  the  finger,  under  the 
notion  that  when  once  these  prohibitions  are  repealed,  thenceforth 
and  for  ever  they  may  regard  themselves  far  from  every  restraint 
and  cause  of  fear.”  He  asserts  that  nothing  but  strong  laws 
rigidly  carried  into  effect  will  restrain  them  from  their  evil  ways, 
and  concludes  by  recommending  increased  stringency  in  their 
execution  as  the  only  hope  of  reformation. 

This  spirited  paper  was  supported  by  another  from  a sub-cen- 
sor, Hu  Kiu,  on  the  necessity  of  checking  the  exportation  of  silver 
and  recommending  that  a determined  officer  be  sent  to  punish 
severely  the  native  traitors,  which  would  add  dignity  to  the  laws , 
and  then  the  barbarians  would  be  awed  and  consequently  reform, 
and  be  entirely  defeated  in  their  designs  of  conquering  the  coun- 
try. He  cites  several  instances  of  their  outrageous  violation 
of  the  laws,  such  as  levelling  graves  in  Macao  for  the  purpose 
of  making  a road  over  them,  landing  goods  there  for  entering 
them  at  Canton  in  order  to  evade  the  duties  and  port-charges,  and 
even  riding  in  sedans  with  four  bearers,  like  Chinese  officers. 
Force  need  only  be  put  forth  a little,  he  thought,  and  they  would 
again  be  humbled  to  subjection  ; but  if  they  still  brought  the  per- 
nicious drug,  then  inflict  capital  punishment  upon  them  as  well  as 
upon  natives.  The  sub-censor  expresses  the  same  opinion  as  Chu 
Tsun  regarding  the  designs  of  foreigners  in  bringing  opium,  that 
they  wished  first  to  debilitate  and  impoverish  the  land  as  a pre- 
paratory measure,  for  they  never  smoked  the  drug  in  their  own 
country,  but  brought  it  all  to  China.  This  impression  was  preva- 


THE  QUESTION  REEEHKED  TO  CANTON. 


495 


lent  both  among  the  officers  and  people,  derived  mainly  from  the 
abstinence  of  the  foreign  merchants  and  seamen ; and  in  their 
ignorance  and  apprehension,  other  things  were  misinterpreted  to 
support  this  belief. 

The  papers  of  both  Chu  Tsun  and  Hu  Kiu  were  transmitted  to 
Canton  for  deliberation,  although  the  local  officers  had  only  a few 
weeks  before  sent  a memorial  to  the  cabinet  approving  of  the  sug- 
gestions of  Hu  Nai-tsf  regarding  the  legalization  of  the  article. 
At  this  time,  however,  it  was  properly  remarked,  that  “ there  had 
been  a diversity  of  opinion  in  regard  to  it,  some  requesting  a 
change  in  the  policy  hitherto  adopted,  and  others  recommending 
the  continuance  of  the  severe  prohibitions.  It  is  highly  important 
to  consider  the  subject  carefully  in  all  its  bearings,  surveying  at 
once  the  whole  field  of  action,  so  that  such  measures  may  be 
adopted  as  shall  continue  for  ever  in  force,  free  from  all  failure.” 
This  subject,  the  most  important,  it  cannot  be  doubted,  which  had 
ever  been  deliberated  upon  by  the  emperor  and  his  council,  was 
now  fairly  brought  before  the  whole  nation ; and  if  all  the  cir. 
cumstances  be  taken  into  consideration,  it  was  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  consultations  of  any  age  or  country.  A long  experi- 
ence of  the  baneful  effects  of  opium  upon  the  health,  minds,  and 
property  of  those  who  used  it,  had  produced  a deep  conviction  in 
the  minds  of  wellwishers  of  their  country,  of  the  necessity  of  some 
legal  restraint  over  the  people ; while  the  annual  drainage  of 
specie  at  the  rate  of  eighteen  or  twenty  millions  of  dollars  alarmed 
those  who  cared  only  for  the  stability  and  prosperity  of  the  coun- 
try. The  settlement  or  management  of  the  question  was  one  of 
equal  difficulty  and  importance,  and  the  result  proved  that  it  was 
quite  beyond  the  reach  of  both  their  power  and  wisdom.  Fully 
conscious  of  the  weak  moral  principle  in  themselves  and  their 
countrymen,  they  considered  it  right  to  restrain  and  deter  the  peo- 
ple by  legislative  enactments  and  severe  penalties.  Ignorant  of 
tfie  nature  of  commercial  dealings,  they  thought  it  both  practica- 
ble and  necessary  to  limit  the  exportation  of  specie  ; for,  not  hav- 
ing any  substitute  for  coin  or  any  system  of  national  credit,  there 
was  serious  hazard,  otherwise,  that  the  government  would  ulti- 
mately be  unable  to  carry  itself  on.  It  is  unjust  to  the  Chinese 
to  say,  as  has  often  been  done,  by  men  calling  themselves  Chris- 
tians, that  all  parties  were  insincere  in  their  efforts  to  put  down 
this  trade,  that  it  was  a mere  affectation  of  morality,  and  that  no 


496 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


one  would  be  more  chagrined  to  see  it  stop  than  those  apparently 
so  strenuous  against  it.  This  assertion  was  made  by  Lord  Pal- 
merston in  parliament,  and  it  has  been  made  by  others  many 
times ; but  those  who  have  candidly  examined  the  proceedings  of 
the  Chinese,  or  have  lived  among  the  people  in  a way  to  learn 
their  real  feelings,  need  not  be  told  how  incorrect  is  the  remark. 
The  highest  statesman,  and  the  debilitated,  victimized  smoker 
alike  agreed  in  their  opinion  of  its  bad  effects,  and  both  were 
pretty  much  in  the  position  of  a miserable  lamb  in  the  coil  of  a 
hungry  anaconda. 

The  debate  among  the  Chinese  excited  a discussion  among  the 
foreigners,  most  of  whom  were  engaged  in  the  traffic.  Here  the 
gist  of  the  debate  turned  upon  the  points  whether  opium  was  really 
a noxious  stimulant  per  se,  and  whether  the  Chinese  government 
was  sincere  in  its  prohibitions  in  the  face  of  the  notorious  con- 
nivance of  the  officers  along  the  coast  from  Hainan  to  Tientsin. 
One  writer  in  the  Repository,  after  conclusively  showing  the 
baneful  effects  of  the  narcotic  upon  the  system  when  taken  con- 
stantly, and  that  its  habitual  use  in  the  smallest  degree  almost 
certainly  leads  to  the  intemperate,  uncontrollable  use,  then  charges 
the  sin  of  murder  upon  those  who  traffic  in  it,  and  asserts,  “ that 
the  perpetuating  and  encouraging  and  engaging  in  a trade  which 
promotes  disease,  poverty,  misery,  crime,  madness,  despair,  and 
death,  is  to  be  an  accomplice  with  the  guilty  principals  in  that 
tremendous  pursuit.”  He  enters  into  the  question  whether  it  be 
the  less  criminal  for  a man  to  engage  in  a pursuit  which  he  knows 
is  injurious  to  his  fellow-men,  because  if  he  does  not  do  so  some 
one  else  will,  and  exposes  its  fallacy.  The  Court  of  Directors, 
even,  whom  all  the  world  knows  to  be  chief  managers  of  the  cul- 
tivation, manufacture  and  sale  of  the  drug,  says  in  one  of  its 
dispatches,  “ that  so  repugnant  are  their  feelings  to  the  opium 
trade,  they  would  gladly  in  compassion  to  mankind,  put  a total 
end  to  the  consumption  of  opium  if  they  could.  But  they  cannot 
do  this,  and  as  opium  will  be  grown  somewhere  or  other,  and  will 
be  largely  consumed  in  spite  of  all  their  benevolent  wishes,  they 
can  only  do  as  they  do !”  His  remarks  are  none  too  strong  upon 
the  hollowness  and  guilt  of  such  an  excuse,  by  which  each  one 
tries  to  shelter  his  evil  practices  under  the  example  of  everybody 
else. 

The  article  was  replied  to  by  another  gentleman,  extensively 


DISCUSSION  AMONG  FOREIGNERS  ABOUT  OPIUM. 


497 


engaged  in  the  traffic,  and  defended  on  the  ground  that  what  is 
bad  now  was  always  bad  ; and  that  as  the  emperor  and  his  minis, 
ters  had  shut  their  eyes  to  the  effects  of  opium  for  twenty  years 
past,  there  were  doubtless  other  grounds  for  their  sudden  opposi- 
tion. He  asserts  that  opium  is  a “ useful  soother,  a harmless  lux- 
ury, and  a precious  medicine,  except  to  those  who  abuse  it and 
that  while  a few  destroy  themselves,  the  prudent  many  enjoy  a 
pleasing  solace,  to  get  which  tends  to  produce  the  persevering 
economy,  and  the  never-ceasing  industry  of  the  Chinese.  He 
estimates  that  at  a daily  allowance  of  1 \oz.,  not  more  than  one 
person  in  326  touches  the  pipe,  and  that  there  were  not  more 
than  912,000  victimized  smokers  in  the  empire.  He  also  re- 
marked, that  the  present  mode  of  conducting  the  trade  by  large 
capitalists  kept  it  respectable,  and  that  if  their  characters  were 
held  up  to  odium  and  infamy,  it  would  get  into  the  hands  of  des- 
peradoes, pirates,  and  marauders.  He  contended  for  this  because 
he  looked  upon  the  efforts  of  the  Chinese  to  put  it  down  as  utterly 
futile  as  the  proclamations  of  Elizabeth  were  to  put  down  hops, 
or  the  Counterblast  of  James  to  stop  tobacco.  Nothing  but  moral 
principle,  acting  in  the  shape  of  opium  temperance  societies,  will 
avail. 

This  rejoinder  was  immediately  responded  to  by  two  writers 
who  clearly  exhibited  its  unsoundness,  and  ridiculed  the  plea  that 
the  trade  should  be  kept  in  the  hands  of  gentlemen,  and  under 
the  direction  of  a monopoly.-  The  smuggler  brought  his  vessel 
on  the  coast,  and  there  waited  till  the  people  came  off  for  his  mer- 
chandise, disposing  of  it  without  the  least  risk  to  himself,  “ coolly 
commenting  on  the  injustice  of  the  Chinese  government  in  re- 
fusing the  practice  of  international  law  and  reciprocity  to  coun- 
tries, whose  subjects  it  only  knows  as  engaged  in  constant  and 
gross  infraction  of  laws,  the  breaking  of  which  effects  the  basis 
of  all  good  government,  the  morals  of  the  country.”  The  true 
character  of  the  smuggling  trade  is  well  set  forth  in  one  para- 
graph, which  is  as  applicable  now  as  it  was  ten  years  ago. 

“ Reverse  the  picture.  Suppose,  by  any  chance,  that  Chinese  junks 
were  to  import  into  England,  as  a foreign  and  fashionable  luxury,  so 
harmless  a thing  as  arsenic  or  corrosive  sublimate ; that  after  a few  years 
it  became  a rage;  that  thousands,  yea,  hundreds  of  thousands  used  it; 
and  that  its  use  was  in  consequence  of  its  bad  effects  prohibited.  Sup- 
pose, that,  in  opposition  to  the  prohibition,  junks  were  stationed  in  St. 


498 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


George’s  channel,  with  a constant  supply,  taking  occasional  trips  to  the 
isle  of  Wight  and  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  when  the  officers  were  suf- 
ficiently attentive  to  their  duty  at  the  former  station  to  prevent  its  intro- 
duction there.  Suppose  the  consumption  to  increase  annually,  and  to 
arouse  the  attention  of  government,  and  of  those  sound-thinking  men  who 
foresaw  misery  and  destruction  from  the  rapid  spread  of  an  insidious,  un- 
profitable and  dangerous  habit.  Suppose,  in  fact,  that  mutato  nomine,  all 
which  has  been  achieved  here  had  been  practised  there.  Suppose  some 
conservators  of  the  public  morals  to  be  aroused  at  last,  and  to  remonstrate 
against  its  use  and  increase ; and  that,  among  the  nation  sending  forth 
this  destroyer,  to  prey  on  private  happiness  and  public  virtue,  one  or  two 
pious  and  well-meaning  bonzes  were  to  remonstrate  with  their  country- 
men on  the  enormity  of  their  conduct : — how  wonderfully  consolatory  to 
one  party,  and  unanswerable  to  the  other,  must  be  the  remark  of  the  well- 
dressed  and  well-educated  Chinese  merchant : ‘ Hai  ya ! my  friend,  do  not 
you  see  my  silk  dress  and  the  crystal  knob  on  my  cap ; don’t  you  know 
that  I have  read  and  can  quote  Confucius,  Mencius,  and  all  the  Five 
Books ; do  you  not  see  that  the  barbarians  are  passionately  fond  of  ar- 
senic, that  they  will  have  it,  and  even  go  so  far  as  to  pay  for  it ; and  can 
you,  for  one  moment,  doubt  that  it  would  not  be  much  worse  for  them,  if 
instead  of  my  bringing  it,  it  were  left  to  the  chance,  needy,  and  uncertain 
supply,  which  low  men  of  no  capital  could  afford  to  bring  ?” 

The  writer  then  shows,  that  instead  of  only  one  person  in  every 
326  using  the  pipe,  it  was  far  more  probable  that  at  least  one  out 
of  every  150  (or  about  2,500,000  in  all)  of  the  population  was  a 
victimized  smoker.  And  that  even  this  was  a large  allowance, 
if  the  number  of  secluded  villages  off  the  great  thoroughfares, 
where  the  drug  could  not  easily  penetrate,  was  taken  into  the  ac- 
count. The  assertion  of  its  being  a harmless  luxury  to  the  many, 
like  wine  or  beer  is  disputed,  and  the  sophisticated  argument  of 
its  use  as  a means  of  hospitality  exploded.  “ What  would  a be- 
nevolent and  sober-minded  Chinese  think,”  he  asks,  “ were  the 
sophistry  of  the  defenders  of  this  trade  translated  for  him  ? 
Where  would  he  find  the  high-principled  and  high-minded  inha- 
bitant of  the  far-off  country  ? How  could  he  be  made  to  compre- 
hend that  the  believers  in  and  practicers  of  Christian  morality 
advocated  a trade  so  ruinous  to  his  country.  That  the  govern- 
ment of  India  compelled  the  growth  of  it  by  unwilling  ryots  ; and 
that,  instead  of  its  being  brought  to  China  by  ‘ desperadoes,  pirates, 
and  marauders,’  it  was  purveyed  by  a body  of  capitalists,  not 
participating  certainly  in  what  they  carry,  but  supplying  the  In- 


EVIL  EFFECTS  OF  THE  OPIUM  TRADE. 


499 


dian  revenue  safely  and  peaceably  ; that  the  British  govern  nent 
and  others  encouraged  it ; and  that  the  agents  in  the  traffic  were 
constantly  residing  at  Canton,  protected  by  the  government  whose 
laws  they  outraged ; but  monstrously  indignant,  and  appealing  to 
their  governments,  if  No.  2 longcloths  are  classed  as  No.  1, 
through  the  desperate  villainy  of  some  paltry  custom-house  ser- 
vant.” The  whole  article  is  in  the  same  just  strain,  but  “ the 
vice  was  plated  with  gold,”  and  all  arguments  fell  powerless. 

The  other  writer  also  exposes  the  sinful  fallacy  of  the  argument 
of  expediency  in  the  conduct  of  the  trade,  and  then  proceeds  to 
show  how  great  an  obstacle  it  is  in  the  way  of  diffusing  the  Gos- 
pel among  the  Chinese.  “ I have  seen  much  in  your  paper,”  he 
remarks,  “ about  the  wrongs  of  foreigners  in  China,  but  little 

about  the  wrongs  of  China  at  their  hands There  is 

not  a greater  barrier  to  the  introduction  of  the  Gospel  into  China 
by  the  hands  of  foreigners,  (and  who  else  is  to  introduce  it  ?) 
than  the  trade  in  opium  by  those  bearing  the  Christian  name. 
We  all  laud,  and  justly  too,  the  Ophthalmic  hospital,  and  re- 
joice in  its  influence  as  commending  the  foreign  interests  to  China. 
It  is  by  welldoing  that  we  are  thus  putting  to  silence  the  silly 
boastings  and  disdain  of  this  people ; but  how  is  this  influence 
paralyzed  by  our  standing  in  the  view  of  the  government  and  na- 
tion as  a band  of  smugglers,  active  agents  of  that  evil,  which  is 
the  presumed  procuring  cause  of  all  the  financial  embarrassments 
of  the  country,  carrying  dismay,  poverty,  and  wretchedness 

through  its  length  and  breadth The  merits  of  this 

question  might  be  rested  upon  the  single  fact,  that  by  all  the 
moral  feelings  of  China,  the  introduction  of  opium  is  accounted 
an  abominable  thing.  All  our  pretensions  of  doing  good  to  her 
are  vain  while  we  remain  connected  with  opium ; we  can  only  be 
accounted  by  the  nation  as  hollow-hearted  hypocrites.  Let  cha- 
rity be  heard  when  she  pleads  that  the  good  our  benevolent  ope- 
rations might  effect  may  not  be  nullified  by  our  ill-doing,  and  that 
our  'partial  good  be  not  permitted  to  conceal  from  us  our  real 
character,  while  we  continue  smuggling  venders  of  opium.” 
There  is  no  space  for  further  quotations,  and  the  writer  closes  by 
offering  a premium  of  £100  for  the  best  essay,  “ showing  the 
effects  of  the  opium  trade  on  the  commercial,  political,  and  moral 
interests  of  the  nations  and  individuals  connected  therewith,  and 
pointing  out  the  course  they  ought  to  pursue  in  regard  to  it.” 


500 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


There  was,  however,  so  little  interest  in  the  subject,  that  this 
premium  was  never  awarded,  though  the  proposal  was  extensively 
advertised  both  in  China  and  England. 

The  memorial  of  Hu  Kiu  mentioned  the  names  of  several  fo- 
reigners, English,  Parsees,  and  Americans,  residing  at  Canton, 
who  were  extensively  engaged  in  the  opium  trade  ; and  in  three 
edicts  issued  by  the  governor  in  the  autumn  of  1836,  the  imme- 
diate departure  of  nine  persons  therein  mentioned  was  required. 
So  habitually,  however,  did  foreigners  disregard  the  commands 
and  prohibitions  of  the  local  government,  that  none  of  them  has- 
tened their  departure  in  consequence,  though  a report  was  of 
course  made  to  the  capital  that  orders  had  been  issued  for  their 
expulsion. 

It  was  this  posture  of  affairs  which  Captain  Elliot  referred  to, 
and  the  desirableness  of  his  coming  to  Canton  was  evident.  The 
governor  and  his  colleagues  soon  learned  that  the  feeling  at  court 
was  rather  against  legalizing,  though  they  were  directed  to  report 
concerning  the  amount  of  duty  proper  to  be  levied  on  it ; and  to 
show  their  zeal,  arrested  several  brokers  and  dealers,  some  of 
whom  were  tortured  and  imprisoned.  Aming,  one  of  the  lin- 
guists, was  severely  tortured  and  publicly  exposed  in  the  cangue 
for  exporting  sycee  ; others  escaped  similar  and  worse  treatment 
by  absconding.  The  chief  superintendent  expressed  his  opinion, 
that  “ the  legalization  of  the  trade  in  opium  would  afford  his 
majesty’s  government  great  satisfaction,”  but  suggested  that  the 
gradual  diversion  of  British  capital  into  other  channels  would  be 
attended  with  advantageous  consequences.  To  one  situated  as 
Captain  Elliot  was,  between  his  own  government  which  promoted 
the  importation  of  opium,  and  the  Chinese  government  which  was 
now  making  extraordinary  efforts  to  regulate  it ; and  deeply  sen- 
sible personally  of  the  injury  resulting  from  its  use  to  the  people, 
and  to  the  reputation  of  his  own  and  all  foreign  nations  generally, 
from  the  constant  infraction  of  the  laws ; the  proposed  step  of  ad- 
mitting it  by  duty  offered  a timely  relief.  No  one  was  more  de- 
sirous of  putting  a stop  to  this  destructive  traffic  than  Captain 
Elliot,  but  knowing  the  impossibility  of  checking  it  by  laws,  he 
naturally  wished  to  see  the  many  political  and  commercial  evils 
growing  out  of  smuggling  done  away.  It  was,  indeed,  much  to 
be  desired,  that  the  Chinese  would  take  this  course  ; and  it  is 
very  remarkable  that,  the  great  reason  why  the  emperor  and  his 


BRITISH  COMMISSION  RETURNS  TO  CANTON. 


501 


advisers  did  not  do  so,  was  because  it  would  be  detrimental  to  the 
people. 

During  the  years  1837  and  1838,  there  was  a constant  struggle 
along  the  coast  between  the  officers  of  government,  the  native 
smugglers,  and  the  foreign  dealers  ; sometimes  the  former  com- 
peted with,  and  sometimes  connived  at,  and  then  arrested  the  lat- 
ter, while  the  foreigners  seldom  came  in  collision  with  either,  but 
did  all  they  could  to  promote  the  sale.  In  February,  Capt.  Elliot 
wrote  to  rear-admiral  Capel,  in  India,  requesting  him  to  dispatch 
a ship  of  war  to  China,  in  order  to  visit  the  outer  anchorages 
where  the  opium  trade  was  carried  on,  “ as  one  of  the  movements 
best  calculated,  either  to  carry  the  provincial  government  back 
to  the  system  of  connivance  which  has  hitherto  prevailed,  or  to 
hasten  onwards  the  legalization  measure  from  the  court.”  The 
sloop-of-war  Raleigh  soon  after  arrived  in  compliance  with  this 
request,  and  was  dispatched  to  Fuhchau  to  procure  the  release  of 
the  lascars  forming  part  of  the  crew  of  the  opium  brig  Fairy,  who 
had  been  detained  there  for  many  months,  which  she  successfully 
accomplished.  The  main  object,  however,  of  the  superintendent’s 
request,  could  better  be  brought  about  by  the  action  of  the  home 
government ; and  in  the  autumn  of  1837,  her  majesty’s  secretary 
transmitted  orders  for  the  admiral  himself  to  go  to  China  and  com- 
municate with  the  British  authorities  there. 

Captain  Elliot,  being  now  at  Canton,  as  the  recognized  head  of 
the  British  trade,  received  an  order  through  the  hong-merchants 
from  the  provincial  authorities,  in  September,  to  drive  away  the 
receiving-ships  from  Lintin,  and  send  the  emperor’s  commands  to 
his  king,  that  henceforth  they  be  prohibited  coming.  He  replied 
to  the  effect  that  he  could  not  transmit  any  orders  to  his  own  so- 
vereign which  did  not  come  to  him  direct  from  the  government ; 
and  quoted  the  recent  instance  of  the  governor-general  of  Fuh- 
kien  communicating  directly  with  the  captain  of  a British  ship  of 
war.  The  governor  was  therefore  forced  to  employ  a different 
channel,  and  sent  his  orders  to  the  prefect  and  colonel  of  the  de- 
partment to  be  by  them  enjoined  on  Captain  Elliot.  He  replied 
bv  promising  to  send  it  to  his  country,,  and  adds,  in  true  diplo- 
matic style,  “ He  has  already  signified  to  your  excellency  with 
truth  and  plainness,  that  his  commission  extends  only  to  the  regu- 
lar trade  with  this  empire  ; and  further,  that  the  existence  of  any 
>ther  than  this  trade  has  never  yet  been  submitted  to  the  know- 


502 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


ledge  of  his  own  gracious  sovereign.”  The  rapid  extension  of 
smuggling  about  Canton  in  small  boats,  and  the  numerous  colli- 
sions which  tended  to  keep  all  parties  in  a constant  ferment  and 
struggle,  hazarding  the  whole  trade,  induced  Captain  Elliot  to 
transmit,  with  the  “orders”  he  had  received,  a minute  account 
of  the  condition  of  the  opium  trade,  and  a memorandum  respect- 
ing the  mode  and  desirableness  of  opening  communication  with 
the  court.  Lord  Palmerston,  in  reply,  intimates  that  “ her  ma- 
jesty’s government  do  not  see  their  way  in  such  a measure  with 
sufficient  clearness  to  justify  them  in  adopting  it  at  the  present 
moment.”  He  adds,  that  no  protection  can  be  afforded  to  “ enable 
British  subjects  to  violate  the  laws  of  the  country  to  which  they 
trade.  Any  loss,  therefore,  which  such  persons  may  suffer  in 
consequence  of  the  more  effectual  execution  of  the  Chinese  laws 
on  this  subject,  must  be  borne  by  the  parties  who  have  brought 
that  loss  on  themselves  by  their  own  acts.” — A most  paradoxical 
but  convenient  position  for  this  “ honorable”  officer  of  the  English 
government  to  assume ! The  opium  is  brought  down  to  Calcutta 
and  sold  by  this  government  through  the  E.  I.  Company  for  the 
China  market,  but  when  it  leaves  that  port  its  carriers  are  smug- 
glers, and  must  bear  their  own  losses  and  punishments  (for  the 
penalty  now  was  death),  without  hope  of  protection.  The  mo- 
ment, however,  the  personal  freedom,  or  the  regular  trade,  of  these 
same  persons  was  jeoparded  by  the  efforts  of  the  Chinese  autho- 
rities to  reach  the  contraband  trade  through  it  or  them,  then  the 
strong  arm  of  England’s  irresistible  power  was  to  teach  them  to 
let  both  alone.  In  a struggle  of  this  sort,  between  arrogant  weak- 
ness, inoperative  laws,  contempt  of  other  powers,  and  great  igno- 
rance of  national  rights,  on  one  side,  and  appetite,  skill,  knowledge, 
and  force  combined,  on  the  other,  the  likelihood  of  some  serious 
outbreak  was  not  very  doubtful  or  far  distant. 

Near  the  close  of  1837,  the  British  flag  was  again  hauled  down 
at  Canton,  and  the  superintendent  returned  to  Macao  because  he 
refused  to  superscribe  the  word  pin  upon  his  communications,  ac- 
cording to  his  instructions,  and  the  governor  declined  to  receive 
them  without  it.  In  July,  1838,  Sir  Frederick  Maitland  arrived 
in  H.  B.  M.  S.  Wellesley,  74,  and  was  almost  immediately  brought 
into  correspondence  with  the  Chinese  admiral  Kwan,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  forts  firing  upon  an  English  schooner  passing  the 
Bogue,  and  stopping  her  to  inquire  whether  he  or  any  of  his  crew 


ACTION  OF  THE  COURT  AGAINST  OPIUM. 


503 


or  women  were  in  her.  The  Wellesley  and  her  two  consorts 
were  anchored  near  the  forts,  and  the  Chinese  admiral  made  a 
full  apology  for  the  mistake,  which  had  occurred  without  his  or- 
ders ; his  conduct  in  the  whole  affair  was  very  creditable  both  to 
his  judgment  and  temper.  As  soon  as  Sir  Frederick  arrived, 
Captain  Elliot  endeavored  to  reOpen  the  correspondence  with  the 
governor  by  sending  an  open  letter  to  the  city  gates,  which  was 
received  and  taken  to  him,  but  returned  in  the  evening,  because 
it  had  not  the  required  superscription.  He  therefore  rejoined  the 
ships  of  war.  Two  or  three  friendly  communications  subsequently 
passed  between  the  two  admirals,  and  in  October,  the  Wellesley 
left  the  Chinese  waters. 

Having  now  fully  taken  the  sense  of  the  empire,  the  efforts  of 
the  supreme  government  to  suppress  the  contraband  trade  were 
much  greater  in  the  year  1838  than  ever  before,  and  indicated  a 
determination  to  do  its  utmost  to  carry  that  will  into  effect.  In 
April,  a native  named  Kwoh  Sfping,  was  publicly  strangled  at 
Macao  by  express  command  of  the  emperor,  as  a warning  to  others 
not  to  engage  in  exporting  sycee,  or  introducing  opium.  The 
execution  of  the  sentence  was  conducted  by  the  district  magis- 
trate and  sub-prefect  with  the  utmost  propriety  and  order  in  the 
presence  of  a large  crowd  of  natives  and  foreigners.  A visit  was 
paid  one  of  the  European  smuggling  schooners  near  the  factories, 
some  weeks  previous  to  this  tragical  scene,  and  three  chests  of 
opium  seized  by  the  Chinese,  and  the  hong-merchant,  who  owned 
the  house  of  L.  Just,  the  agent  of  the  opium,  was  held  responsible 
for  not  having  duly  warned  his  tenant,  and  for  not  seeing  that 
his  instructions  took  effect ; it  was  understood  he  paid  nearly  ten 
thousand  dollars  to  hush  up  the  matter.  The  number  of  the  fo- 
reign small  craft  under  English  and  American  flags  plying  up  and 
down  the  river  at  this  date  was  over  fifty,  most  of  them  engaged 
in  smuggling;  sometimes  the  government  seemed  determined  to 
exert  its  power,  and  boats  were  consequently  destroyed,  smug- 
glers seized  and  tortured,  and  the  sales  checked  ; then,  it  went  on 
again  as  briskly  as  ever.  These  boats  were  easily  caught,  for 
the  government  could  exercise  entire  control  over  its  own  sub- 
jects ; but  when  the  foreign  schooners,  heavily  armed  and  manned, 
sailed  up  and  down  the  river  delivering  the  drug,  the  revenue 
cruisers  were  afraid  to  attack  them.  In  August,  they  were  re- 
quired to  exhibit  their  passports  at  the  Rogue.  The  hong-mer- 


604 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


chants  addressed  a note  to  all  the  residents  concerning  them,  the 
close  of  which  vividly  exhibits  their  unlucky  position  as  the  “re- 
sponsible advisers  ” of  the  barbarians.  “ Lately  we  have  repeat- 
edly received  edicts  from  the  governor  and  hoppo  severely  repri- 
manding us ; and  we  have  also  written  to  you,  gentlemen  of  the 
different  nations,  several  times,  giving  you  full  information  of  the 
orders  and  regulations,  that  you  might  perfectly  obey  them,  and 
manage  accordingly  ; but  you,  gentlemen,  continue  wholly  re- 
gardless.” 

Collisions  became  more  and  more  frequent  between  the  Chinese 
and  their  rulers  in  consequence  of  the  increased  stringency  of  the 
orders  from  court.  In  September,  in  an  affray  near  Whampoa, 
between  the  military  and  villagers,  several  persons  were  killed, 
and  scores  arrested.  The  retailers  at  Canton  were  imprisoned, 
and  those  found  in  other  places  brought  there  in  chains.  In  Hupeh, 
it  was  reported  that  the  officers  had  punished  arrested  smokers, 
by  cutting  out  a portion  of  the  upper  lip  to  incapacitate  them 
from  using  the  pipe.  Still,  such  was  the  venality  of  the  officers, 
that  even  at  this  time,  the  son  of  the  governor  himself  was  en- 
gaged in  the  traffic,  and  many  of  the  underlings  only  seized  the 
drug  from  the  smuggling-boats  to  retail  it  themselves.  The  me- 
morial of  Hwang  Tsioh-tsz’  to  the  throne,  advising  the  penalty  of 
death,  was  promulgated  in  Canton  about  the  same  time  ; and  the 
emperor’s  rescript,  requiring  “ the  commanders-in-chief  in  the 
provinces  of  Moukden  (Shingking),  Kirin,  and  Tsi-tsi-har,  and  the 
governors  and  lieutenant-governors  of  all  the  hither  provinces,  to 
express,  in  the  form  of  regulations,  their  own  several  views  on 
the  subject,  and  lay  the  same  speedily  before  the  throne,”  urged 
to  stronger  measures.  This  memorial  advocated  the  strongest 
penalties.  In  a rapid  survey  of  the  ill  effects  of  the  use  of  the 
drug,  he  acknowledges  that  it  had  extended  to  Manchuria,  and 
pervaded  all  ranks  of  official  and  humble  life.  The  efflux  of  sil- 
ver “ into  the  insatiate  depths  of  transmarine  regions,”  had  caused 
the  rate  of  exchange  for  cash  to  rise,  until  it  was  difficult  to  carry 
on  the  business  of  government.  He  then  reviews  the  different 
plans  proposed  for  checking  the  opium  trade,  the  cause  of  all  this 
evil,  such  as  guarding  the  ports,  stopping  the  entire  foreign  trade, 
arresting  the  smugglers,  shutting  up  the  shops,  and  lastly,  en- 
couraging the  home  growth.  He  confesses  that  the  bribes  paid 
the  coastguard  service  and  the  maritime  officers,  are  so  great  as 


TRADE  STOPPED  AT  CANTON. 


505 

entirely  to  prevent  their  vigilance ; and  that  the  home-prepared 
drug  does  not  yield  the  same  stimulus  as  the  foreign  article.  As 
a last  resort,  he  proposes  to  increase  the  penalties  upon  the  con- 
sumers, laying  all  the  blame  upon  them,  and  advises  death  to  be 
awarded  all  who  smoke  opium  after  a year’s  warning  has  been 
given  them.  The  well  known  subdivision  of  responsibility  was 
to  be  made  doubly  strong  by  requiring  bonds  of  every  tything 
and  hundred,  that  there  were  no  smokers  within  their  limits. 
Officers  found  guilty  were  not  only  to  be  executed,  but  their  chil- 
dren deprived  of  the  privilege  of  competing  at  the  public  examina- 
tion. One  feels  a degree  of  sympathy  for  the  helpless  condition 
of  officers  and  statesmen  sincerely  desirous  of  doing  their  country 
service,  and  yet  so  sadly  ignorant  of  the  only  effectual  preventa- 
tive. They  might  as  well  have  tried  to  concert  a measure  to  stop 
the  Yellow  river  in  its  impetuous  flow,  as  to  check  the  opium 
trade  by  laws  and  penalties.  Nothing  but  the  Gospel  and  its  in- 
fluences could  help  them,  and  these  they  really  know  nothing  of, 
though  they  forbade  them  as  far  as  they  did  know  them ; but 
foreigners  did  not  dare  to  violate  their  prohibitions  on  this  head. 
“China  was  shut.” 

The  contraband  traffic  on  the  river  increased  to  such  a degree 
during  the  year  1838,  that  the  whole  foreign  trade  seemed  likely 
to  be  involved,  when  it  suddenly  took  another  direction.  On  the 
3d  of  December,  twelve  small  boxes  containing  about  two  peculs 
of  opium,  were  seized,  while  landing,  and  the  coolies  carried  into 
the  city.  They  declared  that  they  had  been  sent  to  Whampoa 
by  Mr.  Innes,  a British  merchant,  to  obtain  the  opium  from  an 
American  ship  consigned  to  Mr.  Talbot.  The  governor  ordered 
the  hong-merchants  to  expel  these  two  gentlemen  and  the  ship 
within  three  days,  on  the  garbled  testimony  of  the  two  coolies. 
Mr.  Talbot  sent  in  a communication,  stating,  that  neither  the  ship 
nor  himself  had  anything  to  do  with  the  opium,  and  obtained  a 
reversal  of  the  order  to  leave.  The  hong-merchants  were  justly 
irritated  at  this  flagrant  violation  of  law,  and  informed  the  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce,  that  they  would  not  rent  their  houses  to  any 
who  would  not  give  a bond  to  abstain  from  such  proceedings,  and 
refusing  to  open  the  trade  until  they  were  given ; and  further- 
more declared  their  intention  to  pull  Mr.  Innes’  house  down  if  lie 
refused  to  depart.  The  Chamber  of  Commerce  protested,  stating, 
“ that  the  inviolability  of  their  personal  dwellings  >vas  a point 

von.  ii.  23 


506 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


imperatively  necessary  ” for  their  security  ; the  liong-merchants 
then  resorted  to  entreaty,  stating  their  difficult  position  between 
their  own  rulers  on  one  side,  who  held  them  responsible  for  exe- 
cuting their  orders,  and  the  foreigners  on  the  other,  over  whom 
they  had  little  or  no  power.  The  Chamber  could  only  express 
its  regret  at  the  unjust  punishment  inflicted  on  one  of  their  num- 
ber Punhoyqua  for  this,  and  reassert  its  inability  to  control  the 
acts  of  any  foreigner,  or  give  them  security  respecting  the  small 
craft  on  the  river.  The  hesitation  of  the  Chinese  rulers  in  not  im- 
mediately arresting  Mr.  Innes  for  his  violation  of  the  laws,  seems 
to  have  been  prompted  by  a dislike  of  personally  encountering  the 
foreigners  ; for  with  full  power  in  their  hands,  since  one  procla- 
mation would  probably  have  sufficed  to  bring  down  the  whole 
populace  upon  their  enemies,  to  the  entire  destruction  of  factories 
and  residents,  still  they  forbore,  and  run  the  risk  of  official  de- 
gradation and  banishment,  rather  than  employ  all  means  in  their 
reach. 

The  governor,  as  if  at  a loss  what  to  do  next,  resolved  to  show 
foreigners  what  consequences  befel  natives  who  dealt  in  opium  ; 
and  while  Mr.  Innes  still  remained  in  Canton,  he  sent  an  officer 
with  a small  party  of  fifteen  to  execute  Ho  Laukin,  a convicted 
dealer,  in  front  of  the  factories.  The  officer  was  proceeding  to 
carry  his  orders  into  effect  near  the  American  flag-staff,  when 
the  foreigners  sallied  out,  pushed  down  the  bamboo  tent  he  was 
raising,  trampling  on  it,  and  telling  him  in  very  loud  tones  not  to 
execute  the  man  there.  Quite  unprepared  for  this  opposition,  he 
hastily  gathered  up  his  implements,  and  went  into  a neighboring 
street,  where  the  man  was  strangled.  Meanwhile,  a large  crowd 
of  idlers  collected  to  see  these  extraordinary  proceedings,  whom 
the  foreigners  endeavored  to  drive  away,  supposing  that  a little 
determination  would  soon  scatter  them.  Blows,  however,  were 
returned,  and  the  foreigners  speedily  driven  into  their  factories, 
and  the  doors  shut ; the  crowd  had  now  become  a mob,  and  under 
the  impression  that  two  natives  had  been  seized,  they  began  to 
batter  the  fronts  and  break  the  windows  with  stones  and  brickbats. 
They  had  had  possession  of  the  square  about  three  hours,  and  the 
danger  was  becoming  imminent,  when  the  district  magistrate  came 
into  it,  with  three  or  four  other  officers,  attended  by  a small  body 
of  police.  Stepping  out  of  his  sedan,  he  waved  his  hand  over  the 
crowd,  the  lictors  pouncing  upon  three  or  four  of  the  most  active, 


RIOT  AT  CANTON. 


507 


whom  they  began  to  chastise  upon  the  spot,  and  the  storm  was 
quelled.  About  twenty  soldiers  with  him,  armed  with  swords 
and  spears,  took  their  stand  in  a conspicuous  quarter ; the  ma- 
gistrate and  his  retinue  seated  themselves,  leaving  the  hong-mer- 
chants and  the  police  to  disperse  the  crowd.  The  foreigners  were 
also  assured  that  all  should  be  kept  quiet  during  the  night,  but 
not  a word  was  said  to  them  regarding  their  conduct  in  interfer- 
ing  with  the  execution,  or  their  folly  in  bringing  this  danger 
upon  themseTves.  This  occurrence  tended  to  impress,  both  the 
government  and  people  with  contempt  and  hatred  for  foreigners 
and  their  characters,  fear  of  their  designs,  and  the  necessity  re- 
straining them.  The  majority  of  them  were  engaged  in  the  opium 
trade,  and  all  stood  before  the  empire  as  violators  of  the  laws, 
while  the  people  themselves  suffered  the  dreadful  penalty. 

The  Chamber  of  Commerce,  in  an  address  to  the  governor, 
expressed  its  indignation  at  the  square  being  turned  into  a public 
place  of  execution,  “ for  it  belonged  to  the  houses  rented  by  fo- 
reigners,” and  was  “a  direct  violation  of  established  tenures.” 
“ Their  minds,”  the  writers  said,  “ were  greatly  excited  at  hear- 
ing what  was  to  be  done  ; they  assembled  in  the  square,  and  there 
plainly  but  peacefully  pointed  out  to  the  officer  in  charge  that 
such  an  occurrence  could  not  be  tolerated ; no  violence  of  any 
sort  was  committed,  and  the  officers  of  government  desisted  in 
their  preparations,  and  withdrew.”  The  subsequent  riot  was  at- 
tributed entirely  to  the  populace,  and  the  assertion  is  made  that 
the  foreigners  withdrew  into  their  factories  “ on  the  assurance  that 
the  police  should  instantly  be  sent  for,  and  from  the  most  earnest 
wish  to  prevent  the  fatal  consequences  which  might  have  arisen 
from  any  conflict  between  the  foreigners  and  the  populace.”  The 
governor  replied  with  dignity.  After  stating  the  grounds  of  the 
condemnation  of  Ho  Laukin,  he  proceeds : “ I,  the  governor,  with 
the  lieutenant-governor,  having  taken  into  consideration  that  his 
penalty  of  death  was  the  result  of  the  pernicious  introduction  of 
opium  into  Canton  by  depraved  foreigners,  commanded  that  he 
should  be  led  out  to  the  ground  of  the  Thirteen  Factories,  adjoin- 
ing the  foreign  residences,  and  there  be  executed.  Thus  it  was 
designed  to  strike  observation,  to  arouse  careful  reflection,  and  to 
cause  all  to  admonish  and  warn  one  another;  in  the  hope  that  a 
trembling  obedience  to  the  laws  and  statutes  of  the  celestial  em- 
pire might  be  produced,  that  the  good  portion  of  the  foreign  com- 


508 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


munity  might  thereby  preserve  for  ever  their  commercial  inter, 
course,  and  that  the  depraved  portion  might  be  prevented  from 
pursuing  their  evil  courses.  These  foreigners,  though  born  and 
brought  up  beyond  the  pale  of  civilization,  have  yet  human  hearts. 
How  should  they  then  have  been  impressed  with  awe,  and  dread, 
and  self-conviction  ! Can  they  yet  put  pen  to  paper  to  draw  up 
such  insane  winnings  ?”  He  adds  that  he  intends  to  execute  all 
such  criminals  in  that  place,  and  properly  asserts  the  same  control 
over  it  as  any  other  place  in  the  province. 

Captain  Elliot  arrived  in  Canton  the  same  evening,  followed  by 
armed  boats  from  Whampoa.  At  a general  meeting,  he  freely 
expressed  his  conviction  of  the  cause  of  these  untoward  events  in 
the  smuggling  traffic  on  the  river,  and  declared  his  intention  of 
ordering  all  the  British-owned  vessels  to  leave  it  within  three 
days ; and  expressed  the  hope  that  the  further  step  of  placing 
himself  in  communication  with  the  provincial  authorities  to  obtain 
their  cooperation  to  drive  them  out,  would  be  prevented  by  the 
speedy  departure  of  every  vessel  so  engaged.  His  injunctions 
and  intreaties  to  his  own  countrymen  were,  however,  equally  un- 
availing, and  he  accordingly  addressed  the  governor,  stating  his 
wish  to  cooperate  in  driving  them  out.  In  a public  notice,  Cap- 
tain Elliot  remarked  that  “ this  course  of  traffic  was  rapidly 
staining  the  British  character  with  deep  disgrace,”  and  exposing 
the  regular  commerce  to  imminent  jeopardy  ; and  that  he  meant 
to  shrink  from  no  responsibility  in  drawing  it  to  a conclusion 
The  governor,  as  was  expected,  praised  the  superintendent  for  his 
offer,  but  left  him  to  do  the  whole  work ; remarking,  in  that  pecu- 
liar strain  of  Chinese  conceit,  which  so  effectually  forestalls  our 
sympathy  for  their  difficulties,  “ that  it  may  well  be  conceived 
that  these  boats  trouble  me  not  one  iota — as  if  all  he  had  to  do 
was  to  arise  in  his  majesty,  and  they  were  gone.  The  boats  how- 
ever gradually  left  the  river  during  the  month.  Mr.  Innes  retired 
to  Macao,  and  the  regular  trade  was  resumed  at  the  beginning  of 
January. 

This  procedure  brought  down  a torrent  of  abuse  upon  Captain 
Elliot  from  the  English  newspapers,  the  writers  calling  him  by 
many  hard  names,  ridiculing  him  as  a tidewaiter  of  the  Chinese 
custom-house,  and  aiding  the  cowardly  authorities  to  carry  their 
orders  into  effect,  thereby  staining  the  honor  of  her  majesty’s 
commission.  Although  it  would  be  difficult  to  draw  aline  between 


LIN  APPOINTED  TO  SUPPRESS  THE  TRAFFIC. 


509 


the  heinousness  of  the  opium  trade  inside  of  the  Bogue,  and  ita 
harmlessness  beyond  that  limit,  or  to  see  wherein  one  branch  was 
so  much  worse,  per  se , than  the  other ; still  there  were  sufficient 
grounds  for  such  action  as  would  show  the  Chinese  government 
that  British  power  would  not  protect  British  subjects  in  violating 
the  laws  of  China.  The  position  of  the  Chinese  rulers  ill  fitted 
them  for  learning  this  nice  distinction  ; they  were  like  a man  firing 
at  an  enemy  through  a fog, — a fog  rendered  thicker,  too,  by  their 
own  ignorance  and  absurd  assumptions. 

At  this  period,  the  supreme  government  had  taken  its  course  of 
action.  Reports  had  been  received  from  the  chief  authorities  in 
the  provinces,  almost  unanimously  recommending  increased  strin- 
gency to  abolish  the  traffic  as  the  only  likely  course  to  succeed. 
History,  so  far  as  we  know,  does  not  record  a similar  mode  of  an 
arbitrary,  despotic,  pagan  government,  taking  the  public  sentiment 
of  its  own  people  before  adopting  a doubtful  line  of  conduct.  It 
was  a far  more  momentous  and  difficult  question  in  fact  than  even 
the  Cabinet  deemed  it  to  be,  while  their  conceited  prejudices  inca- 
pacitated them  from  dealing  with  it  prudently  or  successfully. 
Hu  Nai-tsi  was  dismissed  for  proposing  legalization,  and  three 
princes  of  the  blood  degraded  for  smoking  opium  ; and  arrests, 
fines,  tortures,  imprisonments,  and  executions  were  frequent  in  the 
provinces  on  the  same  grounds,  all  showing  the  determination  to 
eradicate  it.  The  governor  of  Hukwang,  Lin  Tseh-su,  was  ap- 
pointed commissioner  to  proceed  to  Canton  with  unlimited  powers 
to  stop  the  traffic.  The  trade  was  at  this  time  almost  suspended, 
the  deliveries  being  small  and  at  losing  prices.  The  authorities 
admonished  smokers  to  reform,  and  sent  the  police  to  search  houses 
for  the  drug  and  pipes ; but  in  Canton,  the  people  erected  gates 
across  the  streets  in  order  first  to  see  that  the  police  had  no  opium 
secreted  on  their  persons.  Many  underlings  were  convicted  and 
summarily  punished,  and  on  the  26th  of  February,  Fung  A-ngan 
was  strangled  in  front  of  the  factories  for  his  connexion  with 
opium,  and  participation  in  the  affray  at  Whampoa  some  months 
before ; the  foreign  flags,  English,  American,  Dutch,  and  French, 
were  all  hauled  down  in  consequence.  The  entire  stoppage  of 
all  trade  was  threatened,  and  the  governor  urged  upon  foreigners 
the  immediate  removal  of  all  opium  ships  from  Chinese  waters. 

On  the  10th  of  March,  commissioner  Lin  arrived  in  Canton  to 
enter  upon  the  difficult  duties  of  his  office.  The  emperor  sent 


510 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


him  to  Canton  to  inquire  and  act  so  as  thoroughly  to  remove  the 
source  of  the  evil,  for,  says  he,  “ if  the  source  of  the  evil  be  not 
clearly  ascertained,  how  can  we  hope  that  the  stream  of  perni- 
cious consequences  shall  be  stayed  ? It  is  our  full  hope  that  the 
long  indulged  habit  will  be  for  ever  laid  aside,  and  every  root  and 
germ  of  it  entirely  eradicated  ; we  would  fain  think  that  our 
ministers  will  be  enabled  to  substantiate  our  wishes,  and  so  remove 
from  China  the  dire  calamity.”  It  was  reported  in  Canton  that 
the  monarch,  when  recounting  the  evils  which  had  long  afflicted 
his  people  by  means  of  opium,  paused  and  wept,  and  turning  to 
Lin,  said,  “ How,  alas  ! can  I die  and  go  to  the  shades  of  my  im- 
perial father  and  ancestors,  until  these  direful  evils  are  removed  !” 
Such  was  the  chief  purpose  of  this  movement  on  the  part  of  the 
Chinese  government,  and  Lin  was  invested  with  the  fullest  powers 
ever  conferred  on  a subject.  Although  long  experience  of  the 
ineffectiveness  of  Chinese  edicts  generally  lead  those  residing  in 
the  country  to  disregard  them  as  mere  verbiage,  still  to  say  that 
they  are  all  insincere  and  formal  because  they  are  ineffectual,  is 
to  misjudge  and  pervert  the  emotions  of  common  humanity.  We 
sympathize  with  the  emperor  and  his  ministers  in  their  endeavors 
to  stay  the  progress  of  this  evil ; yet  when  all  the  powerful  re- 
straints and  sanctions  of  the  law  of  God,  and  a full  knowledge  of 
their  disastrous  effects,  have  not  been  able  to  stay  the  use  of  ardent 
spirits  in  Christian  lands,  how  much  less  were  the  chances  of 
success  in  this  case ! Lin  appears  to  have  been  well  fitted  for 
the  mission  ; and  if  he  had  been  half  as  enlightened  as  he  was 
sincere,  he  would  perhaps  have  averted  the  war  which  followed, 
and  been  convinced  that  legalization  was  the  most  judicious  step 
he  could  recommend. 

For  a week  after  his  arrival,  the  commissioner  was  busy  mak- 
ing inquiries,  and  nothing  was  publicly  heard  from  him ; while 
every  one,  natives  and  foreigners,  anxiously  watched  his  move- 
ments. Captain  Elliot  wrote  to  the  governor,  desiring  a “ calm- 
ing declaration”  from  his  excellency  respecting  the  execution  be- 
fore the  factories ; but  it  is  probable  he  received  no  answer,  and 
wishing  to  dispatch  the  sloop-of-war  Larne,  he  left  the  city  before 
Lin  published  any  notice.  On  the  18th,  Lin’s  first  proclamations 
were  issued  to  the  hong-merchants  and  foreigners ; that  to  the 
latter  required  them  to  deliver  up  every  particle  of  opium  in  the 
6tore-ships,  and  to  give  bonds  that  they  would  bring  no  more,  on 


UN  DEMANDS  THE  OPIUM. 


511 


penalty  of  death.  The  poor  hong-merchants  were,  as  usual,  in- 
structed  regarding  their  responsibility  to  admonish  the  foreigners, 
and  furthermore  were  strictly  charged  to  procure  these  bonds,  or 
they  would  be  made  examples  of.  Three  days  were  allowed  for 
the  opium  to  be  given  up  and  the  bonds  made  out,  on  the  last  of 
which,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  met.  The  hoppo  had  already 
issued  orders  detaining  all  foreigners  in  Canton,  in  fact  making 
them  prisoners  in  their  own  houses  ; communication  with  the 
shipping  was  suspended,  troops  were  assembled  about  the  factories, 
and  armed  cruisers  stationed  on  the  river.  The  Chamber  of 
Commerce  wrote  to  the  hong-merchants,  through  their  chairman, 
W.  S.  Wetmore,  stating  that  they  would  send  a definite  reply  in 
four  days,  and  adding,  “that  there  is  an  almost  unanimous  feel- 
ing in  the  community  of  the  absolute  necessity  of  the  foreign 
residents  of  Canton  having  no  connexion  with  the  opium  traffic.” 
This  paper  was  taken  to  the  commissioner,  and  about  lOo’clock 
p.  M.,  the  hong-merchants  again  met  the  Chamber,  and  told  them 
that  if  some  opium  was  not  given  up,  two  of  their  number  would 
be  beheaded  in  the  morning.  The  merchants  present,  including 
British,  Parsees,  Americans,  and  others,  acting  as  individuals, 
then  subscribed  1037  chests  to  be  tendered  to  the  commissioner, 
in  compliance  with  his  demand  ; but  the  hong-merchants  returned 
next  morning,  saying  that  this  amount  was  insufficient.  In  the 
afternoon,  Lin  sent  an  invitation  to  Mr.  Dent,  one  of  the  leading 
English  merchants,  to  meet  him  at  the  city  gates ; who  expressed 
his  willingness  to  go  if  the  commissioner  would  give  him  a safe- 
warrant,  guaranteeing  his  return  within  a day.  The  hong-mer- 
chants returned  without  him  ; and  the  next  morning  two  of  them, 
Howqua  and  Mowqua,  came  again  to  his  house  with  chains  upon 
their  necks,  having  been  sent  with  an  express  order  for  him  to 
appear.  They  repaired  to  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  then  assem- 
bled, but  all  soon  returned  to  Mr.  Dent’s  house,  where  an  animated 
debate  took  place,  which  resulted  in  the  unanimous  decision  on 
the  part  of  the  foreign  residents  that  he  should  not  go  into  the  city 
without  the  safe-warrant.  The  prefect  and  some  other  officers 
being  in  waiting  at  the  assembly-hall,  a deputation  of  foreigners 
was  sent  to  state  to  them  the  reasons  why  Mr.  Dent  did  not  obey. 
The  prefect  immediately  sent  three  officers  to  Mr.  Dent’s  house 
to  again  command  him  to  go  into  the  city ; he  replied  that  no 
resistance  would  be  made  if  they  took  him  by  force,  nor  was  any 


512 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


disrespect  or  disobedience  intended,  but  he  would  not  go  without 
a sealed  safe-warrant ; this  the  officers  said  they  could  not  obtain, 
nor  did  they  dare  to  ask  for  it. 

His  partner,  Mr.  Inglis,  then  proposed  that  himself  and  three 
other  gentlemen,  Messrs.  Thom,  Fearon,  and  Slade,  should  go 
into  the  city  to  state  the  grounds  of  his  hesitation.  This  was  in- 
stantly acceded  to,  and  they  were  conducted  to  a large  temple  in- 
side the  walls,  where  the  prefect  had  already  arrived,  and  four 
other  officers  soon  made  their  appearance.  Mr.  Thom  then  stated 
to  the  judicial  commissioner,  the  ground  of  Mr.  Dent’s  refusal, 
and  their  fears  that  the  yumchai  (i.  e.  imperial  commissioner) 
meant  to  detain  him  as  a hostage  until  he  had  delivered  up  all  the 
opium.  This  supposition  was  doubtless  well  grounded,  for  Lin 
had  already  engaged  two  native  cooks  formerly  employed  in  the 
factories,  and  the  imprisonment  of  Mr.  Flint  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances was  not  forgotten.  The  reason  why  he  wished  for 
Mr.  Dent  in  particular,  in  addition  to  his  prominence  as  a mer- 
chant,  was  that  he  alone  remained  of  the  thirteen  foreigners  pre 
viously  ordered  out  of  the  country,  all  the  others  having,  as  it 
happened,  left  the  city.  The  judge  declared  that  if  Mr.  Dent 
was  still  contumacious,  he  should  be  dragged  out  of  his  house  by 
force,  though  he  at  the  same  time  promised  he  should  return  un- 
harmed. This  party  returned  about  9 o’clock,  r.  m.,  and  near 
midnight  the  hong-merchants  were  again  at  Mr.  Dent’s  house 
urging  his  compliance.  It  was  suggested  to  Howqua,  that  as  the 
next  day  was  the  Sabbath,  in  which  foreigners  did  no  business, 
he  had  better  defer  any  further  steps  till  Monday.  This  propo- 
sition was  readily  acceded  to,  and  the  whole  party  present  sepa- 
rated for  the  night. 

During  these  proceedings  at  Canton,  Captain  Elliot  was  issuing 
orders  at  Macao.  On  the  22d,  he  sent  a note  to  the  governor, 
through  the  sub-prefect  (which  probably  never  reached  him), 
asking  him  if  he  meant  to  make  war  upon  English  ships  and  sub- 
jects, and  expressing  his  readiness  to  meet  the  Chinese  officers, 
and  use  “ his  sincere  efforts  to  fulfil  the  pleasure  of  the  great 
emperor  as  soon  as  it  was  made  known  to  him.”  However  well 
such  expressions  as  this  might  be  understood  by  those  acquainted 
with  our  usages,  still  the  Chinese  could  hardly  draw  any  other 
conclusion  than  that  he  had  the  power  as  well  as  the  inclination 
to  put  down  the  opium  trade,  which  he  certainly  could  not  do ; 


UN's  EFFORT  TO  OET  MR.  DENT. 


513 


and  this  remark,  therefore,  tended  to  deceive  them.  This  note  to 
the  governor  was  followed  by  a letter  .'c  Captain  Blake  of  the 
Larne  requesting  his  assistance  in  defending  British  property  and 
life ; and  by  a circular  to  all  British  ships,  opium  and  others,  to 
proceed  to  Hongkong,  and  prepare  themselves  to  resist  every  act 
of  aggression  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese.  The  next  day  he  is- 
sued a second  circular  to  British  subjects,  detailing  the  reasons 
which  compelled  him  to  withdraw  all  confidence  in  the  “justice 
and  moderation  of  the  provincial  government,”  and  demand  pass- 
ports for  all  his  countrymen  who  wished  to  leave  Canton,  and 
counselling  every  one  to  make  preparations  to  remove  on  board 
ship.  This  circular  was  written  under  some  excitement,  but  no 
one  doubted  the  propriety  of  his  going  to  Canton  at  all  hazards, 
though  personal  danger  was  not  to  be  apprehended  at  this  time. 
He  arrived  there  about  sunset,  Sunday  evening,  dressed  in  naval 
uniform,  and  closely  attended  by  cruisers  watching  his  movements. 
The  British  flag  was  hoisted,  and  Captain  Elliot  conducted  Mr. 
Dent  to  the  Consulate  in  the  most  conspicuous  manner,  where, 
having  summoned  a public  meeting,  he  read  his  notice  of  the 
previous  day.  This  proceeding  was  interpreted  by  the  Chinese 
as  an  effort  to  induce  foreigners  to  abscond,  and  was  stated  as  the 
reason  for  withdrawing  the  servants.  Captain  Elliot,  however, 
told  the  hong-merchants  to  inform  the  commissioner  that  he  was 
willing  to  let  Mr.  Dent  go  into  the  city,  if  he  could  accompany 
him. 

His  coming  up  the  river  had  excited  the  apprehensions  of  the 
Chinese,  that  he  meant  to  force  his  way  out  again,  and  orders 
were  issued  to  close  every  pass  around  the  factories  ; the  act  of 
escorting  Mr.  Dent  had  increased  this  apprehension,  for  it  was 
virtually  taking  him  out  of  the  commissioner’s  hands  ; and  as  he 
said,  “ almost  had  the  hare  escaped,  the  wolf  run  off,”  and  fur- 
ther orders  were  therefore  given  to  place  a triple  cordon  of  armed 
boats  before  the  factories,  to  command  every  native  servant  to 
leave  them,  and  station  guards  before  the  door  of  each  hong,  and 
on  the  roofs  of  the  adjoining  houses.  By  nine  o’clock,  not  a na- 
tive was  left,  and  the  foreigners,  about  275  in  number,  were 
their  only  inmates.  Patrols,  sentinels  and  officers,  hastening 
hither  and  thither,  with  the  blowing  of  trumpets  and  beating  of 
gongs,  added  confusion  to  the  darkness  and  gloom  of  the  night. 
Had  there  been  a little  more  excitement,  or  had  the  foreigners 
23* 


514 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


made  any  resistance,  the  factories  might  have  been  pillaged,  and 
their  inmates  indiscriminately  slaughtered ; and  Lin  took  credit 
to  himself  that  he  did  not  let  loose  the  mob  upon  those  who,  in  his 
view,  so  contumaciously  resisted  his  commands  ; and  from  one 
expression  in  his  edict  “ about  calling  upon  the  able-bodied  of  the 
people,”  it  is  possible  that  he  had  thought  of  such  a step. 

On  the  25th,  most  of  the  foreign  merchants  of  all  nations 
signed  a paper  pledging  themselves  “ not  to  deal  in  opium,  nor  to 
attempt  to  introduce  it  into  the  Chinese  empire:”  how  many  of 
the  individuals  subsequently  broke  this  pledge  on  the  ground  that 
it  was  forced  from  them,  cannot  be  stated,  but  part  of  the  firms 
which  signed  it  afterwards  actively  engaged  in  the  trade.  Capt. 
Elliot  applied  for  passports  for  himself  and  countrymen,  and  re- 
quested the  return  of  the  servants,  avoiding  all  mention  of  the 
cause  of  these  stringent  proceedings ; this  request,  was  not,  so 
the  prefect’s  reply  affirmed,  to  be  granted  till  the  opium  was  sur- 
rendered. No  native  was  allowed  to  bring  food  or  water  to 
them  ; letters  could  not  be  sent  to  Whampoa  or  Macao,  except  at 
imminent  risk,  and  one  boatman  lost  his  life  for  attempting  it, 
though  various  successful  expedients  were  soon  devised  for  trans- 
mitting them  : the  confinement  was  complete,  and  had  been  ef- 
fected without  the  least  harm.  The  heavy  punishment  which 
had  fallen  on  Kwoh  Sfping,  Ho  Laukin,  and  Fung  A-ngan  had 
come  nearer  to  the  agents  of  the  traffic  ; but  no  arm  was  lifted 
against  them  personally.  The  same  mode  of  pressure  the  Chi- 
nese were  wont  to  practise  upon  their  own  people,  was  now  re- 
sorted to  in  order  to  compel  the  delivery  of  all  the  opium. 

The  commissioner  next  issued  an  exhortation  to  the  foreigners, 
urging  upon  them  the  delivery  of  the  drug  on  four  grounds,  viz., 
because  they  were  men  and  had  reason  ; because  the  laws  forbade 
its  use,  under  very  severe  penalties ; because  they  should  have 
feelings  for  those  who  suffered  from  using  it;  and  because  of  their 
present  duress,  from  which  they  would  then  be  released.  This 
paper,  as  were  all  those  issued  by  Lin,  was  characterized  by  a 
vigor  of  expression  and  cogency  of  reasoning  quite  unusual  in 
Chinese  state  papers,  but  betraying  the  same  arrogance  and  ig- 
norance which  had  misled  his  predecessors.  One  extract  will 
suffice.  Under  the  first  reason  why  the  opium  should  be  deliv- 
ered up,  he  says,  that  otherwise  the  retribution  of  heaven  will 
follow  them,  and  cites  some  cases  to  prove  it. 


CAPT.  ELLIOT  SURRENDERS  THE  OTIUM. 


515 


“ Now,  our  great  emperor,  being  actuated  by  the  exalted  virtue  of 
heaven  itself,  wishes  to  cut  off  this  deluge  of  opium,  which  is  the  plainest 
proof  that  such  is  the  intention  of  high  heaven  ! It  is  then  a traffic  on 
which  heaven  looks  with  disgust,  and  who  is  he  that  may  oppose  its 
will  ? Thus  in  the  instance  of  the  English  chief  Robarts,  who  violated 
our  laws ; he  endeavored  to  get  possession  of  Macao  by  force,  and  at  Ma- 
cao he  died ! Again  in  1834,  Lord  Napier  bolted  through  the  Bocca  Ti- 
gris, but  being  overwhelmed  with  grief  and  fear  he  almost  immediately 
died ; and  Morrison,  who  had  been  darkly  deceiving  him,  died  that  very 
year  also ! Besides  these,  every  one  of  those  who  have  not  observed  our 
laws,  have  either  been  overtaken  with  the  judgments  of  heaven  on  re- 
turning to  their  country,  or  silently  cut  off  ere  they  could  return  thither. 
Thus  then,  it  is  manifest  that  the  heavenly  dynasty  may  not  be  opposed  !” 

Two  communications  to  Captain  Elliot,  from  Lin  through  the 
prefect  and  district  magistrates,  accompanied  this  exhortation, 
stating  his  view  of  the  superintendent’s  conduct,  in  contuma- 
ciously resisting  his  commands,  and  requiring  him  to  give  up 
the  opium.  For  once,  these  commands  were  obeyed,  and  after 
intimating  his  readiness  to  comply,  Capt.  Elliot  issued  a circular, 
on  the  27th  of  March,  which  from  its  important  results  is  quoted 
entire. 

“ I,  Charles  Elliot,  chief  superintendent  of  the  trade  of  British  subjects 
in  China,  presently  forcibly  detained  by  the  provincial  government,  to- 
gether with  all  the  merchants  of  my  own  and  the  other  foreign  nations 
settled  here,  without  supplies  of  food,  deprived  of  our  servants,  and  cut 
off  from  all  intercourse  with  our  respective  countries  (notwithstanding 
my  own  official  demand  to  be  set  at  liberty  that  I might  act  without  re- 
straint), have  now  received  the  commands  of  the  high  commissioner,  is- 
sued directly  to  me  under  the  seals  of  the  honorable  officers,  to  deliver 
into  his  hand  all  the  opium  held  by  the  people  of  my  own  country.  Now 
I,  the  said  chief  superintendent,  thus  constrained  by  paramount  motives 
affecting  the  safety  of  the  lives  and  liberty  of  all  the  foreigners  here 
present  in  Canton,  and  by  other  very  weighty  causes,  do  hereby,  in  the 
name  and  on  the  behalf  of  her  Britannic  majesty’s  government,  enjoin  and 
require  all  her  majesty’s  subjects  now  present  in  Canton,  forthwith  to 
make  a surrender  to  me  for  the  service  of  her  said  majesty’s  government, 
to  be  delivered  over  to  the  government  of  China,  of  all  the  opium  under 
their  respective  control : and  to  hold  the  British  ships  and  vessels  en- 
gaged in  the  opium  trade  subject  to  my  immediate  direction : and  to  for- 
ward me  without  delay  a sealed  list  of  all  the  British  owned  opium  in 
their  respective  possession.  And  I,  the  said  chief  superintendent,  do  now 
in  the  most  full  and  unreserved  manner,  hold  myself  responsible  for,  and 


516 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


on  the  behalf  of  her  Britannic  majesty’s  government,  to  all  and  each  of 
her  majesty’s  subjects  surrendering  the  said  British  owned  op'um  into 
my  hands,  to  be  delivered  over  to  the  Chinese  government.  And  I,  the 
said  chief  superintendent,  do  further  especially  caution  all  her  majesty’s 
subjects  here  present  in  Canton,  owners  of  or  charged  with  the  manage- 
ment of  opium  the  property  of  British  subjects,  that  failing  the  surrender 
of  the  said  opium  into  my  hands  at  or  before  six  o’clock  this  day,  I,  the 
said  superintendent,  hereby  declare  her  majesty’s  government  wholly  free 
of  all  manner  of  responsibility  in  respect  of  the  said  British  owned  opium. 
And  it  is  specially  to  be  understood  that  proof  of  British  property  and 
value  of  all  British  owned  opium,  surrendered  to  me  agreeable  to  this  no- 
tice, shall  be  determined  upon  principles,  and  in  a manner  hereafter  to  be 
defined  by  her  majesty’s  government.” — Chi.  Rep.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  633. 

The  guarantee  offered  in  this  notice  was  deemed  sufficient  by 
the  merchants,  though  Captain  Elliot  had  no  authority  to  take 
such  a responsibility,  and  exceeded  his  powers  in  giving  it ; be- 
ing the  authorized  agent  of  the  crown,  however,  his  government 
was  responsible  for  his  acts,  though  the  notice  left  it  the  power  to 
set  its  own  price  upon  the  surrendered  property. 

At  the  time  it  was  given,  it  could  hardly  be  said  that  the  lives 
of  the  foreigners  were  in  jeopardy,  and  Lin  had  promised  to  re- 
open the  trade  as  soon  as  the  opium  was  delivered  up  and  the 
bonds  given.  What  the  other  “ very  weighty  causes”  were  must 
be  guessed,  but  the  requisition  was  promptly  answered,  and  before 
night,  20,283  chests  of  opium  had  been  surrendered  into  Captain 
Elliot’s  hands,  which  were  tendered  to  the  commissioner  on  the 
next  day.  The  market  value  of  this  property  at  the  time,  was 
not  far  from  nine  millions  of  dollars,  and  the  cost  price  nearly 
eleven  millions.  It  was  on  board  twenty-two  vessels,  and  direc- 
tions were  sent  for  them  to  anchor  near  the  Bogue,  to  await  orders 
for  its  delivery  to  the  Chinese  officers,  the  commissioner  and  the 
governor  themselves  going  down  to  superintend  the  transfer. 
These  dignitaries  were  no  doubt  greatly  astonished  at  the  success 
of  their  measures,  and  somewhat  puzzled  what  to  do  with  the 
enormous  amount  of  property  so  unexpectedly  obtained.  On  the 
2d  of  April,  the  arrangements  for  delivering  the  opium  were  com- 
pleted, and  on  the  21st  of  May,  the  whole  amount  was  safely 
stored  in  buildings  erected  for  it  near  the  Bogue.  The  authori- 
ties had  agreed  that  the  servants  should  be  allowed  to  return 
when  one-fourth  had  been  received,  which  was  done  ; but  the 
passage-boats  were  still  prohibited  when  one  half  had  been  trans- 


BONDS  REQUIRED  OF  FOREIGNERS. 


517 


ferred,  and  the  deliveries  were  stopped,  uni.,  the  commissioner 
held  to  his  word. 

When  the  guard  was  placed  about  the  factories,  no  native  came 
near  them  for  three  days,  but  on  the  29th  a supply  of  sheep,  pigs, 
poultry,  and  other  provisions,  was  “ graciously  bestowed  ” upon 
their  inmates,  most  of  whom  refused  them  as  gifts,  which  im- 
pressed Lin  with  the  belief  that  they  were  not  actually  suffering 
for  food.  Three  of  the  four  streets  leading  into  the  square  were 
blocked  up,  and  the  pleasure-boats  hauled  ashore,  both  being  in- 
tended as  precautionary  measures  against  their  escape. 

One  half  of  the  opium  having  been  delivered,  a few  of  the 
schooners  were  allowed  to  run,  and  on  the  5th  of  May,  the  guards 
and  boats  were  removed,  and  communication  resumed  with  the 
shipping.  Sixteen  persons,  English,  Americans,  and  Parsees, 
named  as  principal  agents  in  the  opium  trade,  were  ordered  to 
leave  the  country  and  never  return.  On  the  24th,  Captain  Elliot 
left  Canton,  accompanied  by  the  ten  British  subjects  mentioned 
in  the  list  of  sixteen,  having  previously  issued  an  injunction  that 
no  British  ships  should  enter  the  port,  nor  any  British  subject  stay 
in  Canton,  on  the  ground  that  both  life  and  property  were  in- 
secure ; there  were,  however,  no  serious  apprehensions  felt  by 
other  foreigners  remaining  there  ; and  the  propriety  of  the  order 
was  questioned  by  those  who  were  serious  sufferers  from  its  ac- 
tion. 

This  success  in  getting  the  opium,  encouraged  Lin  to  demand 
the  bond,  but  although  the  captains  of  most  of  the  ships  signed  it 
when  the  port  was  first  opened,  it  was  not  required  long  after. 
The  British  merchants  at  Canton  prepared  a memorial  to  the 
foreign  secretary  of  their  government,  recapitulating  the  aggres- 
sive acts  of  the  Chinese  government  in  stopping  the  legal  trade, 
detaining  all  foreigners  in  Canton  until  the  opium  was  surrendered, 
and  requiring  them  to  sign  a bond  not  to  bring  it  again,  which  in- 
volved their  responsibility  over  those  whom  they  could  not  con- 
trol ; but  nothing  was  said  in  it  of  the  causes  of  these  acts  of  ag- 
gression. Its  burden  was,  however,  to  urge  the  government  to 
issue  an  immediate  notice  of  its  intentions  respecting  the  pledge 
given  them  by  the  superintendent  in  his  notice  demanding  the 
opium  ; and  their  concern  on  this  head  was  not  premature,  for  the 
delay  in  doing  so  was  so  serious  to  the  Parsees  in  Bombay,  that 
many  were  ruined,  and  a few  committed  suicide.  This  plan  of 


5i8 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


requiring  a bond  was  in  accordance  with  Chinese  notions  of  re- 
sponsibility, and  the  commissioner,  ignorant  of  the  ideas  of  fo- 
reigners in  such  matters,  thought  it  the  surest  mode  of  attaining 
his  end,  the  bonds  heretofore  given  by  the  hong-merchants  being 
utterly  futile. 

Lin  referred  to  Peking  for  orders  concerning  the  disposition  of 
the  opium,  and  his  majesty  commanded  the  whole  to  be  destroyed 
by  him  and  his  colleagues  in  the  presence  of  the  civil  and  mili- 
tary officers,  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast,  and  the  foreigners,  “ that 
they  may  know  and  tremble  thereat.”  In  a dispatch  to  his  go- 
vernment, of  April  22d,  Captain  Elliot  on  the  other  hand,  express- 
ed his  belief  that  the  Chinese  intended  to  sell  it  at  a high  price, 
remunerating  the  owners,  and  pocketing  the  difference,  prepara- 
tory to  legalizing  the  traffic  in  it,  and  making  some  arrangements 
to  limit  the  annual  importation  to  a certain  number  of  chests  ; 
consequently  he  recommended  an  “ immediate  and  strong  decla- 
ration to  exact  complete  indemnity  for  all  manner  of  loss  ” from 
the  Chinese.  He  calls  Lin  “ false  and  perfidious,”  though  it  is 
difficult  to  see  why  he  applies  these  epithets  to  one  who  seems  to 
have,  according  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  ability,  sincerely 
endeavored  to  carry  out  instructions,  while  his  own  communica- 
tions to  him  certainly  tended  to  mislead  him.  The  unpleasant 
circumstances  of  confinement  under  which  it  was  written,  ac- 
count, in  a measure,  for  some  of  the  expressions. 

The  mode  of  destroying  the  opium  was  described  by  an  eye- 
witness, as  performed  in  the  most  thorough  manner  by  mixing 
it  in  parcels  of  two  hundred  chests  in  trenches,  with  lime  and  salt 
water,  and  then  drawing  off  the  contents  into  the  adjacent  creek 
at  low  tide.  Overseers  were  stationed  to  prevent  the  workmen 
or  villagers  from  purloining  the  opium,  and  one  man  was  summarily 
executed  for  attempting  to  carry  away  a small  quantity  ; and  no 
doubt  remained  in  the  minds  of  the  persons  who  visited  the  place, 
and  examined  every  part  of  the  operation,  that  the  entire  quantity 
of  20,291  chests  received  from  the  English  (eight  more  having 
been  sent  from  Macao)  was  completely  destroyed  : — a solitary  in- 
stance in  the  history  of  the  world  of  a pagan  monarch  preferring 
to  destroy  what  would  injure  his  subjects  than  to  fill  his  own 
pockets  with  its  sale. 

The  course  of  events  during  the  remainder  of  the  year  1839, 
presents  a strange  mixture  of  traffic  and  hostility.  The  British 


HOMICIDE  OF  LIN  WE  I HI. 


51fl 


merchants,  wishing  to  dispose  of  the  cargoes  which  had  arrived  in 
ignorance  of  all  these  acts,  endeavored  to  make  some  arrange- 
ments for  sending  to  Canton  from  Chuenpi ; but  this  plan  failed, 
and  recourse  was  then  had  to  ships  sailing  under  other  flags,  in 
which,  in  fact  most  of  the  British  trade  was  conducted  during  the 
year.  The  vexation  of  the  commissioner  at  this  detention  of 
British  shipping  outside  was  very  great,  and  he  issued  placards, 
exhorting  the  captains  to  enter  the  port,  which  brought  out  a re- 
joinder from  Captain  Elliot,  stating  the  reasons  why  he  forbade 
English  ships  putting  themselves  within  the  power  of  the  govern- 
ment. In  this  paper,  Captain  Elliot  complained  of  his  own  un- 
just imprisonment  as  unbecoming  treatment  to  the  “ officer  of  a 
friendly  nation,  recognized  by  the  emperor,  who  had  always  per- 
formed his  duty  peacefully  and  irreproachably  but  there  is  no 
evidence  to  show  that  either  the  emperor  or  Lin  knew  him  to  be 
any  more  than  a taipan  ; they  certainly  had  never  recognized  him, 
or  anybody  else,  according  to  the  acceptation  of  that  phrase  among 
western  nations,  as  is  fully  shown  by  Capt.  Elliot’s  own  corres- 
pondence. 

While  this  matter  of  trade  was  pending,  a drunken  affray  occur- 
red at  Hongkong  with  some  English  sailors,  in  which  an  inoffen- 
sive native,  named  Lin  Weihf,  lost  his  life.  The  commissioner, 
on  hearing  of  it,  ordered  an  inquest  to  be  held  upon  the  body,  and 
demanded  the  murderer,  according  to  Chinese  law.  The  super- 
intendent immediately  repaired  to  Hongkong,  and  impanelled  a 
court  of  criminal  and  admiralty  jurisdiction,  with  a grand  and 
petit  jury,  in  order  to  try  the  seamen  who  had  been  arrested.  He 
also  offered  a reward  of  $200  for  such  evidence  as  would  lead  to 
the  conviction  of  the  offenders  : and  advanced  in  all  $2000  to  the 
friends  of  the  deceased  as  some  compensation  for  their  heavy  loss, 
and  to  the  villagers  for  injuries  done  them  in  the  riot.  Having 
formed  the  court,  he  sent  a polite  invitation  to  the  provincial  offi- 
cers for  them  to  attend  the  trial ; and  when  it  was  over,  dispatched 
i second  note,  declaring  that  he  had  been  unable  to  ascertain  the 
perpetrator  of  the  deed.  Five  sailors  were  convicted  and  pu- 
nished for  riotous  conduct,  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  and  sent  to 
England  under  arrest,  but  to  everybody’s  surprise  were  all  libe- 
rated on  their  arrival.  The  proceedings  in  this  matter  were  per- 
fectly fair,  and  the  commissioner,  if  he  received  the  invitation 
ind  note,  should  have  been  satisfied  ; and  his  subsequent  violent 


520 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGICM. 


proceedings  really  placed  the  dispute  on  an  entirely  new  ground, 
though  in  his  own  apprehension,  he  was  simply  exercising  the 
same  prerogative  of  entire  control  over  foreigners  in  both  cases. 
Finding  his  demand  for  the  murderer  disregarded,  though  he  en- 
deavored to  take  advantage  of  the  circumstance  of  a corpse  float- 
ing in  the  harbor  of  Hongkong  to  show  that  the  guilty  man  had 
made  away  with  himself,  he  took  active  measures  against  the 
English  in  Macao,  intending  not  only  to  injure  them,  but  calcu- 
lated to  bring  serious  loss  upon  the  Portuguese  population.  He 
forbade  all  persons  furnishing  food  to  them,  and  commanded  their 
servants  to  leave  them.  Troops  were  stationed  in  the  vicinity, 
and  that  no  one  might  plead  the  excuse  of  ignorance,  criers  were 
sent  into  the  markets  to  proclaim  the  prohibitive  orders,  as  they 
were  hung  on  their  backs.  The  irritation  of  the  foreign  com- 
munity on  account  of  these  proceedings  was  increased  by  an 
attack  of  Chinese  soldiers  upon  a small  schooner  called  the  Black 
Joke  on  her  way  to  Hongkong,  in  which  five  of  the  crew  were 
killed  or  wounded,  and  a passenger  on  board  barbarously  wounded 
and  left  for  dead,  with  his  ears  cut  off  and  stuffed  into  his  mouth. 
Nearly  every  British  subject  left  Macao,  August  26th,  and  retired 
on  board  ship  at  Hongkong,  chiefly  out  of  compassion  to  the  Por- 
tuguese, whom  the  commissioner  threatened  with  his  anger  for 
harboring  them.  This  move  placed  the  English  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  commissioner,  but  did  not  advance  his  efforts  to  drive 
the  opium  ships  from  the  coast,  or  induce  the  regular  traders  to 
enter  the  port.  The  sales  of  opium  had  begun  again  even  before 
the  destruction  of  the  drug  at  the  Bogue,  and  rapidly  increased 
when  it  was  known  that  that  immense  quantity  had  really  been 
destroyed.  Lin  now  began  to  see  that  his  plan  of  proceedings 
might  not  ultimately  prove  so  successful  as  he  had  anticipated, 
for  he  was  bound  to  remain  at  Canton  until  he  could  report  the 
complete  suppression  of  the  contraband,  and  safe  continuance  of 
the  legal,  trade.  He  and  governor  Tang  visited  Macao,  attended 
by  a large  body  of  Chinese  soldiers,  and  escorted  by  a detach- 
ment of  Portuguese  troops,  both  of  them  retiring  from  the  settle- 
ment the  same  day. 

Finding  that  the  British  fleet  at  Hongkong  was  too  well  defended 
for  him  to  drive  it  away,  he  forbade  the  inhabitants  supplying  the 
ships  with  provisions.  This  led  to  a collision.  Captain  Elliot 
sent  a note  to  the  local  officers  at  Kaulung  by  the  hands  of  Mr. 


SKIRMISH  BETWEEN  THE  ENGLISH  AND  CHINESE. 


521 


Gutzlaff,  who  explained  to  the  officers  in  command  of  some  junks 
the  condition  of  affairs,  and  requested  them  to  forward  the  note. 
This  they  declined  to  do,  but  said  they  would  state  the  matter 
verbally,  though  meanwhile  the  soldiers,  seeing  two  small  schoon- 
ers approaching,  began  to  man  the  guns  in  a battery  near  by. 
Captain  Elliot  sent  a gig  ashore  to  purchase  provisions,  which  the 
police  stopped  just  as  they  were  going  off,  whereupon  he  fired 
upon  the  three  junks,  and  was  immediately  answered  by  them 
and  the  fort.  The  skirmish  continued  till  night,  when  the  junks 
retired  without  much  loss.  A boat’s  crew  missed  a day  or  two 
after,  having  been  supposed  to  be  cut  off,  Captain  Smith  of  the 
Volage  gave  notice  of  a blockade  of  the  port,  but  on  their  re- 
appearance shortly  after,  he  withdrew  the  notice.  Captain  Elliot 
on  the  same  day,  Sept.  11th,  having  ordered  all  British  vessels 
engaged  in  the  opium  trade  to  leave  the  harbor  and  coast,  they 
mostly  proceeded  to  Namoh.  A Spanish  vessel,  the  Bilbaino, 
was  burned  the  next  day  at  her  anchors  in  the  Typa,  by  the  Chi- 
nese, under  the  impression  that  she  was  English ; and  the  Portu- 
guese government  in  consequence  armed  a small  ship  to  cruise 
around  the  settlement  to  drive  off  all  such  vessels : all  the  opium 
in  the  city  had  been  reshipped,  but  the  inhabitants  were  still  en- 
gaged in  the  trade. 

The  two  parties  were  now  engaged  in  actual  hostilities,  yet  ne- 
gotiations for  continuing  trade  near  the  Bogue  were  entered  into 
in  October,  between  the  British  merchants  and  Captain  Elliot  on 
one  side,  and  the  hong-merchants,  sub-prefect,  and  other  officers, 
on  the  other  ; the  details  of  the  arrangements  were  nearly  com- 
pleted, Captain  Elliot  had  given  security  for  its  being  carried  on 
fairly,  and  the  commissioner  himself  had  signed  the  agreement, 
when  the  unauthorized  entrance  of  the  English  ship  Thomas 
Coutts,  whose  captain  signed  the  bond,  led  to  the  rupture  of  all 
negotiations,  and  the  renewed  demand  for  the  murderer  of  Lin 
Weihf.  Coercive  measures  were  again  taken  against  the  En 
glish  families  at  Macao,  and  Captain  Elliot  ordered  all  British 
ships  to  re-assemble  at  Tungku  under  the  protection  of  the  ships 
of  war,  Volage  and  Hyacinth.  He  also  proceeded  to  the  Bogue, 
to  request  a withdrawal  of  the  threats  against  the  British,  and  un- 
molested residence  at  Macao,  until  the  two  governments  could 
arrange  the  difficulties,  when  an  engagement  ensued  between 
Admiral  Kwan  with  a fleet  of  16  junks  and  the  two  ships  of  war; 


522 


TILE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


t.'iree  junks  were  sunk,  one  blown  up,  and  the  rest  scattered 
Active  measures  were  taken  by  the  Chinese  against  the  fleet  at 
Hongkong,  and  the  ships  there  went  to  Tungku.  The  commis- 
sioner on  his  part,  finding  every  effort  to  induce  the  British  ships 
to  re-enter  the  port  unsuccessful,  two  only  having  gone  in,  de- 
clared the  trade  with  that  nation  at  an  end  after  December  6th.,  and 
forbade  their  goods  to  be  imported  in  other  vessels.  Near  the 
close  of  the  month,  Captain  Smith  issued  another  notice  of  a 
blockade  to  commence  January  15th,  but  neither  was  this  carried 
into  effect,  as  Mr.  Gribble,  the  person  seized  by  the  Chinese  in 
the  act  of  disobeying  their  laws,  was  restored.  The  great  losses 
attending  the  detention  of  cargoes  afloat,  led  to  the  request  that 
English  goods  might  be  stored  in  Macao,  but  the  Portuguese  felt 
themselves  obliged  to  refuse. 

The  close  of  the  year  1839  saw  the  two  nations  involved  in 
serious  difficulties,  and  as  the  events  which  have  here  been  briefly 
recounted  were  the  cause  of  the  war,  it  will  be  proper  to  com- 
pare the  opinions  of  the  two  parties,  in  order  to  arrive  at  a better 
judgment  upon  the  character  of  that  contest.  The  degree  of 
authority  to  be  exercised  over  persons  who  visit  their  shores  is  ac- 
knowledged by  Christian  nations  among  themselves  to  be  nearly 
the  same  as  that  over  their  own  subjects  ; but  none  of  these  na- 
tions have  conceded  this  authority  to  unchristian  powers,  as  Tur- 
key, Persia,  or  China ; mainly  because  of  the  little  security  and 
justice  to  be  expected.  The  Chinese  have  looked  upon  foreigners 
resorting  to  their  ports  as  doing  so  by  sufferance  ; they  entered  into 
no  treaty  to  settle  the  conditions  of  living  in  their  borders,  though 
they  gave  facilities  for  carrying  on  trade  in  a certain  manner. 
Their  right  to  prohibit  the  introduction  of  saltpetre  and  opium 
was  acknowledged ; and  the  propriety  of  making  regulations  as 
to  the  duties  to  be  paid,  allowed.  But  traders  from  western  na- 
tions often  set  light  by  the  fiscal  regulations  of  such  countries  as 
China,  Siam,  &c.,  if  they  can  do  so  without  personal  detriment, 
or  loss  of  character  ; and  where  there  is  a want  of  power  in  the 
government,  joined  to  a lack  of  moral  sense  in  the  people,  all 
laws  are  imperfectly  executed.  No  one,  acquainted  with  these 
countries,  is  surprised  at  frequent  and  most  flagrant  violations  of 
all  law,  order,  and  justice,  both  among  rulers  and  ruled  ; yet  the 
obligation  of  foreigners  to  obey  just  laws  made  known  to  them, 
surely  is  not  to  be  measured  solely  by  the  degree  of  obedience 


MOTIVES  OF  LIN'S  CONDUCT 


523 


paid  by  a portion  of  the  people  themselves.  A systematic  vio- 
lation of  the  Chinese  laws  against  opium  cannot  be  excused,  be- 
cause the  people  themselves  contrive  to  evade  them,  and  because 
officers  possessed  of  no  more  moral  principle  than  the  people,  also 
connive  at,  and  participate  in  the  infraction. 

The  Chinese  government  discussed  the  measure  of  legalizing 
a trade  it  could  not  suppress,  but  no  law  was  published  ; and  be- 
fore doing  so  resolved  to  make  a stronger  and  last  effort  to  put  it 
down  if  possible.  Might  makes  right,  or  at  least  enforces  it, 
and  if  the  Chinese  had  had  the  power  to  destroy  every  ship  found 
violating  their  laws,  although  the  loss  of  life  would  have  been 
dreadful,  no  voice  would  have  been  raised  against  the  proceeding. 
“ Her  majesty’s  government,”  said  Lord  Palmerston,  “ cannot  in- 
terfere for  the  purpose  of  enabling  British  subjects  to  violate  the 
laws  of  the  country  to  which  they  trade.”  But  this  power  would 
not  then  have  been  dared  ; the  known  weakness  of  the  government 
emboldened  both  sellers  and  buyers,  until  Captain  Elliot  told  the 
foreign  secretary  that  “ it  was  a con  fusion  of  terms  to  call  the 
opium  trade  a smuggling  trade.” 

Lin  probably  wished  to  get  Mr.  Dent  merely  as  a hostage  for 
the  delivery  of  the  opium  in  the  hands  of  his  countrymen,  and 
not  punish  him  for  disobedience  to  previous  orders  ; not  expect- 
ing any  opposition  to  this  demand,  he  seems  to  have  been  unwill- 
ing to  seize  him  immediately,  preferring  to  try  persuasion  and 
command  longer,  and  detain  him  and  other  foreigners  until  he  was 
obeyed.  He  viewed  Captain  Elliot  as  a mere  head  merchant ; 
when,  therefore,  the  attempt  was  made  as  he  supposed,  to  take 
Mr.  Dent  out  of  his  hands,  he  was  apprehensive  of  a struggle, 
and  instantly  took  the  strongest  precautionary  measures  to  pre- 
vent the  prey  escaping.  Considerate  allowance  should  be  made 
for  the  serious  mistake  he  made  of  imprisoning  the  innocent  with 
the  guilty ; but  if  Captain  Elliot  took  Mr.  Dent  thus  under  his 
protection,  the  commissioner  felt  that  his  purpose  would  be  de- 
feated, and  no  opium  obtained,  if  he  began  to  draw  a distinction. 
Besides,  conscious  that  he  possessed  unlimited  power  over  a few 
defenceless  foreigners,  nearly  all  of  whom  were  in  his  eyes 
guilty,  he  cared  very  little  where  his  acts  fell.  There  is  no 
good  evidence  to  show  that  he  seriously  meditated  anything  which 
would  hazard  their  'lives.  When  he  had  received  this  vast 
amount  of  property,  success  evidently  made  him  careless  as  to 


524 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


his  conduct,  and  judging  the  probity  and  good  faith  of  foreigners 
by  his  own  standard,  he  deemed  it  safest  to  detain  them  until  the 
opium  was  actually  in  his  possession.  Concluding  that  Captain 
Elliot  did  attempt  to  abscond  with  Mr.  Dent,  it  is  less  surprising, 
therefore,  that  he  should  have  looked  upon  his  offers  to  “ carry  • 
out  the  will  of  the  great  emperor,”  when  set  at  liberty,  as  a lure 
rather  than  a sincere  proposition.  In  imprisoning  him  he  had  no 
more  idea  he  was  imprisoning,  insulting,  threatening,  and  coer- 
cing the  representative  of  a power  like  Great  Britain,  or  violating 
rules  western  powers  call  jus  gentium,  than  if  he  had  been  the 
envoy  from  Siam  or  Lewchew.  Whether  he  should  not  have 
known  this  is  another  question,  and  had  he  candidly  set  himself 
on  his  arrival  at  Canton,  to  ascertain  the  power,  position,  and 
commerce  of  western  countries,  he  would  have  found  Captain 
Elliot  sincerely  desirous  of  meeting  him  in  his  endeavors  to  fulfil 
his  high  commission.  Let  us  deal  fairly  by  the  Chinese  rulers 
in  their  desire  to  restrain  a traffic  of  which  they  knew  and  felt 
vastly  more  of  its  evil  than  we  have  ever  done,  and  give  Lin  espe- 
cially his  due,  whose  endeavors  failed  so  signally. 

The  opium  was  now  obtained  ; no  lives  had  been  lost,  nor  any 
one  endangered,  but  the  British  government  was  bound  to  pay  for 
it  to  its  own  subjects.  The  only  source  Captain  Elliot  suggested 
was  to  make  the  Chinese  pay  for  it.  The  emperor  ordered  it  to 
be  destroyed,  and  the  commissioner  after  executing  that  order, 
next  endeavored  to  separate  the  legal  from  the  contraband  trade 
by  demanding  bonds ; they  had  been  taken  in  vain  from  the 
hong-merchants,  but  there  was  more  hope  if  demanded  from  fo- 
reigners. The  first  contained  nothing  very  objectionable,  but  the 
second  involved  the  penalty  of  death.  The  bonds  were  not  made 
a pretext  for  war  by  the  English  ministry ; that,  on  the  part 
of  England,  according  to  Lord  John  Russell,  was  “ set  afoot  to 
obtain  reparation  for  insults  and  injuries  offered  her  majesty’s 
superintendent  and  subjects ; to  obtain  indemnification  for  the 
losses  the  merchants  had  sustained  under  threats  of  violence  ; 
and  lastly,  get  security  that  persons  and  property  trading  with 
China  should  in  future  be  protected  from  insult  and  injury,  and 
trade  maintained  upon  a proper  footing.”  Looking  at  the  war, 
therefore,  as  growing  out  of  this  trade,  and  waged  to  recover  the 
losses  sustained  by  the  surrendry  to  the  British  superintendent,  it 
was  an  opium  war,  and  eminently  an  unjust  one,  more  especially 


NATURE  OF  CHINESE  SUPREMACY. 


525 


as  carried  on  by  a Christian  power  like  Great  Britain  against  a 
pagan  monarch,  who  had  vainly  endeavored  to  put  down  a vice 
so  hurtful  to  his  people.  The  war  was  looked  upon  in  this  light 
by  the  Chinese. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  war  was  felt  by  every  one  in  China,  to 
involve  far  higher  principles  than  the  mere  recovery  of  the 
opium ; and  if  it  was  really  so  by  the  English  ministry,  they 
would  have  done  well  to  have  alluded  to  them.  The  reiterated 
demands  of  the  commissioner  for  the  murderer  of  Lin  Weihl, 
though  told  that  he  could  not  be  found,  was  only  one  form  of  the 
supremacy  the  Chinese  arrogantly  assumed  over  other  nations. 
In  all  their  intercourse  with  their  fellow-men,  they  maintained  a 
haughty,  patronizing,  unfair,  and  contemptuous  position,  which 
left  no  alternative  but  withdrawal  from  their  shores,  or  a humi- 
liating submission  that  no  one,  feeling  the  least  independence, 
could  endure.  Not  unjustly  proud  of  their  country  in  com- 
parison to  those  around  it,  her  emperor,  her  rulers  and  her 
people,  all  believed  her  to  be  impregnably  strong,  portentously 
awful,  and  immensely  rich  in  learning,  power,  wealth  and  terri- 
tory. None  of  them  imagined  they  could  learn  or  gain  anything 
from  other  nations  ; for  the  “ outside  barbarians  were  dependent 
for  their  health  and  food  upon  the  rhubarb,  tea,  and  silks  of  the 
Inner  Land.  They  had  had,  indeed,  bad  specimens  of"  western 
power,  knowledge,  and  people,  but  there  were  equal  opportunities 
for  them  to  have  learned  the  truth  on  these  points.  The  reception 
of  the  religion  of  the  Bible,  the  varied  useful  branches  of  science, 
and  the  many  mechanical  arts  known  in  western  lands,  with  the 
free  passage  of  their  own  people  abroad,  were  all  forbidden  to  the 
millions  of  China  by  their  supercilious  rulers ; and  they  thereby 
compelled  to  remain  the  slaves  of  debasing  superstitions,  ignorant 
of  common  science,  and  deprived  of  everything  which  Christiau 
benevolence,  philanthropy,  and  knowledge  could  and  wished  to 
impart  to  them.  This  assumption  of  supremacy,  and  a real  im- 
pression of  its  propriety,  was  a higher  wall  around  them  than 
their  long  pile  of  stones ; it  not  only  led  them  to  restrict  foreign 
intercourse,  but  enabled  them  to  carry  it  out  in  the  most  thorough 
manner,  except  in  the  single  article  of  opium.  Force  seemed  to 
be  the  only  effectual  destroyer  of  such  a barrier  (though  other 
means  had  never  been  thoroughly  tried),  and  in  this  view,  the 
war  may  be  said  to  have  been  necessary  to  compel  the  Chinese 


526 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


government  to  receive  western  powers  as  its  equals  or  at  least 
make  it  treat  their  subjects  as  well  as  it  did  its  own  people. 
T'here  was  little  hope  of  an  adjustment  of  difficulties  until  the 
Chinese  were  compelled  to  abandon  this  erroneous  assumption  ; 
the  conviction  that  it  was  unjust,  unfounded,  and  foolish  in  itself 
could  safely  be  left  to  the  gradual  influences  of  religion  and 
knowledge. 

The  report  of  the  debate  in  the  British  parliament  on  this  mo- 
mentous question,  hardly  contains  a single  reference  to  this  fea- 
ture of  the  Chinese  government.  It  turned  almost  wholly  upon 
the  opium  trade,  and  whether  the  hostilities  had  not  proceeded 
from  the  want  of  foresight  and  precaution  on  the  part  of  her  ma- 
jesty’s ministers.  The  speeches  all  showed  ignorance  of  both 
principles  and  facts;  Sir  James  Graham  asserted  that  the  go- 
vernors of  Canton  had  sanctioned  the  trade ; and  Sir  G.  Staunton 
that  it  would  not  be  safe  for  British  power  in  India,  if  these  insults 
were  not  checked,  and  that  the  Chinese  had  far  exceeded  in  their 
recent  efforts  the  previous  acknowledged  laws  of  the  land  ! Dr. 
Lushington  maintained  that  the  connivance  of  the  local  rulers  ac- 
quitted the  smugglers ; while  Sir  John  Hobhouse  truly  stated  the 
reason  why  the  government  had  done  nothing  to  stop  the  opium 
trade,  was  that  it  was  profitable ; and  Lord  Melbourne,  with  still 
more  fairness,  said,  “ We  possess  immense  territories  peculiarly 
fitted  for  raising  opium,  and  though  he  would  wish  that  the  go- 
vernment were  not  so  directly  concerned  in  the  traffic,  he  was  not 
prepared  to  pledge  himself  to  relinquish  it.”  The  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington thought  the  Chinese  government  was  insincere  in  its 
efforts,  and  therefore  deserved  little  sympathy ; and  Lord  Ellen- 
borough  spoke  of  the  million  and  a half  sterling  revenue  “ derived 
from  foreigners,”  which  if  the  opium  monopoly  was  given  up  and 
its  cultivation  abandoned,  they  must  seek  elsewhere.  No  one 
advocated  war  on  the  ground  that  the  opium  had  been  seized,  but 
the  majority  were  in  favor  of  letting  it  go  on  because  it  was  begun. 
This  debate  was,  in  fact,  a remarkable  instance  of  the  way  in 
which  a moral  question  is  blinked  even  by  the  most  conscientious 
persons,  when  politics  or  interest  come  athwart  its  course.  No 
declaration  of  war  was  ever  published  by  Queen  Victoria,  further 
than  an  order  in  council  to  the  admiralty,  in  which  it  was  recited 
that  “ satisfaction  and  reparation  for  the  late  injurious  proceedings 
of  certain  officers  of  the  emperor  of  China  against  certain  of  our 


ENGLISH  REASONS  FOR  WAGING  THE  WAK. 


527 


officers  and  subjects  shall  be  demanded  from  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment;” the  object  of  this  order  was,  chiefly,  to  direct  concern- 
ing the  disposal  of  such  ships,  vessels,  and  cargoes  belonging  to 
the  Chinese  as  might  be  seized.  Perhaps  the  formality  of  a de- 
claration of  war  against  a nation  which  knew  nothing  of  the  law 
of  nations  was  not  necessary,  but  if  a minister  plenipotentiary 
from  Peking  had  been  present  at  the  debate  in  Parliament  in 
April,  1840,  he  would  have  declared  the  proceedings  of  his  go- 
vernment strangely  misrepresented.  It  is  to  be  hoped  the  day  is 
not  distant  when  there  will  be  such  a minister  at  St.  James,  as 
well  as  at  all  other  Christian  courts. 

The  clipper  Ariel,  dispatched  by  Captain  Elliot  on  his  release 
from  Canton,  returned  in  April,  1840,  announcing  the  determi- 
nation of  the  British  government  to  appeal  to  arms  in  case  the 
emperor  refused  to  settle  the  difficulties  without  bloodshed.  The 
Chinese  apparently  foresaw  the  coming  struggle,  and  began  to 
collect  troops  and  repair  their  forts  ; and  Lin,  now  governor-ge- 
neral of  Kwangtung,  purchased  the  Chesapeake,  a large  ship,  and 
appointed  an  intendant  of  circuit  near  Macao,  to  guard  the  coasts. 
The  English  residents  had  mostly  returned  to  Macao  by  the  month 
of  January,  and  carried  on  their  trade  under  neutral  flags.  No 
further  efforts  were  made  to  annoy  them,  and  since  the  stoppage 
of  their  trade  in  December,  Lin  had  no  wish  to  increase  his  diffi- 
culties by  fruitless  endeavors  to  harass  them.  He,  however,  wrote 
two  official  letters  to  Queen  Victoria,  desiring  her  assistance  in 
putting  down  the  opium  trade,  in  which  the  peculiar  ideas  of  his 
countrymen,  respecting  their  own  importance,  and  their  position 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  were  singularly  exhibited.*  Not- 
withstanding the  causes  of  complaint  he  had  against  the  English, 
and  Captain  Elliot  in  particular,  he  behaved  kindly  to  the  sur- 
viving crew  of  the  Sunda,  an  English  vessel  wrecked  on  Hai- 
nan, and  sent  them  on  their  arrival  at  Canton,  to  their  country 
men. 

• Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  VIII.,  pp.  9-12,  497-503. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


Progress  of  the  War,  and  Opening  of  China. 

The  advance  of  the  English  forces  arrived  off  Macao,  June  22d, 
1041,  when  Commodore  Sir  Gordon  Bremer  published  a notice  of 
the  blockade  of  the  port  of  Canton.  The  Americans  had  already 
informed  Lin  of  this  intention,  and  requested  that  all  their  ships 
arriving  before  it  was  laid  on,  might  be  allowed  to  come  directly 
into  port ; he  replied  in  his  edict,  granting  their  petition,  “ that  it 
was  an  egregious  mistake,  analogous  to  an  audacious  falsehood, 
that  the  English  contemplate  putting  on  a blockade.'"’  Captain 
Elliot  also  issued  a manifesto  to  the  people  generally,  setting  forth 
the  grievances  suffered  by  the  English  at  the  hands  of  Lin  and 
his  colleagues  during  the  past  year,  and  stating  that  no  harm 
would  come  to  them  while  pursuing  their  peaceful  occupations, 
for  the  quarrel  was  entirely  between  the  two  governments,  and 
the  Queen  had  deputed  high  officers  to  make  known  the  truth  to 
the  Emperor.  Sir  Gordon  moved  northward  in  the  Wellesley,  74, 
his  fleet  consisting  of  five  ships,  three  steamers,  and  twenty-one 
transports;  and  on  anchoring  in  the  harbor  of  Tinghai,  July  4th, 
sent  a summons  to  surrender  the  town  and  island,  stating  the 
grounds  of  the  attack.  The  Chinese  officers  in  command  of  the 
place  and  its  defences,  though  confessing  their  inability  to  cope 
with  such  a force,  declared  they  should  do  their  best ; and  during 
the  night  placed  the  town  and  shipping  in  the  best  position  for 
defence.  They  complained  of  the  hardship  of  being  made  an- 
swerable for  wrongs  done  at  Canton,  upon  which  the  blow  should 
properly  fall,  and  pot  upon  those  who  had  never  injured  the  Eng- 
lish. It  was  a sad  interview  for  them,  and  the  peril  of  their  po- 
sition was  more  fully  seen  when  they  had  gone  aboard  the  Wel- 
lesley. On  Sunday,  July  5th,  the  Commodore’s  ship  fired  at  the 
tower,  which  was  answered  by  the  junks  and  batteries,  when  the 
broadsides  from  all  the  vessels  opened,  and  in  a few  minutes 
silenced  them  ; about  3000  men  then  landed,  and  took  up  a posi- 


CAPTURE  OF  TINGHAI. 


529 


tion  commanding  the  (own,  whose  walls  were  seen  to  be  filled 
with  troops.  A few  shells  were  thrown  into  it,  but  the  attack 
was  delayed  till  the  next  morning,  by  which  time  most  of  the 
citizens  and  troops  had  evacuated  it,  and  possession  was  taken 
without  resistance.  Many  of  the  principal  Chinese  officers  were 
killed,  which  disheartened  their  troops,  already  sufficiently  dis- 
pirited at  seeing  the  force  brought  against  them  ; the  English  had 
few  or  none  wounded.  The  respectable  inhabitants  went  across 
to  Ningpo,  or  scattered  themselves  over  the  island.  General  Bur- 
rell was  appointed  governor. 

On  the  6th,  Admiral  G.  Elliot,  and  Captain  Elliot,  joint  pleni- 
potentiaries, arrived  at  Chusan,  in  the  Melville,  74.  They  sent  a 
copy  of  Lord  Palmerston’s  letter  to  the  emperor,  setting  forth  the 
grounds  of  complaint,  to  the  authorities  at  Amoy  and  Ningpo,  for 
them  to  forward  it  to  Peking ; both  of  whom  declined  taking  the 
responsibility.  The  visit  to  these  two  cities  showed  that  the 
Chinese  were  preparing  for  defence,  by  arming  the  forts,  making 
rafls,  and  posting  troops.  The  prefect  of  Ningpo,  within  whose 
jurisdiction  Tinghai  lies,  took  measures  to  prevent  the  people  of 
Chusan  from  “ aiding  and  comforting  ” their  conquerors,  by  send- 
ing police-runners  to  the  various  villages  to  mark  those  who  sup- 
plied them,  who  seized  a purveyor  from  Canton.  An  erroneous 
idea,  that  the  Chinese  people  wished  to  throw  off  the  Manchu 
yoke,  and  a desire  to  conciliate  the  islanders,  led  the  English  to 
take  less  stringent  measures  for  supplying  themselves  with  pro- 
visions, than  they  otherwise  would.  A small  party  was  sent  to 
recapture  the  purveyor,  but  its  unsuccessful  trip  over  the  island 
showed  the  unwillingness  of  the  people  to  have  anything  to  do 
with  their  invaders,  while  their  dread  was  increased  by  the  arrest 
of  several  village  elders.  Mr.  Gutzlaff  was  stationed  at  Chusan, 
and  did  his  best  to  reassure  the  people,  stating  the  peaceful  de- 
sires of  the  English;  but  they,  judging  European  warfare  by 
their  own  usages,  knew  no  alternative  between  complete  subju- 
gation by  force,  and  continued  hostilities  as  they  had  power  and 
opportunity.  As  he  wrent  around  exhorting  them  to  act  peacea- 
bly, some  of  them  asked  him,  “ If  you  are  so  desirous  of  peace, 
why  did  you  come  here  at  all  ?” 

After  arranging  the  government  of  the  island,  stationing  the 
troops  on  shore,  and  blockading  Amoy  and  Ningpo,  and  the 
paouths  of  the  Min  and  Yangtsz’  kiang,  the  two  plenipotentiaries 

vol.  ii.  24 


530 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


sailed  for  the  Pei  ho,  where  they  anchored,  August  11th,  and 
Captain  Elliot  went  ashore  to  deliver  the  letter.  It  was  immedi- 
ately taken  to  Taku,  where  Kishen,  the  governor-general  of  the 
province  was  waiting,  by  an  aid,  known  to  the  English  as  Captain 
White  (this  being  a translation  of  Shaupt  Peh ),  who  returned 
with  a request  for  ten  days’  delay  to  lay  it  before  the  emperor. 
During  this  interval,  the  ships  dispersed  to  visit  the  coast  of  Liau- 
tung  to  procure  provisions,  which  they  obtained  with  some  diffi- 
culty, and  returned  on  the  27th.  No  message  coming  off,  a strong 
boat-force  was  sent  ashore  next  day  with  a menacing  letter  to 
Kishen,  when  it  was  ascertained  that  a reply  had  gone  off,  and  no 
ships  were  at  the  anchorage  to  receive  it.  A meeting  was  now 
arranged  at  Taku  between  Kishen  and  Captain  Elliot,  which  took 
place  on  Sunday,  the  30th  of  August,  in  a large  tent ; the  num- 
ber of  attendants  on  both  sides  W'as  large,  but  the  interview  was 
nearly  a personal  one.  Kishen  argued  his  side  of  the  question 
with  great  tact  and  ability,  bringing  forward  in  the  sincerest  man- 
ner the  argument  that  his  master  had  the  most  unquestionable 
right  to  treat  the  English  as  he  had  done,  for  they  were,  and  had 
enrolled  themselves,  his  tributary  subjects.  He  could  not  treat 
definitely  on  all  the  points  in  dispute,  and  after  a second  meeting 
requested  a further  delay  of  six  days  in  order  to  refer  again  to 
Peking,  which  was  granted.  The  conclusion  of  the  negotiations 
wras  the  reasonable  arrangement  that  Kishen  should  meet  the 
English  plenipotentiaries  at  Canton,  where  the  truth  of  the  treat- 
ment their  countrymen  had  received  could  be  better  examined ; 
the  season  was  too  far  advanced,  moreover,  to  admit  much  longer 
tarrying  in  the  Gulf,  and  on  the  15th  of  September  the  squadron 
returned  to  Chusan. 

While  these  things  were  going  on  at  Taku,  a few  skirmishes 
had  taken  place  elsewhere.  Several  prisoners  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  Chinese  at  Ningpo,  among  whom  were  the  surviving 
crew  of  the  Kite  transport,  lost  on  the  quicksands  off  the  mouth  of 
the  Tsientang  river.  The  prisoners,  among  whom  was  Mrs.  Noble, 
the  captain’s  widow,  were  carried  to  Ningpo  in  small  cages,  ac- 
cording to  the  usual  practice  of  the  Chinese  ; and  although  this 
was  both  cruel  and  unnecessary,  there  was  no  peculiar  hardship 
exercised  towards  them  more  than  to  common  prisoners.  Two 
or  three  captures  were  also  made  at  Tinghai ; and  a foraging 
party  from  the  Conway  on  Tsungming  I.  was  roughly  handled. 


INTERVIEW  BETWEEN  ELLIOT  AND  KISHEN. 


531 


At  Amoy,  an  attack  was  made  upon  one  of  the  blockading  ships, 
and  every  effort  made  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  forts  and 
defences. 

Large  rewards  were  early  offered  by  Lin  for  the  capture  of 
English  ships  and  people,  which  incited  some  heroes  among  his 
followers  to  attempt  to  take  such  defenceless  persons  as  they  could 
seize,  and  one  Englishman,  Mr.  Stanton,  was  carried  off  by  a 
party  from  Macao.  A force  of  about  1200  men  was  at  this  time 
stationed  in  and  around  the  Barrier,  and  several  sand  batteries 
thrown  up  near  it.  Accordingly  Captain  Smith,  the  senior  naval 
officer,  moved  two  sloops  and  a steamer  near  their  position,  and 
soon  drove  the  soldiers  away,  and  silenced  the  guns  ; a detachment 
then  landed  and  set  fire  to  the  buildings  used  as  barracks.  This 
service  was  attended  with  little  loss  of  life  to  the  Chinese  troops, 
and  rid  the  settlement  of  a grievous  nuisance  to  both  natives  and 
foreigners. 

Mr.  Stanton  was  carried  prisoner  to  Canton  ; and  the  commis- 
sioner had  it  in  his  mind  at  one  time  to  immolate  him  as  a sacri- 
fice to  the  god  of  War,  to  insure  the  success  of  the  imperial  troops, 
but  learning  that  he  had  never  been  engaged  in  the  opium  trade, 
he  wisely  delayed.  Lin  was  busy  during  the  summer  in  en- 
listing volunteers  and  preparing  the  defences  of  Canton,  but  he 
was  soon  after  ordered  to  return  “ with  the  speed  of  flames  ” to 
Peking.  His  majesty,  judging  his  measures  by  their  results,  was 
unnecessarily  severe  upon  his  servant : “ You  have  not  only 
proved  yourself  unable  to  cut  off  their  trade,”  he  says,  “ but  you 
have  also  proved  yourself  unable  to  seize  perverse  natives.  You 
have  but  dissembled  with  empty  words,  and  so  far  from  having 
been  any  help  in  the  affair,  you  have  caused  the  waves  of  confu- 
sion to  arise,  and  a thousand  interminable  disorders  are  sprouting ; 
in  fact  you  have  been  as  if  your  arms  were  tied,  without  know- 
ing what  to  do  : it  appears,  then,  you  are  no  better  than  a wooden 
image.  When  I think  to  myself  on  all  these  things,  I am  filled 
with  anger  and  melancholy.”  Trade  was  carried  on  notwith- 
standing the  blockade,  by  sending  tea  and  goods  through  Macao ; 
and  many  ships  loaded  for  England  and  the  United  States. 

Admiral  Elliot  entered  into  a truce  with  Ilfpu,  governor-gene- 
ral of  Chehkiang,  by  which  each  party  agreed  to  observe  certain 
boundaries.  Sickness  and  death  had  made  sad  inroads  into  the 
health  and  numbers  of  the  troops  stationed  at  Tinghai,  more  than 


532 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


400  out  of  the  4000  landed  in  July  having  died,  and  three  times 
that  number  being  in  the  hospitals  ; the  European  regiments  suf- 
fered much  more  than  the  Indian  troops.  This  mortality  was 
ascribed  to  malaria,  heat,  and  improper  provisions.  The  people 
did  not  recover  their  confidence  sufficiently  to  reOpen  their  shops 
till  after  the  truce,  when  the  intercourse  was  more  frank,  and  pro- 
visions more  abundant.  Doct.  Lockhart’s  missionary  hospital  was 
resorted  to  by  hundreds ; and  the  visits  paid  to  various  parts  of 
the  island  better  informed  the  inhabitants  of  the  personal  charac- 
ter of  their  temporary  rulers,  and  a profitable  trade  in  provisions 
encouraged  them  to  still  farther  acquaintance. 

The  two  plenipotentiaries  arrived  off  Macao,  Nov.  20th,  and 
immediately  sent  a steamer  to  the  Bogue  with  a dispatch  from 
llipu  to  Kishen,  which  was  fired  upon ; an  apology  was  immedi- 
ately made  by  Kishen,  and  there  was  reason  for  believing  the  act 
to  have  been  done  by  an  officer  unacquainted  with  the  meaning 
of  a white  flag,  whose  intent  and  privileges  were  after  this  under- 
stood. Admiral  Elliot  resigned  his  office  at  this  time  in  conse- 
quence of  ill  health,  and  returned  home,  leaving  the  management 
of  affairs  to  Captain  Elliot.  Negotiations  were  resumed  during 
the  month  of  December,  but  the  determination  of  the  Chinese  to 
resist  rather  than  grant  full  indemnity  and  security  was  more  and 
more  apparent.  Ivfshen  probably  found  more  zeal  among  the 
people  for  a fight  than  he  had  supposed,  but  his  own  desires  were 
to  settle  the  matter  “ more  soon,  more  better.”  What  demands 
were  made  as  a last  alternative  are  not  known,  but  one  of  them, 
the  cession  of  the  island  of  Hongkong,  he  refused  to  grant,  and 
broke  off  the  discussion  Commodore  Bremer  thereupon  moved 
his  forces  up  the  bay,  and  on  the  7th  of  January  attacked  and 
took  the  forts  at  Chuenpf  and  Taikoktau.  Further  progress  was 
stayed  by  the  Chinese  proposing  an  armistice,  for  Kishen,  who 
was  present,  saw  enough  to  convince  him  of  the  folly  of  resist- 
ance, resumed  the  negotiations,  and  memorialized  his  master, 
stating  the  ineffectiveness  of  the  defences. 

On  the  20th  of  January  they  had  proceeded  so  far  that  Captain 
Elliot  issued  a notice  to  British  subjects  announcing  the  conclu- 
sion of  preliminary  arrangements  upon  four  points.  These  were 
the  cession  of  the  island  and  harbor  of  Hongkong  to  the  British 
crown,  an  indemnity  of  six  millions  of  dollars  in  annual  instal- 
ments, direct  official  intercourse  upon  an  equal  footing,  and  the 


FAILURE  OF  NEGOTIATIONS  AT  THE  BOGUE. 


533 


English  trade  at  Canton  resumed.  He  also  adverted  to  the  “ scru- 
pulous good  faith  ” of  Kishen  in  this  negotiation,  and  there  had  been 
nothing  at  this  date  to  show  a change  of  policy  or  sentiment  in 
him,  though  the  Chinese  must  have  been  well  aware  that  strong 
influences  were  at  work  at  court  against  him,  and  he  did  wrong 
in  not  intimating  them  to  Captain  Elliot.  By  these  arrangements 
Chusan  and  Chuenpi  were  to  be  immediately  restored  to  the  Chi- 
nese, the  prisoners  at  Ningpo  released,  and  the  English  to  occupy 
Hongkong.  One  evidence  of  Kishen ’s  sincerity  is  the  edict  he 
put  up  on  Hongkong,  telling  the  inhabitants  they  were  now  under 
English  authority.  Two  interviews  took  place  near  the  Second 
Bar  pagoda,  at  the  last  of  which,  on  Feb.  13th,  it  was  plain  that 
some  stipulations  of  the  treaty,  viz.,  the  first  instalment  of  a mil- 
lion of  dollars,  and  opening  of  trade  by  Feb.  1st,  would  not  be 
fulfilled.  It  is  probable,  in  fact,  that  the  intimations  of  the  designs 
of  the  court  were  so  evident  that  the  treaty  was  never  even  pre- 
sented to  the  emperor  for  ratification. 

Kishen  carried  his  negotiations  as  far  as  he  could,  with  the 
hope  perhaps  that  an  adjustment  of  the  difficulties  on  such  terms 
would  be  accepted  by  his  imperial  master.  On  the  other  hand, 
Lin  and  his  colleagues  memorialized  the  emperor  as  soon  as 
Kishen  came  to  Canton  against  the  peaceful  measures  of  that 
statesman,  and  their  recommendations  as  to  the  necessity  of  resist- 
ance were  strongly  backed  by  the  mortifying  loss  of  Chusan. 
The  approach  of  a large  force  to  the  Pei  ho  alarmed  his  majesty, 
and  conciliatory  measures  were  taken,  and  a reference  to  Canton 
proposed  before  settling  the  dispute  ; when  the  men  of  war  left, 
he  was  inclined  for  peace,  and  issued  orders  not  to  attack  the 
foreign  ships  while  the  discussions  were  going  on.  On  arriving 
at  Canton,  Kfshen  liberated  Mr.  Stanton,  and  proceeded  with  his 
negotiations ; but  the  memorials  had  already  changed  the  empe- 
ror’s mind,  and  war  was  by  this  time  determined  on.  It  is  highly 
probable,  if  instead  of  seizing  Chusan,  which  had  given  no  cause 
of  provocation,  the  English  ha'd  gone  Up  the  Yangtsz’  kiang  and 
Pei  ho,  and  stationed  themselves  there  until  their  demands  were 
granted,  peace  would  have  been  soon  made.  But,  in  that  case, 
would  the  vain  notion  of  their  supremacy  have  left  the  Chinese  ? 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  whole  field  was  new  and  untried, 
and  the  object  being  to  press  upon  the  government  enough  to  com- 
pel it  to  treat  other  nations  with  civility,  rather  than  conquest,  na 


534 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


safe  decision  could  be  made,  a priori,  of  the  effect  which  a dozen 
modes  of  action  would  produce. 

A higher  Hand  should  be  recognized  in  the  failure  of  this  treaty. 
The  great  desire  of  Christian  people,  who  believed  that  China  was 
finally  to  receive  the  gospel,  was  that  she  might  be  opened  to 
their  benevolent  efforts,  but  this  treaty  confined  the  trade  to  Can- 
ton, and  left  the  country  as  closed  as  ever  to  all  good  influences, 
commercial,  political,  social  and  religious,  while  the  evils  of  smug- 
gling, law-breaking,  and  opium-smoking  along  the  coast  were 
unmolested.  The  crisis  which  had  brought  an  expedition  to  the 
country  was  not  likely  soon  to  recur,  if  this  failed  to  break  down 
its  seclusiveness ; and  no  other  nation  would  attempt  it  if  England 
retired.  The  opening  of  the  empire  was  not  contemplated  in 
this  treaty,  and  that  this  should  be  one  result  of  the  quarrel,  was 
ardently  desired  by  every  wellwisher  of  China.  Captain  Elliot  ap- 
preciated the  unfortunate  dilemma  the  emperor  had  been  brought 
into  by  the  violent  acts  of  Lin,  and  knew  that  ignorance  was  much 
more  the  misfortune  than  the  fault  of  both  ; he  acted  humanely, 
therefore,  in  pursuing  a mild  course  at  first,  until  the  points  at 
issue  had  been  fairly  brought  before  the  people  as  well  as  the 
cabinet.  Some  parts  of  his  conduct  are  open  to  criticism,  but 
this  great  feature  of  it  is  praiseworthy,  though  few  men  ever  re- 
ceived such  a torrent  of  abuse  for  taking  it.  His  countrymen 
would  have  had  him  burn,  kill,  and  destroy,  as  soon  as  the  ex- 
pedition reached  the  coast,  before  even  stating  his  demands  a1- 
court ; and  during  his  negotiations  with  Kishen,  and  when  Chu- 
san  was  restored,  a general  smile  of  contempt  at  his  supposed  gul- 
libility was  everywhere  seen.  The  treaty  of  the  Bogue,  though 
formed  in  good  faith  by  both  commissioners,  did  not  open  China, 
nor  accomplish  this  great  end  of  the  war,  and  was  rejected  by 
both  sovereigns,  though  for  opposite  reasons ; by  Victoria,  be- 
cause it  did  not  grant  enough,  by  Taukwang,  because  it  granted 
too  much. 

On  the  27th  of  January,  the  emperor  issued  orders  to  resume 
the  war,  collect  troops  from  the  provinces  upon  Canton  and  Ting- 
hai,  in  order  to  “ destroy  and  wipe  clean  away,  to  exterminate 
and  root  out  the  rebellious  barbarians,”  and  encouraged  the  peo- 
ple to  regard  them  with  the  same  bitterness  they  did  their  personal 
enemies.  His  mandate  is  couched  in  the  strongest  terms,  saying 
that  his  enemies  have  been  rebellious  against  heaven,  opposing 


WAR  RESUMED  AND  BOGUE  FORTS  TAKEN. 


535 


reason,  one  in  spirit  with  the  brute  beasts,  “ beings  that  the  over- 
shadowing vault,  and  all-containing  earth  can  hardly  suffer  to 
live,”  obnoxious  to  angels  and  men,  and  that  he  must  discharge 
his  heaven-conferred  trust  by  sweeping  them  from  the  face  of  the 
earth.  This  decree  exhibited  the  true  principles  of  action  of  this 
proud  government,  and  left  it  less  excusable  ; the  emperor  de- 
liberately rejected  the  offer  of  peace,  and  determined  to  uphold 
his  fancied  supremacy  to  the  utmost.  China  must  now  bend  or 
break. 

These  hostile  intentions  had  become  so  evident,  that  on  the  19th 
of  February,  Captain  Elliot  announced  that  Commodore  Bremer 
would  return  to  the  Bogue  with  the  force  ; the  boats  of  the  steamer 
Nemesis  were  fired  upon  while  sounding,  and  on  the  24th,  the 
battery  near  Anunghoy  was  attacked, — the  same  day  that  Chu- 
san  was  evacuated.  Rewards  of  $50,000  were  offered  for  Elliot, 
Bremer,  Morrison,  and  other  ringleaders,  and  all  the  defences  put 
in  the  best  condition.  On  the  26th,  the  Bogue  forts  were  all 
taken,  Admiral  Kwan  falling  at  his  post.  It  is  said  that  Kfshen, 
Lin,  and  other  high  officers,  were  in  the  fort  on  North  Wangtong, 
and  left  the  troops  there  to  their  fate,  as  the  English  ships  moved 
up  the  river,  the  incensed  men  firing  upon  their  boats  as  they 
left.  The  number  of  ships  of  war  engaged  in  this  attack  was 
nine,  assisted  by  less  than  500  troops,  and  two  steamers.  The 
Chinese  force  on  the  hills  behind  the  forts  was  probably  over 
3000,  but  it  made  no  resistance  after  the  batteries  were  taken. 
Many  lost  their  lives  while  attempting  to  swim  across  the  river, 
the  sipahis  shooting  them  in  the  water ; their  total  loss  was  sup- 
posed to  be  not  far  from  a thousand ; the  prisoners  were  set  at 
liberty  after  they  had  buried  their  fallen  comrades.  The  forts 
were  built  so  solidly  that  few  were  killed  by  the  broadsides  of  the 
ships,  and  their  magazines  so  well  protected,  that  no  explosions 
took  place  ; the  powder  found  in  them  was  used  to  demolish  the 
walls.  Admiral  Kwan’s  body  was  exhumed  at  the  request  of  his 
relatives,  who  sent  a flag  of  truce  for  it ; and  the  Blenheim  fired 
a salute  of  minute  guns  as  it  was  carried  away.  The  emperor 
afterwards  pensioned  his  mother,  and  promoted  his  son.  At  night, 
the  blaze  of  the  burning  encampments  of  the  discomfited  impe- 
rialists on  the  hills,  illuminated  the  surrounding  country,  and  in- 
timated to  all  the  destruction  of  these  strong  fortifications.  There 
were  in  all,  eight  large  forts  on  fhe  sides  of  the  river  and  Wang- 


536 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


tong  island,  forming  altogether  a line  of  batteries  which  would 
have  been  impregnable  in  the  hands  of  European  troops,  and  not 
without  reason  deemed  to  be  so  by  the  Chinese  themselves. 

The  next  day,  the  small  ships  moved  up  to  the  First  Bar,  where 
a long  fortification  on  the  river  bank,  and  an  intrenched  camp  of 
2000  troops,  defended  by  upwards  of  a hundred  cannon,  with  a 
strong  raft  thrown  across  the  river,  showed  a resolution  to  make 
a stand.  The  ships  and  steamers  opened  a hot  fire  upon  the  bat- 
teries and  camp,  which  returned  it  as  well  as  they  could,  but  the 
loss  of  life  was  greatest  when  the  English  landed.  Many  instan- 
ces of  personal  bravery  showed  that  the  Chinese  were  not  all  des- 
titute of  courage,  but  without  discipline  it  was  of  no  avail.  Nearly 
one  fourth  of  their  force  was  killed,  their  camp  burned,  and  the 
Chesapeake  and  all  her  stores  blown  up,  and  most  of  the  crew 
killed.  The  removal  of  the  raft  was  easily  effected  by  grappling 
the  steamers  to  it,  to  the  great  mortification  of  the  Chinese,  who 
had  trusted  to  it  to  prevent  the  approach  of  ships  to  the  city. 
From  this  point  the  way  was  open  to  within  five  miles  of  Canton, 
and  when  the  forts  at  that  place  were  taken,  the  prefect  met 
Captain  Elliot  on  March  3d,  with  a flag  of  truce  proposing  a sus- 
pension of  hostilities  for  three  days. 

Kfshen  had  already  been  disgraced  and  ordered  to  return  to 
Peking  to  await  his  trial ; his  memorial  on  hearing  of  his  degra- 
dation on  account  of  his  ill-success  does  him  great  credit ; lliang 
the  lieut. -governor  was  left  in  command  of  the  province  until  four 
general  officers,  with  large  bodies  of  troops  from  the  interior, 
should  arrive.  The  highest  of  these  was  Yihshan,  a nephew  of 
the  emperor,  assisted  by  Yang  Fang,  Lungwan,  and  Tsishin. 
On  the  part  of  the  English,  major-gen.  Sir  Hugh  Gough  arrived 
from  India  to  take  command  of  the  land  forces,  and  Sir  Gordon 
Bremer  sailed  for  Calcutta  to  procure  additional  recruits.  Bodies 
of  troops  were  gathering  in  and  around  Canton  to  the  amount  of 
5000  or  6000,  most  of  which  had  come  from  the  north-west  pro- 
vinces, and  were  not  less  strange  and  formidable  to  the  citizens 
than  were  their  foreign  enemies. 

After  the  truce  had  expired,  the  English  moved  towards  Can- 
ton by  both  the  channels  leading  to  it,  the  vengeful  Nemesis  pro- 
ceeding up  the  Inner  Passage,  where  no  foreign  ship  had  before 
been,  subduing  all  obstacles  in  her  way,  until  every  fort,  raft,  bat- 
tery, camp  and  stockade,  between  the  ocean  and  Canton  had  been 


DEFENCES  01  CANTON  TAKEN. 


537 


destroyed  or  taken,  and  the  city  lay  at  their  mercy.  The  facto- 
ries  were  occupied  by  British  troops  just  two  years  after  Lin  had 
imprisoned  the  foreigners  in  them.  A second  truce  was  agreed 
upon,  March  20th,  by  which  trade  was  allowed  to  proceed  on  the 
old  mode  ; the  ships  accordingly  proceeded  up  the  river,  and  for 
about  six  weeks  trade  went  on  uninterruptedly.  The  new  go- 
vernor Ki  Kung,  and  the  “ rebel-quelling  general  ” Yihshan,  ar- 
rived, and  the  people  thinking  that  a slight  cause  would  disturb 
the  truce,  took  advantage  of  it  to  remove  their  effects,  well  aware 
how  much  they  would  suffer  from  their  own  army  in  case  of 
trouble.  The  progress  of  hostilities  even  thus  far  had  greatly 
weakened  the  native  government,  and  if  Canton  should  be  sacked, 
the  province  would  be  thrown  into  confusion,  and  robbers  “swarm 
like  wasps.” 

About  the  middle  of  May,  the  intentions  of  the  Chinese  gene- 
rally were  manifest,  though  cloaked  under  professions  of  amity. 
A British  guard  was  stationed  in  the  factories,  and  the  ships  of 
war  anchored  near  them,  but  it  was  not  till  the  21st  that  Captain 
Elliot  notified  all  foreigners  to  go  aboard  ship.  A significant  in- 
timation was  given  a fortnight  previous  in  the  punishment  in- 
flicted upon  a native  who  had  presumed  to  speak  on  public  affairs. 
Two  flags  were  stuck  through  his  ears,  his  arms  pinioned,  and  he 
publicly  whipped  through  the  streets,  while  a crier  proclaimed 
his  offence.  The  secret  preparations  for  attacking  the  unguarded 
English  were  very  extensive.  Large  fire-boats  and  rafts  were 
prepared,  masked  batteries  erected  along  the  river,  troops  quar- 
tered in  the  temples,  and  large  cannon  placed  in  the  streets.  The 
notice  of  Captain  Elliot  was  issued  none  too  soon,  and  yet  the 
prefect  had  the  impudence  to  publish  a proclamation  the  day  be- 
fore, assuring  all  classes  of  the  peaceful  intentions  of  the  com- 
missioners, and  that  they  need  be  under  no  alarm.  The  hong- 
merchants  also  reiterated  the  same  assurances  next  day,  but  these 
official  falsehoods  deceived  no  one.  Finding  their  prey  gone,  a 
night  attack  was  made  by  land  and  water,  May  21st,  on  the  ships, 
but  none  were  seriously  injured.  As  daylight  advanced,  the 
Nemesis  went  in  pursuit  of  the  fire-boats  and  junks,  and  burned 
upwards  of  sixty,  while  three  men-of-war  silenced  the  batteries 
along  shore.  Two  Americans,  Messrs.  Morss  and  Coolidge,  and 
a boat’s  crew  of  the  American  ship  Morrison,  were  the  only  fo- 
reigners in  the  factories,  and  the  latter  with  Mr.  Coolidge  were 

24* 


538 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


taken  prisoners  ; a boy  named  Sherry  belonging  to  the  boat  was 
drowned  in  the  capture.  While  the  ships  were  silencing  the 
forts  and  burning  the  rafts,  the  Chinese  troops  were  searching 
the  factories  for  guns  ; three  of  the  hongs  were  pillaged  even  to 
their  marble  pavements  ; and  it  is  supposed  they  desisted  from 
plundering  the  whole  only  at  the  petition  of  the  hong-merchants 
and  prefect,  who  told  the  commissioner  he  would  be  obliged  to 
pay  for  the  losses  sustained. 

On  the  24th,  the  land  and  naval  forces  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough 
and  Sir  Fleming  Senhouse,  arrived  from  Hongkong,  and  pre- 
pared to  invest  the  city.  Most  of  the  troops  were  debarked  above 
it,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  river,  at  Neishing,  under  the  per- 
sonal directions  of  Sir  Fleming,  who  had  provided  many  boats 
holding  from  50  to  200  men  each,  in  which  the  whole  force  of 
2600  men,  besides  followers,  guns  and  stores,  were  towed  about 
twelve  miles.  A detachment  landed  and  took  possession  of  the 
factories,  releasing  Mr.  Coolidge  and  his  fellow-prisoners,  after  60 
hours’  detention  and  suffering.  Sir  Hugh  Gough  remained  near 
the  place  of  debarkation  till  the  morning  of  the  25th,  when  the 
whole  body  moved  onwards  to  attack  the  forts  and  camps  behind 
the  city,  distant  upwards  of  three  miles,  over  ground  consisting 
of  rice  fields  or  barren  hills,  some  of  which  command  the  walls. 
As  the  Engli  'h  advanced,  the  Chinese  motioned  them  to  come  on ; 
their  fire  did  not  reach  so  far  as  the  English  artillery,  and  they 
uselessly  spent  their  ammunition.  After  an  hour’s  firing,  they 
began  to  collect  outside  of  the  forts,  preparatory  to  retiring,  when 
the  advanco  pushed  on,  and  sent  them  scampering  down  the  hills 
toward  the  city.  The  intrenched  camp  was  carried  with  con- 
siderable Joes  to  its  defenders,  who  everywhere  ran  as  soon  as  the 
fight  came  to  close  quarters ; but  in  the  forts,  there  were  many 
furious  smuggles.  The  camp  was  burned,  and  the  victors  bi- 
vouacked during  the  night  in  the  open  air. 

On  the  26th,  preparations  were  made  for  firing  the  city,  but 
before  the  proper  ammunition  could  be  brought  up,  a driving  rain 
put  a stop  to  all  operations.  A parley  was  also  requested  from 
the  now  deserted  city  walls  by  two  officers,  who  agreed  to  send  a 
deputation  to  make  arrangements  for  surrender.  Night  came  on 
before  it  rppeared,  and  the  English  deferred  their  attack  until 
morning.  The  troops  were  then  placed  in  position,  the  guns 
loaded  an*1  primed,  port-fires  lighted,  and  everything  in  readiness 


CANTON  RANSOMED. 


539 


for  opening  the  fire,  when  a messenger  arrived  from  Captain 
Elliot,  desiring  further  operations  to  be  delayed  until  he  had  con- 
cluded his  negotiations.  The  terms  were,  the  forces  to  remain 
in  their  present  position  until  a ransom  of  $6,000,000  was  paid, 
and  the  three  imperial  commissioners,  and  all  their  troops,  had 
marched  60  miles  from  the  city.  ■ Compensation  for  the  loss  of 
property  in  the  factories,  and  burning  the  Spanish  brig  Bilbaino, 
was  paid  or  secured  within  a week,  and  the  troops,  nearly  50,000 
in  number,  evacuated  the  city ; but  Captain  Elliot  should  have 
demanded  a personal  interview  and  apology  from  Yihshan  and 
his  colleagues,  for  their  infamous  treachery.  The  disappointment 
of  the  troops  on  the  heights  was  great,  but  it  was  probably  the 
wisest  policy  to  ransom  Canton,  since  its  destruction  would  have 
oroken  up  the  whole  foreign  trade  for  an  indefinite  period  ; a 
failure  in  the  receipt  of  the  duties  at  home  was  also  a considera- 
tion in  the  mind  of  the  plenipotentiary,  in  favor  of  sparing  the 
city.  To  save  the  terrible  slaughter  which  would  have  ensued, 
not  only  from  the  enemy  without  the  walls,  but  from  the  great 
number  of  troops  pent  up  inside,  with  an  exasperated  populace, 
was  a merciful  motive  for  accepting  the  ransom  ; the  subsequent 
ill  conduct  of  the  people  of  that  city  towards  foreigners  has,  how- 
ever, poorly  requited  the  kindness  shown  them  on  this  occasion. 

While  the  English  forces  were  occupying  the  heights,  the  com- 
missioners closed  most  of  the  city  gates,  and  the  disappointment 
caused  by  the  detention  of  the  departing  crowds,  soon  broke  out 
into  open  fighting.  The  lawless  soldiers  from  Kvveichau  and 
Kwangsf  began  to  plunder  the  citizens,  who  retaliated  with  blows, 
and  blood  was  shed,  the  forces  and  rancor  on  each  side  increasing 
till  more  than  a thousand  persons  were  killed  in  the  streets ; and, 
in  some  instances,  the  troops  actually  devoured  the  bodies  of  the 
citizens.  One  or  two  fires  added  to  the  confusion  and  alarm.  On 
the  outskirts  of  the  city,  the  dispersed  troops  began  to  arouse  the 
villagers  to  join  and  drive  off  the  invaders.  Two  days  after  the 
truce,  a tumultuous  force  of  nearly  fifteen  thousand  advanced  on 
the  hills  north-west  of  the  city,  rather  to  the  surprise  of  the  Eng- 
lish, who,  though  now  reduced  to  about  five  hundred,  soon  placed 
themselves  in  order,  and  checked  their  progress  by  a discharge 
of  rockets.  Sir  Hugh  ordered  an  advance,  and  the  valiant  vil- 
lagers,— “ patriot  soldiers,”  as  they  called  themselves, — were 
chased  about  three  miles  by  this  handful.  The  heat  of  the  day 


540 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


wets  intense,  and  in  the  afternoon  a terrific  thunder-storm  almost 
deluged  the  country ; the  English  troops  were  unable  to  see  each 
other,  and  one  company  of  sipahis  separated  from  their  comrades, 
and  were  surrounded  by  the  Chinese.  The  superiority  of  a dis- 
ciplined body  over  an  immense  unorganized  mob,  was  never  more 
apparent  than  in  the  successful  stand  made  for  three  hours  by 
this  handful  of  90  men ; they  were  relieved  without  the  loss  of  a 
man,  and  only  14  wounded.  The  villagers  assembled  the  next 
day  in  a still  more  menacing  attitude,  when  Sir  Hugh  told  the 
prefect  that  if  they  were  not  instantly  dispersed,  he  should  fire  on 
the  city ; whereupon  one  of  the  commissioners  and  the  prefect, 
accompanied  by  an  English  officer,  went  out  and  coaxed  them  to 
retire. 

On  the  31st,  the  prefect  furnished  five  hundred  coolies  to  assist 
in  transporting  the  guns  and  stores  to  the  river  side,  the  British 
flag  was  hauled  down  from  the  forts,  and  everything  restored  to 
the  Chinese.  The  casualties  among  their  forces  were  14  killed 
and  112  wounded,  but  the  deaths  which  took  place  from  fevers 
contracted  on  the  heights  and  river  were  not  far  from  three  hun- 
dred. The  losses  of  the  Chinese,  from  the  time  the  Bogue  forts 
were  taken  in  February,  to  the  retirement  of  the  troops  in  June, 
could  hardly  have  been  much  under  five  thousand.  The  number 
of  cannon  taken  was  not  less  than  1,200,  besides  a great  num- 
ber of  ginjals.  In  posting  their  forces,  and  placing  their  masked 
aatteries,  and  equipping  their  troops  and  forts,  the  Chinese  showed 
greater  command  of  means  and  knowledge  of  war,  than  it  was 
supposed  they  possessed ; but  their  lack  of  discipline  and  confi- 
dence rendered  every  defence  unavailing.  The  imperial  com- 
missioner, Yihshan,  whose  moral  turpitude  and  ridiculous  bravado 
brought  upon  him  the  contempt  and  detestation  of  his  own  coun- 
trymen, proclaimed  a victory,  and  rewarded  the  troops  he  was 
forced  to  disband  with  medals,  in  testimony  of  their  valor  for 
driving  the  English  out  of  the  river.  He  and  his  associates  me- 
morialized the  emperor,  detailing  their  reasons  for  ransoming  the 
city,  and  requesting  an  inquiry  into  their  conduct.* 

Sir  Fleming  Senhouse  died  of  fever  at  Hongkong,  June  13th, 
and  the  sickness  of  the  troops  generally  compelled  the  force  to 

* Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  X.,  p.  402;  in  which,  and  in  Vols.  VIII.,  IX., 
X,.  and  XI.,  most  of  the  official  papers  issued  from  the  Chinese  and  English 
authorities  during  the  war,  are  contained. 


SIR  HENRY  POTTINGER  ARRIVES. 


541 


remain  there  to  recruit,  and  wait  for  reinforcements  from  Calcutta, 
Commodore  Bremer  returned  as  joint  plenipotentiary,  with  addi- 
tional forces  from  Calcutta,  and  the  expedition  was  on  the  point 
of  sailing  northward,  when  both  Captain  Elliot  and  Sir  Gordon 
Bremer  were  wrecked  in  a tyfoon  south-west  from  Macao,  and 
narrowly  escaped  with  their  lives  ; this  detained  the  ships  a few 
days  longer,  during  which  a new  plenipotentiary,  Sir  Henry  Pot- 
tinge  r,  hart.,  and  Admiral  Sir  William  Parker  arrived  on  the  10th 
of  August,  direct  from  England  by  steam  in  67  days,  to  super- 
sede them  both.  Sir  Henry  publicly  announced  his  appointment 
and  duties,  and  also  sent  a communication  to  the  governor  of  Can- 
ton, assuring  him  that  the  existing  truce  would  be  observed  as 
long  as  the  Chinese  did  not  arm  their  forts,  impede  the  regular 
trade,  which  had  been  lately  redpened  to  British  ships  by  impe- 
rial command,  or  trouble  the  merchants  residing  in  the  factories. 
The  trade  went  on  at  Canton,  after  this,  without  any  serious 
interruption  during  the  war,  the  usual  duties  and  charges  be- 
ing paid  as  if  none  existed. 

The  expedition  moved  northward,  August  21st,  under  the 
joint  command  of  Sir  Hugh  Gough  and  Admiral  Parker,  con- 
sisting of  two  74’s  and  seven  other  ships  of  war,  four  steamers, 
twenty-three  transports,  and  two  other  vessels,  one  of  them  a 
surveying  vessel,  carrying  in  all  about  3500  troops.  Six  men  of 
war,  and  four  or  five  hundred  Indian  troops,  remained  off  Can- 
ton and  at  Hongkong  to  compel  the  observance  of  the  truce. 
The  combined  force  reached  Amoy  on  the  25th,  and  after  a hasty 
reconnoissance,  attacked  all  its  defences  the  next  day,  which  were 
carried  without  much  loss  of  life  on  either  side.  The  city  was 
taken  on  the  27th,  and  all  the  arms  and  public  stores  found  in 
it,  consisting  of  powder  and  materials  for  making  it,  wall-pieces, 
ginjals,  matchlocks,  shields,  uniforms,  bows,  arrows,  spears,  and 
other  articles  in  great  quantities,  were  destroyed ; 500  cannon 
were  found  in  the  forts.  When  the  Blonde  came  into  this  harbor 
fourteen  months  previous  to  deliver  the  letter  for  Peking,  the  for- 
tifications consisted  only  of  two  or  three  forts  near  the  city,  but  in 
the  interval  they  had  been  increased  very  largely.  Every  island 
and  protecting  headland  overlooking  the  harbor  had  been  occu- 
pied and  armed,  and  a continuous  line  of  stone  wall  more  than  a 
mile  long,  with  embrasures  roofed  by  large  slabs  covered  with 
earth  to  protect  the  guns,  had  been  built,  and  batteries  and  bas- 


542 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


tions  erected  at  well  chosen  points.  The  broadsides  of  the  ships 
had  little  effect  on  these  stone  walls,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
troops  landed  and  drove  out  their  garrisons,  who  “ stood  right 
manfully  to  their  guns,”  that  the  fire  slackened,  and  the  Chinese 
retreated.  The  Wellesley  and  Blenheim  each  fired  upwards  of 
twelve  thousand  rounds,  besides  the  discharges  from  the  frigates 
and  steamers,  and  this  tremendous  cannonading  was  continued  for 
four  hours  without  the  least  real  damage  to  the  fortifications,  and 
killing  only  twenty-five  or  thirty  people.  The  city  was  com- 
pletely pillaged  by  native  robbers  after  the  authorities  had  left, 
and  it  was  not  till  several  weeks  after  that  they  resumed  their 
functions.  The  island  of  Kulang  su  was  garrisoned  bv  a detach- 
ment  of  550  troops,  and  three  ships  left  to  protect  them.  The 
English  did  not  have  a man  killed  in  the  attack  on  these  works, 
and  only  a few  wounded  ; nor  was  there  evidence  of  any  great 
slaughter  of  the  Chinese ; their  force  was  estimated  at  about 
8,000  troops  and  26  war  junks,  all  of  which  were  either  scattered 
or  burned ; one  two-decker,  built  on  the  foreign  model,  and  car- 
rying 30  guns,  was  found  launched  and  ready  for  sea.  Several 
instances  of  determined  heroism  were  exhibited,  and  the  naval 
officer  in  command,  Kiang  Kfyun,  seeing  the  day  lost,  deliberately 
walked  into  the  water  and  drowned  himself.  As  usual,  they 
claimed  a victory  on  the  departure  of  the  enemy. 

The  English  fleet  left  for  Chusan,  and  entered  the  harbor  of 
Tinghai  the  second  time,  Sept.  29th,  and  found  the  beach  very 
much  altered  since  it  was  evacuated  in  February,  a line  of  stone 
wall  and  fortifications  extending  two  miles  in  front  of  the  suburbs 
having  been  built,  besides  many  defences  of  sand-bags  and  re- 
doubts thrown  up  on  well  selected  positions.  The  suburbs  were 
occupied  as  a military  station,  and  every  part  of  the  extensive 
works  were  fully  manned  and  garrisoned.  They  were  attacked 
Oct.  1st,  and  taken  after  a defence  marked  with  unusual  courage, 
on  the  part  of  the  Chinese,  who  waved  their  flags  and  fired  inces- 
sant vollies  upon  the  advancing  enemy.  The  general  command- 
ing the  battery  and  all  his  suite  were  killed  at  their  posts,  and 
many  hand  to  hand  conflicts  took  place.  But  their  courage  and 
numbers  were  unavailing,  and  in  two  hours  their  defences  were 
cleared,  the  walls  of  the  town  escaladed,  the  whole  force  scat- 
tered, and  the  island  subdued,  with  the  estimated  loss  of  a thou- 
sand men.  Great  quantities  of  ordnance,  among  which  were  40 


AMOY,  T1NGHAI  AND  CHINHAI  TAKEN. 


543 


brass  guns  made  in  imitation  of  some  taken  from  the  Kite,  with 
military  stores  and* provisions  in  abundance,  were  found,  all  of 
them  brought  from  the  mainland.  A detachment  was  soon  after 
sent  throughout  the  island  to  drive  off  the  scattering  bodies  of  the 
enemy’s  troops,  and  announce  to  the  inhabitants  that  they  were 
now  under  English  authority,  and  would  remain  so  until  all  de- 
mands were  fully  complied  with.  The  people  evinced  none  of 
the  alarm  they  had  done  the  year  before,  and  provisions  came  in, 
shops  were  opened,  and  confidence  in  these  proclamations  gene- 
rally exhibited.  A military  government  was  appointed,  and  a 
garrison  of  400  men  left  to  protect  the  island. 

The  military  operations  in  Chehkiang  were  conducted  by 
Yukien,  an  .imperial  commissioner  appointed  in  place  of  fifpu, 
and  Yu  Puyun,  general  of  the  land  forces;  both  these  men  had 
urged  war,  and  had  done  all  they  could  to  fortify  Tinghai  and 
Chinhai,  whose  batteries  and  magazines  showed  the  vigor  of  their 
operations.  The  English  fleet  proceeded  to  Chinhai,  Oct.  9th, 
and  a force  of  about  2200  men,  with  twelve  field  pieces  and  mor- 
tars landed  next  morning  to  attack  the  citadel  and  intrenched 
camp.  There  were  nearly  5000  men  in  this  position,  who  formed 
in  good  order  as  the  English  advanced,  opening  a well  directed 
fire  upon  the  front  column,  but  quite  neglecting  the  two  lesser 
bodies  sent  to  turn  their  flanks;  and  as  the  three  opened  upon  them 
nearly  simultaneously,  their  whole  force  was  completely  bewil- 
dered, and  soon  broke  and  fled  in  all  directions.  Knowing  no- 
thing of  the  mode  of  asking  for  quarter,  while  some  fled  into  the 
country,  the  greater  part  retreated  towards  the  water,  pursued  by 
the  three  columns,  hundreds  being  shot  and  hundreds  drowned. 
Sir  Hugh  Gough  sent  out  a flag  with  Chinese  written  upon  it,  to 
inform  them  that  their  lives  would  be  spared  if  they  yielded,  but 
not  more  than  five  hundred  either  could  or  would  throw  down 
their  arms.  The  water  was  covered  with  dead  bodies,  and  fully 
1500  lost  their  lives.  The  town  and  its  defences  on  the  north 
side  of  the  river  were  bombarded  by  the  ships,  and  the  troops 
driven  out.  Yukien  endeavored  to  drown  himself  on  seeing  the 
day  was  lost,  but  being  prevented  he  retreated  to  Yuyau,  beyond 
Ningpo,  where  he  committed  suicide,  as  was  said,  by  swallowing 
gold  leaf.  He  was  a Manchu,  and  could  not  brook  his  master’s 
displeasure  ; and  his  atrocious  cruelty  to  two  foreigners  who  fell 
into  his  hands,  one  of  whom  was  flayed  and  then  burnt  to  death, 


544 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


had  aroused  general  detestation,  and  none  regretted  his  death. 
About  150  pieces  of  brass  ordnance,  besides*  great  quantities  of 
gunpowder,  iron  cannon,  matchlocks,  and  other  military  stores, 
were  taken  and  destroyed.  The  guns  and  carriages  in  the  fort 
and  batteries  were  so  well  made  and  placed,  that  in  some  cases 
the  victors  on  entering  turned  them  against  the  flying  Chinese. 
The  frame  of  a wheel  vessel,  intended  to  be  moved  by  human 
power  was  found  near  Chinhai,  showing  as  did  the  brass  guns, 
traversing  carriages,  and  frigate  at  Amoy,  that  the  Chinese  were 
learning  the  machinery  of  war  from  their  foes. 

Ningpo  was  taken  without  resistance  on  the  13th,  General  Yu 
having  retired  on  Hangchau.  The  people  left  the  city  in  consid- 
erable numbers,  and  those  who  remained  shut  themselves  in  their 
houses,  writing  shun  min,  i.  e.  submissive  people,  on  the  doors. 
Captain  Anstruther  took  possession  of  his  old  prison,  where  he 
found  the  identical  cage  he  had  been  carried  in,  and  released  all 
the  inmates  to  make  way  for  liis  detachment  of  artillery.  About 
.£20,000  in  sycee  were  found  in  this  building,  upwards  of  $70,000 
in  the  treasury,  many  tons  of  copper  cash  in  the  mint,  and  rice, 
silk  and  porcelain  in  the  public  stores,  forming  altogether  the  most 
valuable  prizes  yet  taken.  Sir  Henry  Pottinger  intended  at  first 
to  bum  the  city,  but  on  deliberation  it  was  determined  to  occupy 
it  as  winter  quarters,  a garrison  being  left  at  Chinhai,  and  two  or 
three  ships  in  the  river  to  keep  open  the  communication.  The 
plenipotentiary  returned  to  Hongkong  in  February,  1842,  leaving 
Sir  Hugh  and  the  admiral  at  the  north,  as  the  new  colony  required 
his  presence. 

The  fall  of  Amoy,  Tinghai,  Chinhai,  and  Ningpo,  instead  of 
disheartening  the  emperor,  served  rather  to  inspirit  him.  His 
commissioners,  generals,  and  high  officers  generally,  did  the  best 
their  knowledge  and  means  enabled  them  to  do,  and  when  de- 
feated, endeavored  to  palliate  the  discomfiture  they  could  not  en- 
tirely conceal  by  misrepresenting  the  force  brought  against  them, 
and  laying  the  blame  upon  the  common  people,  the  elements,  or 
the  inefficiency  of  the  naval  armaments.  The  troops  sent  home 
with  tokens  of  victory  from  Canton,  stimulated  the  war  spirit  in 
the  western  provinces.  After  they  had  gone,  Yihshan  concocted 
such  measures  of  defence  as  he  could,  one  of  which  was  to  enlist 
two  or  three  thousand  volunteers,  or  “ village  braves,”  near  the 
city,  and  place  them  under  their  own  officers.  The  people  hav- 


IMPERIAL  PLANS  FOR  RESISTANCE. 


545 


ing  been  taught  to  despise  foreigners,  were  easily  incensed  against 
them,  and  several  cases  of  insult  and  wantonness  which  occurred 
during  the  occupation  of  the  heights  were  repeated  and  magnified 
in  order  to  stir  up  a spirit  of  revenge.  These  patriots  supposed, 
moreover,  that  if  the  great  emperor  had  called  on  them,  instead 
of  intrusting  the  conduct  of  the  quarrel  to  truckling  traitorous 
poltroons  like  Kfshen  and  the  prefect,  they  could  have  avenged 
him  of  his  enemies.  This  spirit  was  chiefly  confined  to  Canton, 
and  the  defeats  and  losses  experienced  the  year  before  had  rather 
irritated  than  humbled  it. 

Consequently  the  truce  was  soon  broken  in  an  underhand  man- 
ner by  sinking  hundreds  of  tons  of  stones  in  the  river,  some  in 
boats,  but  mostly  thrown  into  the  water  between  hurdles.  The 
Royalist  levelled  the  fortifications  at  the  Bogue,  and  Captain  Nias 
destroyed  a number  of  boats  at  Whampoa,  and  threatened  the 
authorities  in  case  they  did  not  observe  the  stipulations.  After  the 
destruction  of  these  forts  and  his  retirement  from  the  river,  Yih- 
shan  directed  his  attention  to  erecting  forts  near  the  city,  casting 
guns,  and  drilling  the  volunteers,  who  numbered  nearly  30,000 
at  the  new  year.  He  also  gave  a public  dinner  to  the  rich  men 
of  the  city,  in  order  to  learn  their  willingness  to  contribute  to  the 
expenses  of  these  measures.  However,  since  no  serious  obsta- 
cles were  placed  in  the  way  of  shipping  teas  by  the  provincial 
officers,  from  the  duties  on  which  they  chiefly  derived  the  funds 
for  these  undertakings,  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  let  them  alone. 
This  supineness  of  their  rulers  did  not  please  the  people,  and 
manifestoes  were  now  and  then  issued  expressive  of  their  dissa- 
tisfaction, specially  directed  against  the  prefect,  who  was  forced 
to  resign  his  office.  Bands  of  thieves  on  shore  and  in  boats  ag- 
gravated these  troubles,  and  showed  the  weakness  of  their  govern- 
ment to  the  well  disposed,  as  well  as  the  attendant  evils  of  war. 

The  case  was  different  at  other  points.  The  government  sup- 
posed Amoy  would  be  attacked,  because  the  visit  of  the  Blonde 
showed  that  the  barbarians,  “ sneaking  in  and  out  like  rats,” 
knew  of  its  existence  ; but  the  people  thereabouts,  except  in  the 
city  and  suburbs,  took  no  particular  interest  in  the  dispute,  and 
knew  far  less  probably,  within  a hundred  miles  of  it,  than  was 
known  in  most  parts  of  England  and  the  United  States  ; no  news- 
papers, with  “ own  correspondents  ” to  write  the  “ latest  accounts 
from  the  seat  of  war,”  circulated  the  progress  of  this  struggle, 


546 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


which  to  them  was  like  the  silent  reflection  of  distant  lightning 
in  their  own  quiet  firmament.  The  sack  of  Amoy  was  a heavy 
blow  to  its  citizens,  but  the  plunderers  were  mostly  their  country- 
men ; and  when  Captain  Smith  of  the  Druid  had  been  there  a 
short  time  in  command,  and  his  character  became  known,  they 
returned  to  their  houses  and  shops,  supplied  the  garrison  with 
provisions,  and  even  brought  back  a deserter,  and  assisted  in 
chasing  some  pirates.  Rumors  of  attack  were  always  brought  to 
him,  and  his  endeavors  to  allay  their  apprehensions  were  suc- 
cessful, so  that,  after  the  haifang,  or  sub-prefect,  had  resumed  his 
authority  no  disturbance  occurred.  The  explanations  of  the  mis- 
sionaries on  Kulang  su,  in  diffusing  a better  understanding  of  the 
object  in  occupying  that  island  also  contributed  to  allay  their 
fears. 

The  loss  of  Chinhai  and  Ningpo,  threw  the  eastern  parts  of 
Chehkiang  open  to  the  invaders,  and  alarmed  the  court  far  more 
than  the  destruction  of  Canton  would  have  done.  The  emperor 
immediately  appointed  his  nephew  Yihking  “ majesty-bearing 
generalissimo,”  and  with  him  Tih-f-shun  and  Wanwei,  all  Man- 
chus,  to  command  the  grand  army,  and  arouse  the  dwellers  on 
the  seacoast  to  arm  and  defend  themselves.  “ Ministers  and  peo- 
ple ! Inhabitants  of  our  dominions  ! Ye  are  all  the  children  of 
our  dynasty ! For  two  centuries,  ye  have  trod  our  earth  and 
eaten  our  food.  Whoever  among  you  has  heavenly  goodness 
must  needs  detest  these  rebellious  and  disorderly  barbarians  even 
as  ye  do  your  personal  foes.  On  no  account  allow  yourselves  to 
be  deceived  by  their  wiles,  and  act  or  live  abroad  with  them.” 
Such  was  the  closing  exhortation  of  an  imperial  proclamation 
issued  to  encourage  them.  In  order  to  raise  funds  for  its  opera- 
tions, the  government  resorted  to  the  sale  of  office  and  titles  of 
nobility,  and  levied  benevolences  from  rich  individuals,  and  con- 
tributions from  the  people ; which  when  large  in  amount  were 
noticed  and  rewarded.  Kfshen,  who  had  been  tried  at  Peking, 
and  sentenced  to  lose  his  life,  was  for  some  reason  reprieved  to  be 
associated  with  Yihking  as  an  adviser,  but  never  proceeded  be- 
yond Chihli.  Lin  was  also  recalled  from  III,  if  indeed  he  ever 
went  beyond  the  Great  Wall,  and  llipu,  whose  treatment  and  re- 
lease of  the  prisoners  at  Ningpo  had  gained  him  the  goodwill  of 
the  English,  was  also  sentenced  to  banishment,  but  neither  did  he 
go  beyond  the  Desert.  Yen  Pehtau,  the  governor  of  Fuhkien, 


CITIES  ON  THE  COAST  FORTIFIED. 


547 


was  summarily  dismissed  from  the  public  service  for  the  loss  of 
Amoy,  and  his  inefficiency  in  devising  measures  of  protection. 

Defences  were  thrown  up  at  Tientsin  and  Taku,  to  guard  the 
passage  to  the  capital,  but  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pei  ho  was 
its  sufficient  protection.  The  great  object  of  immediate  attention, 
however,  was  the  city  of  Hangchau,  and  fearing  that  the  English 
would  immediately  advance  upon  it,  the  troops  of  the  province 
and  all  its  available  means  were  put  into  requisition.  An  ad- 
vance upon  this  opulent  city  would  probably  have  been  made  by 
Sir  Hugh  Gough  if  he  had  had  troops,  but  as  it  could  only  be  ap- 
proached bv  a land  march  from  Ningpo,  he  deemed  it  advisable 
to  wait  for  reinforcements,  his  small  force  being  reduced  to  GOO 
men  on  entering  that  city.  Chapu,  the  port  of  Hangchau,  and 
Tsienshan,  another  seaport  near  by,  were  garrisoned  by  the  go- 
vernor. Hu  Chau,  a brave  general  from  Shensi,  was  dispatched 
to  his  assistance  with  300  troops,  but  on  the  appointment  of  Yih- 
king,  his  destination  was  changed  to  Tientsin.  The  rewards 
given  to  the  families  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  battle,  and  the 
posthumous  honors  conferred  upon  them  by  the  emperor,  stimu- 
lated others  to  deeds  of  valor,  and  a determination  to  accomplish 
their  master’s  vengeance.  Yukien,  “who  gave  his  life  for  his 
country,  casting  himself  into  the  water,”  received  high  titular 
honors  in  the  hall  of  worthies,  and  his  brother  was  permitted  to 
bring  his  corpse  within  the  city  of  Peking,  while  the  local  officers 
were  ordered  to  pay  it  due  honor  on  the  route  to  the  capital. 
The  names  of  humbler  servants  were  not  forgotten  in  the  impe- 
rial rescripts,  and  a place  was  granted  them  among  those  whom 
the  “ king  delighteth  to  honor.”  Thus  did  the  Chinese  endeavor 
to  reassert  their  supremacy,  though  their  counsels  and  efforts  to 
chastise  the  rebellious  barbarians  were  not  unlike  the  delibera- 
tions of  the  rats  as  to  the  best  mode  of  restraining  the  devasta- 
tions of  their  enemy,  the  cat. 

The  occupation  of  Ningpo  was  an  eyesore  to  the  Chinese  gene- 
rals, whose  movements  were  easily  learned  through  native  spies, 
one  of  whom  in  particular,  nicknamed  Blondell  by  his  employ- 
ers, was  conspicuous  for  his  services  in  this  respect,  and  the  fear- 
lessness he  exhibited.  The  genius  of  the  people  was  often  il- 
lustrated in  their  contrivances  to  carry  off  plunder.  Secreting 
valuable  articles  in  coffins  and  ash-baskets,  wrapping  them  around 
corpses,  packing  them  under  vegetables  or  rubbish,  were  a few 


548 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  the  means  taken  to  elude  the  sentries.  One  party  overtook 
two  persons  near  Ningpo,  running  off  with  a basket  between 
them  ; on  overtaking  and  recovering  it,  a well  dressed  lady  was 
found  coiled  up,  who,  however,  did  not  scream  when  detected. 
On  another  occasion,  a female  was  found  in  a locker  on  board  a 
junk  near  Chinhai,  and  as  the  captain  was  desirous  of  examining 
the  mode  of  bandaging  her  feet,  he  told  his  men  to  lift  the  body 
out  of  the  closet,  when  a scream  explained  the  trick  ; she  was 
dismissed,  and  the  money  she  had  endeavored  to  hide  put  into  her 
hands.  Opium  was  found  in  boats  and  most  of  the  official  resi- 
dences, showing  how  extensive  its  use  had  become  ; the  sale  of 
it  received  little  check  from  the  war,  and  no  reference  was  made 
to  it  by  either  party. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  1841,  information  was  received 
of  the  collection  of  a large  force  at  Yviyau,  about  forty  miles  be- 
yond Ningpo;  and  the  general  resolved  to  anticipate  its  move- 
ments. Two  iron  steamers  soon  landed  seven  hundred  men  there, 
who  took  up  a position  for  the  night,  intending  to  escalade  the 
walls  in  the  morning ; but  before  the  attack,  the  townspeople 
came  out  to  say  that  their  defenders  had  evacuated  the  place. 
The  marines  and  seamen,  who  had  just  landed,  took  the  circuit 
of  the  walls,  and  found  the  troops,  about  a thousand  strong,  drawn 
up  in  array ; and  the  two,  after  exchanging  their  fire,  almost 
immediately  started  on  the  run.  The  snow  had  fallen  just 
enough  to  cover  up  the  pathways,  which  enabled  the  Chinese  to 
distance  their  pursuers,  who  were  now  and  then  bemired  in  a 
half-frozen  rice  field.  The  public  stores  were  destroyed,  and  the 
town  left  to  the  care  of  its  citizens,  without  much  loss  of  life  on 
either  side.  On  his  return,  the  general  visited  Tsz’ki,  but  it  was 
found  unoccupied,  the  troops  and  the  authorities  both  having  fled. 
The  rice  found  in  the  granaries  having  been  distributed  to  the 
townsmen,  the  detachment  returned  to  Ningpo,  Dec.  31st,  much 
refreshed  by  the  expedition.  In  a week,  preparation  was  made 
for  a similar  visit  to  Funghwa,  where  it  was  found,  on  arrival, 
that  the  authorities  and  troops  had  fled ; so  that  to  destroy  the 
government  stores,  and  distribute  the  rice  in  the  granaries  to  the 
people,  was  all  that  remained  to  be  done.  These  two  expedi- 
tions so  terrified  the  “ majesty-bearing  generalissimo,”  Yihking, 
and  his  colleagues,  that  they  fled  to  Suchau,  in  Kiangsu,  to  as- 
sure themselves  of  safety.  With  such  leaders,  it  is  not  strange 


CHINESE  TROOPS  ATTACK  NINGPO. 


549 


that  the  villagers  near  Ningpo  wished  to  enrol  themselves  under 
British  rule ; and  the  effect  of  the  moderation  of  the  English 
troops  was  seen  in  the  people  giving  them  little  or  no  molestation 
after  the  first  alarm  was  over,  and  supplying  their  wants  as  far  as 
possible. 

The  force  had  become  settled  in  its  quarters  at  Ningpo,  after 
returning  from  Funghwa,  when  the  Chinese  opened  the  cam- 
paign, March  10th,  by  a well-concerted  night  attack  on  the  city. 
During  the  preceding  day,  many  troops  entered  the  city  in  citi- 
zen’s clothes,  and  stationed  themselves  near  the  gates  ; and  about 
three  o’clock  in  the  morning,  the  western  and  southern  gates  were 
attacked  and  driven  in.  Colonel  Morris  ordered  a party  to  retake 
the  south  gate,  which  was  soon  done,  with  considerable  loss  to  the 
enemy ; for  the  moment  the  Chinese  were  opposed,  their  main 
object  was  forgotten,  and  every  man  sought  his  own  safety, 
thereby  exposing  himself  more  fully  to  destruction.  On  the  ap- 
proach of  daylight,  the  garrison  assembled  at  the  western  gate, 
where  the  main  attack  had  been  made  with  more  than  usual 
vigor,  and  two  or  three  howitzers  taken  through  the  gate,  when 
the  main  force  of  the  enemy  was  met  approaching  in  a compact 
form  along  the  street,  headed  by  an  officer  on  horseback.  The 
volleys  of  musketry  and  chain-shot  poured  into  this  dense  mass, 
mowed  them  down  so  that  the  street  was  choked  with  dead  bodies, 
and  the  horse  of  the  leader  actually  covered  with  corpses,  from 
which  he  was  seen  vainly  endeavoring  to  release  himself.  Those 
who  escaped  the  fire  in  front  were  attacked  in  rear,  and  at  last 
every  man  fled  as  he  best  could  into  the  open  country,  the  Eng- 
lish following  in  hot  pursuit.  About  600  were  killed,  and  the 
whole  force  of  5000  completely  scattered  by  less  than  two  hun- 
dred Europeans,  with  the  loss  of  one  man  killed  and  six  wounded. 

The  general  and  admiral  then  prepared  to  attack  an  intrenched 
camp  of  8000  troops  near  Tsz’kf,  and  about  twelve  hundred  were 
embarked  in  the  steamers.  The  Chinese  had  chosen  their  ground 
well,  on  the  acclivity  of  two  hills  behind  the  town,  and  in  order 
to  confound  and  disperse  them  completely,  the  attacking  force 
was  divided  so  as  to  fall  upon  them  on  three  sides  simultaneously, 
which  was  done  with  great  slaughter.  The  Chinese  did  not  run 
until  they  began  to  close  in  with  their  opponents,  when  they  soon 
found  that  their  intimidating  gesticulations  and  cheers,  their  tiger- 
faced shields  and  two-sided  swords,  were  of  no  avail  in  terrifying 


550 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


the  barbarians,  or  resisting  their  pistols,  bayonets,  and  furious 
onset.  In  these  cases,  emulation  among  the  different  parties  of 
English  troops  to  distinguish  themselves,  occasionally  degenerated 
into  unmanly  slaughter  of  their  flying  enemy,  who  were  looked 
upon  rather  as  good  game  than  fellow-men,  and  pursued  in  some 
cases  several  miles.  Most  of  the  Chinese  troops  in  this  engage- 
ment, and  the  attack  on  Ningpo,  were  from  the  western  pro- 
vinces, and  superior  in  size  and  bodily  strength  to  those  hitherto 
met ; they  had  no  intention  of  sparing  their  foes  themselves,  and 
consequently  were  not  easily  persuaded  to  surrender.  They  had 
been  encouraged  to  attack  Ningpo  by  a bounty  to  each  man  of 
four  or  five  dollars  ; and  pieces  of  sycee  were  found  on  the  bodies 
of  the  slain  at  Tsz’ki.  The  match-fires  carried  in  the  belt  fre- 
quently ignited  the  cotton  clothes  of  the  dead  and  wounded,  pro- 
ducing most  revolting  spectacles  of  half-burned  bodies.  The  loss 
of  the  Chinese  was  not  far  from  a thousand  slain  on  the  field, 
many  by  their  own  act,  besides  the  wounded  they  were  seen 
carrying  off:  the  English  casualties  were  six  killed  and  thirty- 
seven  wounded. 

The  conquerors  remained  over  night  in  the  Chinese  camp,  and 
set  fire  to  it  in  the  morning,  consuming  all  the  houses  used  as 
arsenals,  with  arms  and  ammunition  of  every  kind  found  around 
it.  The  force  then  proceeded  to  the  Changki  pass,  a defile  in  the 
mountains,  where  Sir  Hugh  heard  several  thousand  troops  were 
strongly  intrenched,  but  the  imperialists  had  abandoned  their 
camp,  leaving  only  “a  considerable  quantity  of  good  bread,*’ 
which  was  properly  disposed  of;  and,  after  setting  fire  to  the 
works  and  adjacent  buildings,  he  returned  to  Tsz’ki.  In  his 
dispatch,  he  speaks  of  the  forbearance  shown  by  his  men,  during 
their  march,  towards  the  inhabitants ; and  efforts  were  taken  by 
the  English,  throughout  the  war,  to  spare  the  people,  and  respect 
their  property.  The  pawnbrokers’  shops  and  government  grana- 
ries at  Tsz’ki',  were  plundered  or  given  to  the  populace,  which 
also  seized  much  private  property  in  the  town.  The  English 
returned  on  the  17th,  having  dispersed  that  part  of  the  Grand 
Army  chiefly  depended  on  by  the  emperor  and  his  “ majesty- 
bearing generalissimo,”  to  annihilate  the  rebels^  The  fugitives 
spread  such  dismay  among  their  comrades  near  Hangchau,  that 
the  troops  began  to  desert,  and  exhibit  symptoms  of  disbanding 
altogether,  which  was  increased  bv  ihe  dissatisfaction  of  the 


CHAPU  TAKEN. 


551 


people  at  being  obliged  to  support  their  unsuccessful  defenders, 
as  well  as  submit  to  their  tyrannous  exactions. 

A move  on  Hangchau  fu  was  now  contemplated,  but  reinforce, 
ments  for  both  arms  arrived  during  the  months  of  April  and  May, 
nr.d  the  plan  of  operations  for  the  campaign  was  changed.  The 
Chinese  near  Ningpo  and  Chinhai  had  so  much  confidence  in  the 
English,  and  were  moreover  so  much  profited  by  their  presence, 
that  no  disturbances  took  place  between  the  two.  The  rewards 
offered  by  the  Chinese  generals  for  prisoners,  induced  the  people 
to  lay  in  wait  for  stragglers,  and  several  soldiers  were  taken  to 
Hangchau.  One  of  them,  sergeant  Campbell,  was  seized  near 
Tinghai,  and  put  into  a bag  to  be  carried  to  the  coast,  where  he 
was  shipped  in  a junk,  and  landed  at  Chapu,  before  he  was  re- 
lieved of  his  hood.  One  of  his  ears  was  cut  off  with  a pair  of 
scissors,  but  after  reaching  Hangchau  he  was  well  treated.  His 
prison  was  on  an  eminence  outside  of  the  city,  and  during  his 
captivity  there  of  two  months  and  a half,  lie  was  often  questioned 
by  the  Chinese  officers  as  to  the  movements,  forces,  and  arms  of 
his  countrymen,  and  received  a high  idea  of  their  intelligence 
from  the  character  of  their  inquiries.  He  and  his  fellow-prison- 
ers, most  of  whom  were  Indians,  were  liberated  by  llfpu. 

Ningpo  was  evacuated,  May  7th,  and  all  the  troops  which  could 
be  spared  from  Amoy,  Chinhai,  and  Tinghai,  joined  the  force, 
then  about  to  move  on  Chapu.  The  entire  strength  with  Sir 
Hugh  Gough,  consisted  of  parts  of  four  English  regiments,  viz., 
the  18th,  26th,  49th,  and  55th,  and  a few  Indian  troops,  in  all 
about  2,200  men,  exclusive  of  a naval  brigade  of  250  men  ; the 
fleet  comprised  seven  ships  of  war  and  four  steamers,  with  troop 
ships  and  transports.  On  the  17th,  the  whole  anchored  in  the 
harbor  of  Chapu,  a strongly  fortified  city,  about  forty  miles  above 
Chinhai,  and  a place  of  considerable  trade.  About  6,300  Chi- 
nese troops  and  1700  Manchus  were  posted  here  in  forts  and 
intrenched  camps  along  the  beach  and  adjacent  heights.  The 
English  landed  in  three  columns,  as  usual  without  opposition,  and 
had  turned  the  orderly  arranged  army  and  garrisons  of  their  op- 
ponents into  a mass  of  fugitives,  throwing  away  their  arms  and 
uniforms,  and  flying  in  every  direction,  when  300  Manchus,  see- 
ing their  retreat  cut  off,  retired  into  an  inclosed  temple.  The  en- 
trance to  this  building  was  both  narrow  and  dark,  and  every  one 
who  attempted  to  enter  it  was  either  killed  or  wounded,  one  of 


552 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


whom  was  lieut. -colonel  Tomlinson,  which  highly  exasperated 
the  party  sent  against  it,  unused  as  all  were  to  any  serious  re- 
sistance. At  length,  a part  of  the  wall  was  blown  in,  which  ex- 
posed the  inmates  to  the  rifles  of  their  foes,  and  a rocket  or  two 
set  the  building  on  fire,  by  which  they  were  driven  from  their 
position  in  the  upper  part  of  it  to  the  rooms  below  ; when  resist- 
ance ceased,  out  of  the  whole  number  only  fifty  were  taken 
prisoners,  who  were  tied  together  by  their  cues  and  marched  off, 
the  others  having  been  burned  to  death  or  suffocated.  The  dis- 
comfited troops  were  pursued  as  far  as  practicable,  but  a Chinese 
soldier  can  easily  slip  off  his  uniform  jacket,  and  mix  himself 
with  a crowd,  and  thus  elude  pursuit.  The  total  loss  of  the 
invaders  was  13  killed  and  52  wounded. 

The  defences  of  Chapu  being  carried,  and  their  troops  entirely 
dispersed  with  the  loss  of  about  1500  slain,  the  English  moved 
on  to  the  city,  and  took  possession  of  it.  A powder  manufactory 
and  several  arsenals  full  of  ammunition  were  destroyed,  and 
speedily  pillaged  by  the  mob.  This  was  the  first  time  the  Man- 
chus  had  come  in  contact  with  the  English ; and  either  fearing 
that  indiscriminate  slaughter  would  ensue  on  defeat,  as  it  would 
if  therj  had  been  the  victors,  or  else  unable  to  brook  their  dis- 
grace, they  destroyed  themselves  in  great  numbers,  first  immo- 
lating their  wives  and  children,  and  then  cutting  their  own  throats. 
Scores  of  bodies  were  found  in  their  quarters,  some  not  entirely 
dead  ; others  were  prevented  from  self-destruction,  and  in  many 
instances,  young  children  were  found  attending  upon  their  aged 
or  infirm  parents,  awaiting  in  dread  suspense  the  visit  of  the  con- 
querors, from  whom  they  expected  little  less  than  instant  destruc- 
tion. Ten  or  twelve  new  brass  cannon,  a few  ponies,  and  a sup- 
ply of  provisions,  were  the  proceeds  of  the  capture  of  Chapu  and 
its  fortifications.  The  English  surgeons  endeavored  to  bind  up 
the  wounds  of  such  Chinese  as  fell  in  their  way,  and  these  atten- 
tions had  a good  effect  upon  the  high  Chinese  officers,  Ilipu  him- 
self, lately  appointed  to  the  command  of  Chapu,  sending  a letter 
to  the  general  and  admiral,  in  which  he  thanked  them  for  their 
kindness  in  giving  the  hungry  rice  to  eat,  and  caring  for  the 
wounded.  The  old  man  endeavored  to  requite  it  by  making  the 
condition  of  his  prisoners  as  easy  as  he  could ; and  paid  them 
money  on  their  release.  The  English  generals  having  destroyed 
all  the  government  stores,  ammunition,  guns,  and  batteries,  at 


FORTS  AT  PAUSHAN  AND  WUSUNG  TAKEN.  553 

Chapu,  re-embarked ; the  prisoners  were  released  with  a small 
present,  and  on  their  return  to  Hangchau  fu,  loudly  proclaimed 
their  praises  of  the  foreigners. 

The  expedition  proceeded  northward  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Yangtsz’  kiang,  and  reached  the  embouchure  of  the  Wusung  on 
the  13th  of  June,  piloted  by  the  iron  steamers,  whose  small  draft 
of  water  enabled  them  to  search  and  sound  every  creek  and  shal- 
low. The  ships  took  their  allotted  positions  in  the  Wusung  river, 
June  16th,  before  the  well-built  stone  batteries  which  defended 
the  entrance  to  both  rivers,  and  extended  full  three  miles  along 
the  western  banks  of  the  river.  One  of  them  inclosed  the  town 
of  Paushan  and  mounted  134  guns ; a few  forts,  and  another  line 
of  sea  wall  on  the  opposite  side,  mounted  some  large  pieces, 
making  altogether  175  guns,  42  of  which  were  brass.  These  de- 
fences were  manned  by  a well  selected  force,  under  the  command 
of  Chin  Hwaching,  and  the  Chinese  had  encouraged  themselves 
with  the  delusive  hope  that  they  would  prevent  the  expedition 
reaching  Shanghai.  The  ships  had  scarcely  taken  their  stations 
when  the  batteries  opened,  and  both  sides  kept  up  a cannonading 
for  about  two  hours,  the  Chinese  working  their  guns  with  more 
skill  and  effect  than  had  been  before  seen.  When  the  marines 
landed  and  entered  sword  in  hand,  they  bravely  measured  wea- 
pons with  them,  and  died  at  their  posts.  The  war  junks  opened 
their  fire  upon  the  steamers,  but  the  crews  soon  sought  safety  in 
flight.  Among  them  were  several  new  wheel-boats,  constructed 
in  imitation  of  steamers,  having  two  wooden  paddle-wheels  turned 
by  a capstan,  which  interlocked  its  cogs  into  those  upon  the  shaft, 
and  was  worked  by  men  on  the  gun-deck.  These  were  paddling 
out  of  danger,  when  the  steamers  overtook  and  silenced  them.  The 
number  of  Chinese  killed  was  about  100,  and  there  were  not  less 
than  five  thousand  men  composing  the  garrison  and  army.  The 
governor  Niu  Kien,  who  was  present,  in  reporting  the  loss  of  the 
forts  and  dispersion  of  the  troops,  says  he  braved  the  hottest  of 
the  fight,  “ where  cannon-balls  innumerable,  flying  in  awful  con- 
fusion through  the  expanse  of  heaven,  fell  before,  behind,  and  on 
either  side  of  hint ; while  in  the  distance  he  saw  the  ships  of  the 
rebels  standing  erect,  lofty  as  the  mountains.  The  fierce  daring 
of  the  rebels  was  inconceivable  ; officers  and  men  fell  at  their 
posts.  Every  effort  to  resist  and  check  the  onset  was  in  vain, 
and  a retreat  became  inevitable.” 

2< 


VOL.  II. 


554 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Among  the  killed  was  General  Chin,  who  had  taken  unwearied 
pains  to  drill  his  troops,  appoint  them  their  places,  and  inspirit 
them  with  his  own  courageous  self-devotion.  In  a memoir  writ- 
ten after  his  death,  it  is  said  that  on  the  morning  of  the  attack, 
“ he  arrayed  himself  in  his  robes  of  state,  and  having  prayed  to 
heaven  and  earth,  ordered  all  his  officers  and  soldiers  to  get  their 
arms  and  ammunition  ready.”  The  governor-general,  Niu  Kien, 
was  posted  in  the  rear  of  the  batteries,  but  his  conduct  was  not 
such  as  to  cheer  them  on,  and  most  of  the  officers  “ came  forward 
and  begged  to  retire,”  when  they  saw  the  dilapidated  state  of  the 
batteries.  Chin’s  second  suggested  the  propriety  of  their  retreat 
when  the  marines  entered  the  battery,  but  he  drew  his  sword 
upon  him,  saying,  My  confidence  in  you  has  been  misplaced.” 
He  then  inspirited  his  men  to  the  attack,  himself  loading  and 
firing  the  ginjals.  He  fell  pierced  with  wounds  on  the  walls  of 
the  fort,  bowing  his  head  as  he  died  in  the  direction  of  the  empe- 
ror’s palace.  His  majesty  paid  high  honors  to  this  brave  man, 
by  erecting  shrines  to  him  in  his  native  village  and  at  the  place 
where  he  fell  ; in  the  Chmg-liwang  miau  at  Shanghai,  there  is  a 
sitting  image  of  him  in  his  robes  of  state,  before  which  incense  is 
burned.  A reward  of  a thousand  taels  was  given  his  family, 
and  his  son  was  made  a ku-jin  by  special  patent.  In  this  notice, 
it  is  stated  as  a current  rumor  in  Shanghai,  that  about  a fortnight 
after  his  death,  Chin  sent  down  the  news  through  the  divining 
altar  at  Sungkiang  fu  that  he  had  been  promoted  by  the  supreme 
Ruler  of  heaven  to  the  rank  of  second  general  in  chief  of  the 
Board  of  Thunder,  so  that,  although  he  could  not  while  alive, 
repay  the  imperial  favor  by  exterminating  the  rebels,  he  could 
still  afford  some  aid  to  his  country. 

The  stores,  camps,  ammunition,  and  guns  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  were  all  destroyed,  except  the  brass  pieces.  There  was 
one  Spanish  gun  of  old  date,  and  one  Chinese  piece  more  than 
three  centuries  old,  both  of  them  of  singular  shape,  the  latter  be- 
ing like  a small  mouthed  jar.  The  steamers  moved  up  the  river 
the  next  day  to  reconnoitre,  and  the  ships  took  two  forts,  when 
the  troops  landed  on  the  19th,  and  proceeded  to  Shanghai,  twelve 
miles  by  land.  After  the  capture  of  Wusung,  Mr.  Gutzlaff,  who 
accompanied  the  admiral  as  interpreter,  endeavored  to  reassure 
the  people,  and  induce  them  to  stay  in  their  dwellings  ; he  was 
also  successfully  employed  in  procuring  provisions  for  the  expe- 


CAPTURE  OF  SHANGHAI. 


555 


dition.  The  ships  as  they  neared  the  city,  silenced  two  small 
batteries  with  a single  broadside,  and  the  English  troops,  2000  in 
number,  entered  the  city  without  resistance.  The  good  effects  of 
previous  kindness  shown  the  people  in  respecting  their  property 
were  here  seen.  Captain  Loch  says,  that  on  the  march  along 
the  banks,  he  passed  through  two  villages,  where  the  shops  were 
open  with  their  owners  in  them,  and  that  groups  of  people  were 
assembled  on  the  right  and  left  to  see  them  pass.  The  troops  oc- 
cupied the  arsenals,  the  pawnbrokers’  shops,  and  the  temples,  de- 
stroying all  the  government  stores,  and  distributing  the  rice  in  the 
granaries  among  the  people.  The  total  number  of  cannon  taken, 
was  388,  of  which  76  were  of  brass  ; some  of  the  latter  were 
named  “ tamer  and  subduer  of  the  barbarians others,  “ the  rob- 
bers’ judgment,”  and  one  piece  12  feet  long, was  called  the  “ Bar- 
barian.” The  citizens  voluntarily  came  forward  to  supply  pro- 
visions, and  stated  that  there  had  been  a serious  affray  in  the  city 
a few  days  before  between  them  and  their  officers,  who  wished  to 
levy  a subsidy  for  the  defence  of  the  city,  which  even  then  they 
were  on  the  point  of  abandoning.  The  boats,  before  the  walls 
were  crowded  with  inhabitants  flying  with  their  property,  many 
of  whom  returned  in  a few  days.  The  admiral  proceeded  up 
the  W usung,  nearly  50  miles  beyond  Shanghai,  but  having  en- 
tered a wrong  channel  he  could  not  reach  Suchau. 

The  troops  retired  from  Shanghai,  June  23d,  leaving  it  less 
injured  than  any  city  yet  taken,  owing  chiefly  to  the  efforts  made 
by  the  people  themselves  to  protect  their  property.  The  eight 
hundred  junks  and  upwards,  lying  off  the  town,  were  unharmed, 
but  their  owners  no  doubt  were  made  to  contribute  towards  the 
$300,000  exacted  as  a ransom.  Sir  Henry  Pottinger  rejoined 
the  expedition  on  the  twenty-second,  accompanied  by  Lord  Sal- 
toun,  with  large  reinforcements  for  both  arms,  and  immediate 
preparations  were  made  for  proceeding  up  the  Yangtsz’  kiang,  to 
interrupt  the  communication  by  the  Grand  canal  across  that  river 
at  Chinkiang  fu.  The  Chinese  officers,  unable  to  read  any  Eu- 
ropean language,  learned  the  designs  of  their  enemy  chiefly  by 
rumors,  which  natives  in  the  employ  of  the  English  brought  them, 
and  consequently  not  unfrequently  misled  his  majesty  unwitting- 
ly, in  mentioning  the  wrong  places  likely  to  be  attacked,  but  wil- 
fully as  to  their  numbers  and  conduct  in  the  hour  of  victory. 
The  fall  of  Shanghai,  and  the  probable  march  upon  Sungkiang 


556 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


and  Suchau,  greatly  alarmed  him,  and  he  now  began  to  think  the 
rebels  really  intended  to  proceed  up  to  Nanking  and  the  Grand 
Canal,  which  he  had  been  assured  was  not  their  purpose. 

He  accordingly  concentrated  his  troops  at  Chinkiang  fu  and 
Nanking,  Tientsin,  and  Suchau,  four  places  which  he  feared 
were  in  danger,  and  associated  Kiying  and  flipu,  as  commission- 
ers with  the  governor-general,  Niu  Kien,  to  superintend  civil 
affairs  ; the  military  matters  were  still  left  under  the  management 
of  the  imbecile  Yihking.  Only  a few  places  on  the  Yangtsz’ 
kiang  offered  eligible  positions  for  forts,  and  Niu  Kien  declined 
to  stake  the  river  at  Chinkiang,  lest  it  should  alarm  the  inhabit- 
ants. Fire-rafts  and  boats  were,  however,  ordered  for  the  de- 
fence of  that  city,  as  soon  as  the  enemy’s  intentions  were  evident, 
and  reinforcements  of  troops  collected  there  and  at  Nanking, 
some  of  whom  were  encamped  without  the  city,  and  part  incor- 
porated  with  the  garrison.  The  tone  of  the  documents  which 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  showed  the  anxiety  felt  at  court 
regarding  the  result  of  this  movement  up  the  river.  One  of 
the  members  of  the  Inner  Council,  Wang  Ting,  who  had  always 
been  a strenuous  advocate  for  war,  died  about  this  time,  and  at 
Canton  it  was  rumored  that  he  perished  by  his  own  hand,  because 
he  could  not  carry  some  of  his  favorite  plans. 

Just  before  leaving  Wusung,  the  British  plenipotentiary  pub- 
lished and  circulated  a manifesto  for  “ the  information  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  country.”  In  this  paper,  he  recapitulates,  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  Captain  Elliot  had  done,  the  grievances  the 
English  had  suffered  at  Canton,  from  the  spoliations,  insults,  and 
imprisonment,  inflicted  upon  them  by  Lin  in  order  to  extort  opium, 
which  was  given  up  by  the  English  superintendent  to  rescue 
himself  and  his  countrymen  from  death.  The  duplicity  of  the 
Chinese  government,  in  sending  down  Kishen  as  a commissioner 
to  Canton  to  arrange  matters,  and  then,  while  he  was  negotiating, 
to  break  off  the  treaty,  and  treacherously  resort  to  war,  was  an- 
other “grand  instance  of  offence  against  England.”  The  bad 
treatment  of  kidnapped  prisoners,  the  mendacious  reports  of  vic- 
tories gained  over  the  English,  which  misled  the  emperor  and 
retarded  the  settlement  of  the  war,  was  another  cause  of  offence. 
The  restriction  of  the  trade  to  Canton,  establishment  of  the  mo- 
nopoly of  the  hong-merchants,  the  oppressive  and  unjust  exactions 
imposed  upon  it  through  their  scheming,  and  many  other  minor 


PROCLAMATIONS  ISSUED  BY  BOTH  PARTIES. 


557 


grievances  which  need  not  be  enumerated,  formed  the  last  count 
in  this  indictment.  Three  things  must  be  granted  before  peace 
can  be  made  ; viz.  the  cession  of  an  island  for  commerce,  and  the 
residence  of  merchants  ; compensation  for  losses  and  expenses ; 
and  allowing  a friendly  and  becoming  intercourse  between  the 
officers  of  the  two  countries  on  terms  of  equality.  This  procla- 
mation, however,  makes  no  mention  of  the  real  cause  of  the  war, 
the  opium  trade,  and  in  that  respect  was  not  altogether  an  inge- 
nuous, fair  statement  of  the  whole  question.  While  Sir  Henry 
Pottinger  knew  that  the  use  of  this  drug  was  one  of  the  greatest 
evils  which  afflicted  the  people,  he  should  have,  in  a document  of 
this  nature,  left  no  room  for  the  supposition,  on  the  part  of  either 
ruler  or  subject,  that  the  war  was  undertaken  to  uphold  and 
countenance  the  opium  trade.  He  could  not  have  been  ignorant 
that  the  emperor  and  his  ministers  supposed  the  unequal  contest 
they  were  waging  was  caused  by  their  unsuccessful  efforts  to 
suppress  the  traffic ; and  that  if  they  were  defeated,  the  opium 
trade  must  go  on  unchecked.  The  question  of  supremacy  was 
set  at  rest  in  this  proclamation  ; it  must  be  given  up ; but  no  en- 
couragement was  held  out  to  re&ssure  the  Chinese  government  in 
their  lawful  desire  to  restrain  the  tremendous  scourge.  Why 
should  he  ? If  he  encouraged  any  action  against  the  trade,  he 
could  expect  little  promotion  or  reward  from  his  superiors,  who 
looked  to  it  for  all  the  revenue  it  could  be  made  to  bring  ; or  con- 
sideration from  the  merchants,  who  would  not  thank  him  for  tell- 
ing the  Chinese,  they  might  attack  the  opium  clippers  wherever 
they  found  them,  and  seize  all  the  opium  they  could,  and  English 
power  would  not  interfere. 

The  emperor  issued  a proclamation  about  the  same  time,  reca- 
pitulating his  conduct,  and  efforts  to  put  a stop  to  the  war,  stating 
what  he  had  done  to  ward  off  calamity,  and  repress  the  rebels. 
The  opium  trade,  and  his  efforts  for  a long  time  to  repress  it,  and 
especially  the  measures  of  Lin,  are  in  this  paper  regarded  as  the 
causes  of  the  war,  which  concludes  by  expressing  his  regret  for 
the  sufferings  and  losses  occasioned  his  subjects  by  the  attacks  of 
the  English  at  Amoy,  Chusan,  Ningpo,  and  elsewhere,  and  exhort- 
ing them  to  renewed  efforts.  It  is  a matter  of  lasting  regret,  that 
the  impression  should  have  been  left  to  remain  upon  the  minds  of 
the  Chinese  authorities,  that  the  war  was  an  opium  war,  and 
waged  chiefly  to  uphold  it.  But  nations,  like  individuals,  must 


558 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


usually  trust  to  might  more  than  right  to  maintain  their  standing  ; 
and  when  conscious  weakness  leads  them  to  adopt  underhand 
measures  to  regain  their  rights,  the  temptation  which  led  to  these 
acts  is  rarely  thought  of  in  the  day  of  retribution.  The  demands 
of  England  were  not  exacting,  but  she  should,  and  could  at  this 
time,  in  an  effectual  manner,  through  her  plenipotentiary,  have 
cleared  herself  from  all  sanction  of  this  traffic.  If  Lord  Mel- 
bourne could  wish  it  were  a less  objectionable  traffic,  Sir  Henry 
Pottinger  might  surely  have  intimated  in  as  public  a manner  his 
regret  at  its  existence. 

The  number  of  ships,  steamers,  transports,  and  all,  in  the  Ex- 
pedition, when  it  left  Wusung,  July  6th,  was  seventy-two,  most 
of  them  large  vessels.  They  were  arranged  in  five  divisions, 
with  an  advanced  squadron  of  five  small  steamers  and  tenders, 
to  survey  the  river,  each  division  having  a frigate,  or  seventy- 
four,  at  its  head.  The  world  has  seldom  seen  a more  conspicu- 
ous instance  of  the  superiority  of  a small  body,  possessing  science, 
skill,  and  discipline,  over  immense  multitudes  of  undisciplined, 
ignorant,  and  distrustful  soldiers,  than  was  exhibited  in  this  bold 
manoeuvre.  Not  to  speak  alone  of  the  great  disparity  in  numbers, 
the  distant  quarters  of  the  globe  whence  the  ships  were  collected,  the 
many  languages  and  tribes  found  in  the  invading  force,  the  mag- 
nitude of  their  ships,  abundance  of  their  supplies,  and  superiority 
of  their  weapons  of  war,  the  moral  energy  and  confidence  of 
power  in  this  small  troop,  over  its  ineffective  adversary,  was  not 
less  conspicuous.  The  sight  of  such  a fleet,  sailing  up  their  great 
river,  struck  the  inhabitants  with  mingled  astonishment  and  dread. 

A small  fort  near  Tungshu  was  destroyed  by  a party,  accom- 
panied by  Mr.  Gutzlaff,  the  garrison  making  no  defence.  At 
Sishan,  two  new  batteries  had  been  hastily  constructed  in  a well 
chosen  position,  which  opened  their  fire  upon  the  advanced  squad- 
ron, but  they  were  silenced,  taken,  and  destroyed,  with  all  the 
stores  and  ammunition  found  in  them,  in  a very  short  time.  The 
fleet  reached  Chinkiang  fu,  and  the  vicinity  of  the  Grand  Canal, 
July  20th,  its  passage  having  been  delayed  by  adverse  winds, 
and  the  rapidity  of  the  current  near  Silver  Island.  A survey  of 
the  ground  was  taken  on  the  preceding  days,  by  the  heads  of  the 
expedition,  preparatory  to  the  attack. 

Chinkiang  fu,  i.  e.  Mart-river  city,  lies  half  a mile  from  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Yangtsz’  kiang,  eligibly  situated  for  trade 


PASSAGE  UP  THE  RIVER  YAXGTSZ’  KIANG. 


559 


and  surrounded  by  a high  and  solid  wall  four  miles  in  circuit, 
and  having  hills  of  considerable  elevation  in  its  rear.  The  canal 
comes  in  from  the  south,  close  to  the  walls  on  its  western  side, 
and  along  the  shores  of  both  river  and  canal  are  extensive 
suburbs — at  this  time  completely  under  the  command  of  the  guns 
of  the  ships,  which  could  also  bombard  the  city  itself  from  some 
positions.  A bluff  hill  on  the  north  partly  concealed  the  town 
itself  from  the  ships,  and  it  was  not  till  this  hill-top  had  been 
gained,  that  a full  view  of  the  three  Chinese  encampments  behind 
the  city  were  had.  The  general  divided  his  small  force  of  seven 
thousand  men  into  three  brigades,  under  the  command  of  major- 
generals  Lord  Saltoun,  Schoedde,  and  Bartley,  besides  an  artillery 
brigade  of  five  hundred  and  seventy  rank  and  file,  under  lieute- 
nant-colonel Montgomerie.  The  Chinese  encampments  contained 
more  than  three  thousand  men,  most  of  them  soldiers  from  Hupeh 
and  Chehkiang  provinces.  The  force  within  the  city  consisted  of 
1200  regular  troops  belonging  to  the  Manchu  garrison,  and  800 
Mongols  sent  from  Koko-nor,  together  with  835  Chinese  troops, 
making  altogether  from  2600  to  2800  fighting  men  ; the  entire 
force  was  under  the  command  of  Hailing,  who  had  made  such  a 
disposition  of  his  troops,  and  strengthened  his  means  of  defence 
as  well  as  the  time  allowed,  but  was  unable  to  accomplish  all 
that  he  wished : he  closes  his  last  communication  to  the  emperor 
with  the  assurance,  that  “ he  can  do  no  otherwise  than  exert  his 
whole  heart  and  strength  in  endeavors  to  repay  a small  fraction 
of  the  favors  he  has  enjoyed  from  his  government.’5 

The  right  brigade  under  Lord  Saltoun  soon  drove  the  imperi- 
alists out  of  their  camp,  who  did  not  wait  for  his  near  approach, 
but  broke  and  dispersed  after  firing  three  or  four  distant  volleys 
from  their  jingals  and  matchlocks  ; the  camp  and  its  stores  were 
burned,  and  the  enemy  allowed  to  escape,  as  the  country  was 
wooded  and  the  day  too  hot  to  pursue  them  far.  Capt.  Loch, 
who  accompanied  the  general  as  an  aide,  says  that  while  the  party 
of  volunteers  were  approaching  the  camp,  they  passed  through  a 
small  hamlet  on  the  hills  ; “ the  village  had  not  been  deserted ; 
some  of  the  houses  were  closed,  while  the  inhabitants  of  others 
were  standing  in  the  streets  staring  at  us  in  stupid  wonder  ; and 
although  they  were  viewing  a contest  between  foreigners  and  their 
fellow-countrymen,  and  in  danger  themselves  of  being  shot,  were 
coolly  eating  their  meals.” 


5G0 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  centre  brigade  under  major-general  Schoedde  landed  on 
the  northern  corner  of  the  city  to  escalade  the  walls  on  that  side, 
and  prevent  the  troops  from  the  camp  entering  the  gates.  He 
was  received  by  a well  sustained  fire,  his  men  placing  their  lad- 
ders and  mounting  in  the  face  of  a determined  resistance  ; as  soon 
as  they  gained  the  parapet,  they  drove  the  Tartars  before  them, 
though  their  passage  was  bravely  disputed.  While  they  were 
mounting  the  walls,  a fire  w'as  kept  up  on  the  city  by  another  part 
of  the  same  brigade  stationed  on  the  hills  on  the  northern  and 
eastern  sides,  and  after  clearing  the  ramparts,  they  proceeded  to 
the  western  gate,  conquering  all  opposition  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  city,  and  driving  the  Tartars  to  the  southern  quarter. 

The  left  brigade  under  major-general  Bartley  did  not  reach 
the  western  side  of  the  city  as  soon  as  was  expected  ; being 
delayed  by  the  canal,  here  between  seventy  and  eighty  feet 
broad,  which  formed  a deep  ditch  on  this  side.  Preparations 
were  soon  made  to  blow  the  western  gate  in,  which  was  done 
with  great  skill  and  precision,  the  blast  carrying  before  it  a high 
pile  of  sand-bags,  piled  on  the  inside  to  strengthen  the  bars. 
While  this  work  was  going  on,  seven  boats  from  the  Blonde 
carrying  artillerymen  entered  the  canal  to  proceed  up  to  the 
gate,  but  when  nearly  opposite  were  repulsed  by  a severe  fire 
from  the  walls,  and  the  men  compelled  to  abandon  the  three  lead- 
ing ones,  and  take  refuge  in  the  houses  along  the  banks  ; the 
other  boats,  seeing  the  danger,  halted  under  cover  of  some  houses, 
until  their  comrades  rejoined  them,  when  all  returned  to  the  ship. 
Two  hundred  marines  were  instantly  landed,  and  with  three  hun- 
dred sipahis  soon  recovered  the  boats,  and  carried  the  wounded 
men  aboard  ship.  The  party  then  planted  their  ladders  in  the 
face  of  a spirited  fire  from  the  walls,  and  succeeded  in  carrying 
them  against  all  opposition,  and  burning  a guardhouse  on  the 
ramparts. 

All  resistance  at  the  three  gateways  having  been  overcome,  it 
was  supposed  that  the  city  was  pretty  much  subdued,  but  the 
Tartars,  now  driven  into  the  southern  part  of  it,  still  held  out. 
The  heat  was  so  great,  that  Sir  Hugh  ordered  a halt  for  his  men, 
and  dispatched  a small  force  to  proceed  along  the  western  ram- 
parts to  occupy  the  southern  gate.  This  body  had  proceeded 
about  half  a mile,  when  it  encountered  a sudden  resistance  from 
a body  of  800  or  1000  Tartars  drawn  up  in  an  open  space,  in 


CAPTURE  OF  -CHINKIANG  FU. 


561 


military  array,  headed  by  an  officer  on  horseback.  They  fired 
with  steadiness  and  regularity,  but  their  bravery  was  of  no  avail, 
for  the  party,  giving  them  one  volley,  charged  down  the  bank  and 
scattered  them  immediately,  though  not  without  some  resistance. 
The  firing  brought  up  the  general,  who  resolved  to  sweep  the  city 
from  house  to  house  before  quitting  it ; the  southern  gate  was  oc- 
cupied without  further  opposition,  and  all  systematic  resistance 
ceased.  The  dispersed  Tartars,  however,  kept  up  a scattering 
fire  along  the  streets  and  from  the  houses,  which  served  chiefly  to 
irritate  their  enemies  and  increase  their  own  loss. 

The  heat  of  the  day  having  passed,  the  commander-in-chief, 
guided  by  Mr.  Gutzlaff  and  some  Chinese,  marched  with  two 
regiments  into  the  southern  quarter  of  the  city.  The  scenes  of 
desolation  and  woe,  which  he  met  in  this  march,  seem  to  have 
sickened  the  greyhaired  warrior,  for  he  says  in  his  dispatches, 
“ finding  dead  bodies  of  Tartars  in  every  house  we  entered,  prin- 
cipally women  and  children,  thrown  into  wells  or  otherwise 
murdered  by  their  own  people,  I was  glad  to  withdraw  the  troops 
from  this  frightful  scene  of  destruction,  and  place  them  in  the 
northern  quarter.”  It  was  indeed  a terrific  scene.  Capt.  Loch, 
who  accompanied  Sir  Hugh,  says  they  went  to  a large  building, 
thought  to  be  the  prefect’s  house,  which  was  forced  open  and  found 
entirely  deserted,  though  completely  furnished  and  of  great  ex- 
tent; “ we  set  fire  to  it,  and  marched  on.”  What  the  object  or 
advantage  of  this  act  was  he  does  not  say.  Leaving  the  general, 
he  turned  down  a street  and  burst  open  the  door  of  a large  mansion  ; 
the  objects  which  met  his  view  were  shocking. 

“ After  we  had  forced  our  way  over  piles  of  furniture  placed  to  barri- 
cade the  door,  we  entered  an  open  court  strewed  with  rich  stuffs  and 
covered  with  clotted  blood  ; and  upon  the  steps  leading  to  the  hall  of 
ancestors,  there  were  two  bodies  of  youthful  Tartars,  cold  and  stiff,  who 
seemed  to  be  brothers.  Having  gained  the  threshold  of  their  abode,  they 
had  died  where  they  had  fallen  from  loss  of  blood.  Stepping  over  these 
bodies  we  entered  the  hall,  and  met  face  to  face,  three  women  seated,  a 
mother  and  two  daughters,  and  at  their  feet  lay  two  bodies  of  elderly 
men,  with  their  throats  cut  from  ear  to  ear,  their  senseless  heads  resting 
upon  the  feet  of  their  relations.  To  the  right  were  two  young  girls, 
beautiful  and  delicate,  crouching  over  and  endeavoring  to  conceal  a 
living  soldier.  In  the  heat  of  action,  when  the  blood  is  up  and  the 
struggle  is  for  life  between  man  and  man,  the  anguish  of  the  wounded 
and  the  sight  of  misery  and  pain  is  unheeded  ; humanity  is  partially 

vol.  ii.  25* 


562 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


obscured  by  danger : but  when  excitement  subsides  with  victory,  a heart 
would  be  hardiy  human  that  could  feel  unaffected  by  the  retrospection. 
And  the  hardest  heart  of  the  oldest  man  who  ever  fived  a life  of  rapine 
and  slaughter,  could  not  have  gazed  on  this  scene  of  woe  unmoved.  I 
stopped,  horror-stricken  at  what  I saw.  The  expression  of  cold  unuttera- 
ble despair  depicted  on  the  mother’s  face  changed  to  the  violent  workings 
of  scorn  and  hate,  which  at  last  burst  forth  in  a paroxysm  of  invective, 
afterwards  in  floods  of  tears,  which  apparently,  if  anything  could,  relieved 
her.  She  came  close  to  me  and  seized  me  by  the  arm,  and  with  clenched 
teeth  and  deadly  frown,  pointed  to  the  bodies,  to  her  daughters,  to  her  yet 
splendid  house,  and  to  herself;  then  stepped  back  a pace  and  with  firmly 
closed  hands  and  in  a husky  voice,  I could  see  by  her  gestures  spoke  of 
her  misery,  her  hate,  and,  I doubt  not,  her  revenge.  I attempted  by  signs 
to  explaiu,  offered  her  my  services,  but  was  spurned.  I endeavored  to 
make  her  comprehend  that,  however  great  her  present  misery,  it  might 
be  in  her  unprotected  state  a hundredfold  increased;  that  if  she  would 
place  herself  under  my  guidance,  I would  pass  her  through  the  city  gates 
in  safety  into  the  open  country  ; but  the  poor  woman  would  not  listen  to 
me,  and  the  whole  family  was  by  this  time  in  loud  lamentation.  All  that 
remained  for  me  to  do  was  to  prevent  the  soldiers  bayoneting  the  man, 
who,  since  our  entrance,  had  attempted  to  escape.” 

The  destruction  of  life  was  frightful.  Some  of  the  Manchus  shut 
the  doors  of  their  houses,  while  through  the  crevices  persons  could 
be  seen  deliberately  cutting  the  throats  of  their  women,  and  destroy- 
ing their  children  by  throwing  them  into  wells.  In  one  house,  a 
man  was  shot  while  sawing  his  wife’s  throat  as  he  held  her  over  a 
well,  into  which  he  had  already  thrown  his  children  ; her  wound 
was  sewed  up,  and  the  lives  of  the  children  saved.  In  another 
house,  no  less  than  fourteen  dead  bodies,  principally  women, 
were  discovered;  while  such  was  their  terror  and  hatred  of  the 
invaders,  that  every  Manchu  preferred  resistance,  death,  suicide, 
or  flight,  to  surrender.  Out  of  a Manchu  population  of  four 
thousand,  it  was  estimated  that  not  more  than  five  hundred  sur- 
vived, the  greater  part  having  perished  by  their  own  hands. 

The  public  offices  were  ransacked,  and  all  arms  and  warlike 
stores  destroyed  ; only  $60,000  in  sycee  were  found  in  the  treasury, 
and  the  additions  to  the  prize  fund  were  not  great.  The  populace 
began  to  pillage  the  city  and  suburbs,  and  in  one  instance,  fearing 
a stop  might  be  put  to  their  rapacity,  they  set  fire  to  the  buildings 
at  each  end  of  a street  in  order  to  plunder  a pawnbroker’s  shop 
without  interference.  The  streets  and  lanes  both  in  and  out  of 
the  walls  were  strewed  with  silken  fur,  and  other  rich  dresses- 


TRANSACTIONS  AT  1CHIN«  HIEN. 


o63 


which  these  robbers  had  thrown  away  when  they  saw  something 
more  valuable,  and  the  sipahis  and  camp-followers  belonging  to 
the  army  took  what  they  could  find.  It  was  no  mercy  to  the 
real  owners  to  prevent  them,  and  parties  were  accordingly 
stationed  at  the  gates  to  take  everything  from  the  natives  as  they 
went  out,  or  which  they  threw  over  the  walls,  and  in  this  way 
the  thieves  were  in  their  turn  stripped.  Within  twenty-four  hours 
after  the  troops  landed,  the  city  and  suburbs  of  Chinkiang  fu  were 
a mass  of  ruin  and  complete  destruction  ; part  of  the  eastern  wall 
was  subsequently  blown  in,  and  all  the  gates  dismantled  to  prevent 
any  treachery.  The  total  loss  of  the  English  was  thirty-seven 
killed  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-one  wounded.  The  chiefs 
of  the  expedition  left  general  Schoedde’s  brigade  on  the  hills 
with  a few  ships  near  by,  and  moved  up  the  river  to  Nanking,  the 
channel  having  been  carefully  examined  by  the  blockading  vessels 
placed  along  each  bank  at  intervals  to  interrupt  the  trade  of  both 
the  river  and  canal,  and  detain  the  junks. 

A curious  contrast  to  the  terrible  scenes  going  on  at  Chinkiang 
fu,  was  seen  at  Iching  hien  on  the  northern  side  of  the  river.  Four 
days  before,  the  approach  of  the  steamer  Nemesis  had  caused  no 
little  consternation ; and  in  the  evening  a Chinese  gentleman 
came  off  to  her  with  a few  presents  to  learn  if  there  was  any  in- 
tention of  attacking  it.  He  was  told  that  if  he  would  send  sup- 
plies of  meat  and  provisions  to  the  vessel  no  harm  would  be  done, 
and  all  he  brought  should  be  paid  for.  In  the  morning,  he  and 
others  returned  with  provisions,  and  remained  on  board  to  see 
the  steamer  chase  junks  and  bring  them  to;  being  much  amazed 
at  these  novel  operations,  which  gave  them  a new  idea  of  the 
energy  of  their  invaders.  In  the  evening,  commands  were  given 
him  to  bring  provisions  in  larger  quantities  to  the  ships  stationed 
there,  and  three  boats  went  up  to  the  town  by  a branch  of  the 
canal  to  procure  them.  The  people  showed  no  hostility,  and 
through  his  assistance  the  English  opened  a market  in  the  court- 
yard of  a temple  near  the  canal,  at  which  abundant  supnlies 
were  purchased.  They  were  put  aboard  small  junks,  and  con- 
veyed to  the  fleet.  On  the  21st,  the  same  person  came  accord- 
ing to  agreement  to  accompany  a large  party  of  English  from 
the  ships  to  his  house,  where  he  had  prepared  an  entertainment 
for  them.  Through  the  medium  of  a Chinese  boy,  communica- 
tion was  easily  carried  on,  and  the  alarms  of  the  townspeople 


%4 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


quieted  ; a proclamation  was  also  issued,  stating  that  every  peace- 
able person  would  be  unharmed.  This  gentleman  had  invited  a 
large  company  of  his  male  relatives  and  friends,  and  served  up  a 
collation  for  the  assembled  guests  ; all  this  time  the  firing  was 
heard  from  Chinkiang  fu,  where  the  countrymen  of  those  so 
agreeably  occupied  were  engaged  in  hostile  encounter.  On  re- 
turning to  their  boats  an  additional  mark  of  respect  was  shown 
them  by  placing  a well  dressed  man  each  side  of  every  officer  to 
fan  him  as  he  walked.  At  the  market-temple,  another  entertain- 
ment was  also  served  up.  No  injury  was  done  to  this  town,  and 
the  forbearance  of  the  English  was  not  without  good  effect. 

Some  of  the  large  ships  were  towed  up  to  Nanking,  and  the 
whole  fleet  reached  it  August  9th,  at  which  time  the  heads  of  the 
expedition  had  already  made  preparation  for  the  assault ; but  de- 
sirous of  avoiding  a repetition  of  the  sad  scenes  of  Chinkiang  fu, 
had  also  sent  a communication  to  Niu  Kien,  stating  that  they 
would  ransom  the  city  for  three  millions  of  dollars.  It  was 
thought  advisable,  however,  to  make  a demonstration ; and  the 
ships  of  war  were  placed  in  position  to  bombard  the  suburbs, 
while  the  troops  were  detailed  for  their  respective  services,  and 
some  of  them  landed. 

This  celebrated  city  lies  about  three  miles  south  of  the  river, 
but  the  north-east  corner  of  an  outer  wall  reaches  within  700 
paces  of  the  water ; the  western  face  runs  along  the  base  of 
wooded  hills  for  part  of  its  distance,  and  is  then  continued  through 
flat  grounds  around  the  southern  side,  both  being  defended  by  a 
deep  ditch.  The  suburbs  are  on  this  low  ground.  The  eastern 
part  of  the  city  is  irregular  and  less  thickly  settled,  entered  by 
three  gates  to  be  reached  by  well  paved  causeways.  Sir  Hugh 
intended  to  bombard  the  suburbs,  and  make  an  entrance  on  the 
eastern  side,  while  diversions  at  other  points  perplexed  the  garri- 
son. His  force  consisted  of  only  4,500  effective  men  ; there 
were,  as  nearly  as  could  be  learned,  6,000  Manchu  and  9,000 
Chinese  troops  within  the  city.  On  the  11th,  Lord  Saltoun’s  bri- 
gade landed  at  a village,  from  whence  a paved  road  led  to  one  of 
the  eastern  gates,  and  other  detachments  were  stationed  in  the 
neighborhood,  while  their  advance  upon  the  city  was  covered  by 
the  artillery  on  the  Chungshan  range,  the  base  of  which  com- 
manded the  ramparts.  Everything  was  in  readiness  for  the  as- 
sault by  daylight  of  the  15th  of  August,  and  the  governor-gene- 


NANKING  INVESTED  BY  THE  ENGLISH. 


565 


ral  was  told  that  it  would  assuredly  be  made  unless  the  commis- 
sioners produced  their  authority  for  treating. 

In  the  interval  between  the  downfall  of  Chinkiang  fu  and  in- 
vestment of  Nanking,  several  communications  were  received  from 
the  Chinese  officers,  and  one  from  Kiying,  couched  in  the  most 
conciliatory  language,  and  evincing  a great  desire  for  peace.  Sir 
Henry  Pottinger  replied  to  this  in  the  same  strain,  deploring  the 
war  and  calamities  caused  by  its  progress  and  continuance,  but 
stating  that  he  could  have  no  interview  with  any  individual,  how- 
ever exalted,  who  was  not  properly  commissioned  to  treat  for 
peace.  It  is  probable  that  the  emperor  did  not  receive  any  sug- 
gestion from  his  ministers  in  regard  to  making  peace  until  after 
the  fall  of  Chinkiang,  and  it  was  a matter  of  some  importance, 
therefore,  for  llipu  and  his  colleague  to  delay  the  attack  on  Nan- 
king until  an  answer  could  be  received  from  the  capital.  The 
usual  doubts  in  the  minds  of  the  English  as  to  their  sincerity  led 
them  to  look  upon  the  whole  as  a scheme  to  perfect  the  defences, 
and  gain  time  for  the  people  to  retire  ; consequently,  the  prepa- 
rations slowly  went  on  for  taking  the  city,  in  order  to  deepen  the 
conviction  that  if  one  party  was  practising  any  deception,  the 
other  certainly  was  in  earnest. 

On  the  night  of  the  14th,  scarcely  three  hours  before  the  artil- 
lery was  to  open  upon  the  ancient  capital  of  China,  llipu,  Ki- 
ying,  and  Niu  Kien,  addressed  a joint  letter  to  Sir  Henry  Pottinger 
requesting  an  interview  in  the  morning,  when  they  would  pro- 
duce their  credentials,  and  arrange  for  further  proceedings.  This 
request  was  granted  with  some  reluctance,  for  the  day  before,  the 
pitching  sz’  and  Tartar  commandant  had  behaved  very  unsatis- 
factorily, refusing  to  exhibit  the  credentials,  or  discuss  the  terms 
of  peace  or  ransom.  The  distress  ensuent  upon  the  blockade 
was  becoming  greater  and  greater  ; more  then  seven  hundred 
vessels  had  been  stopped  at  Chinkiang  coming  from  the  south,  and 
a large  fleet  lay  in  the  northern  branch  of  the  canal,  so  that  no 
slight  probability  existed  of  the  whole  province  falling  into  an- 
archy if  the  pressure  was  not  removed.  The  authorities  of  the 
city  of  Yangchau  on  the  canal,  had  already  sent  half  a million 
dollars  as  the  ransom  of  that  place,  while  governor  Niu  would 
only  offer  a third  of  a million  to  ransom  the  capital. 

The  emperor’s  authority  to  treat  with  the  English  was,  how- 
ever, exhibited  at  this  meeting,  and  in  return  Sir  Henry’s  was 


566 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


fully  explained  to  them.  The  delegates  on  the  part  of  the  com- 
missioners were  Hwang  Ngantung,  secretary  to  Kiying,  and  Chin, 
the  Manchu  commandant,  while  Major  Malcom,  secretary  of  le- 
gation, and  Mr.  Morrison,  acted  on  the  part  of  the  plenipotentiary. 
Captain  Loch,  who  was  present  at  this  meeting,  humorously  de- 
scribes the  solemn  manner  in  which  the  emperor’s  commission 
was  brought  out  from  the  box  in  which  it  was  deposited,  and  the 
dismay  of  the  lower  attendants  at  seeing  the  barbarians  irreve- 
rently handle  it,  and  examine  its  authenticity  with  so  little  awe. 
The  skeleton  of  the  treaty  was  immediately  drafted  for  Hwang 
to  take  to  his  superiors.  General  Chin  laughingly  remarked, 
that  though  the  conditions  were  hard,  they  were  no  more  so  than 
would  have  been  demanded  by  them  if  they  had  been  the  victors, 
and  referred  to  the  ships  and  steamers  of  the  English  as  their 
glory  and  stronghold.  The  bearing  of  these  officers  in  their  pre- 
sent humiliating  position  was  courteous,  and  Hwang  especially, 
found  favor  with  all  who  were  thrown  into  his  company.  Another 
meeting  was  appointed  for  the  16th,  to  arrange  the  articles  of  the 
treaty,  and  the  company  separated. 

The  utmost  care  being  requisite  in  drawing  up  the  articles, 
most  of  the  work  falling  upon  Mr.  Morrison,  it  was  not  till  late 
at  night  on  the  17th  that  the  final  draft  was  sent  to  the  Chinese. 
The  plenipotentiary  announced  the  progress  of  negotiation,  on  the 
18th,  and  desired  the  general  and  admiral  to  suspend  hostilities, 
at  which  time  arrangements  were  also  made  for  an  interview  the 
next  day  between  the  Chinese  and  English  plenipotentiaries  on 
board  the  Cornwallis.  The  English  officers  in  the  meantime 
amused  themselves  in  exploring  the  vicinity  of  the  city,  and  the 
demand  for  provisions  of  all  kinds  to  supply  the  force,  caused  a 
brisk  trade  highly  beneficial  to  the  Chinese,  and  well  calculated 
to  please  them. 

On  the  19th,  Kiying,  fllpu,  and  Niu  Kien,  accompanied  by- 
Hwang,  Chin,  and  a large  suite,  paid  their  first  visit  to  the  Eng- 
lish. The  steamer  Medusa  brought  them  alongside  the  Corn- 
wallis, and  Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  supported  by  the  admiral  and 
general,  received  them  on  the  quarter-deck.  The  ship  was 
dressed  with  flags,  and  the  crowd  of  gaily  dressed  officers  in  blue 
and  scarlet  contrasted  well  with  the  bright  crapes  and  robes  of  the 
Chinese.  This  visit  was  one  of  mere  ceremony,  and  after  par- 
taking of  refreshments  and  examining  the  ship  in  all  its  parts,  the 


PRELIMINARY  MEETINGS  FOR  PEACE. 


567 


commissioners  retired,  expressing  their  gratification  at  what  they 
saw.  They  conducted  themselves  with  decorum  in  their  nove 
position,  and  no  one,  unacquainted  with  the  circumstances,  would 
have  thought  that  it  was  the  first  time  they  had  met  foreigners. 
Kiying  and  Ilipu,  though  both  brought  up  in  the  full  persuasion 
of  the  supremacy  of  their  sovereign  over  the  rulers  of  all  other 
nations,  and  particularly  over  the  English,  yet  manifested  no  ill- 
concealed  chagrin.  They  had  previously  sent  up  a report  of  the 
progress  of  the  expedition  after  the  capture  of  Chinkiang  fu,  re- 
questing in  it  that  the  demands  of  the  invaders  might  be  conceded  ; 
in  this  memorial  the  inefficiency  of  their  troops  is  acknowledged, 
and  a candid  statement  of  the  impossibility  of  effectually  resisting 
any  longer,  laid  before  his  majesty  with  cogent  reasons  for  ac- 
ceding to  the  demands  of  the  English,  as  the  easiest  and  cheap- 
est course  of  procedure.  The  further  disasters  which  will  ensue 
if  the  war  is  not  brought  to  a close  are  hinted  at,  and  the  conces- 
sion of  the  points  at  issue  considered  in  a manner  least  humbling 
to  imperial  vanity.  The  sum  of  twenty-one  million  dollars  to 
be  paid  is  regarded  by  them  as  a present  to  the  soldiers  and  sail- 
ors before  sending  them  home ; partly  as  the  liquidation  of  just 
debts  due  from  the  hong-merchants,  whose  insolvency  made  them 
chargeable  to  the  government ; and  partly  as  indemnification  for 
the  opium.  Trade  at  the  five  ports  was  to  be  allowed,  because 
the  foreigners  had  already  seized  four  of  them,  and  held  other 
places,  and  this  was  the  only  way  to  induce  them  to  withdraw, 
while  Hongkong  could  be  ceded  inasmuch  as  they  had  already 
built  houses  there.  The  memorial  is  a curious  effort  to  render 
the  bitter  pill  more  palatable  to  themselves  and  their  master. 

The  English  plenipotentiary,  accompanied  by  the  commanders- 
in-chief,  and  a large  concourse  of  officers,  returned  the  visit  on 
shore  in  a few  days,  and  were  met  at  the  entrance  of  a temple  by 
the  commissioners,  who  led  them  through  a guard  of  newly  uni- 
formed and  unarmed  soldiers  into  the  building,  the  bands  of  both 
nations  striking  up  their  music  at  the  same  time.  This  visit 
passed  off  in  compliments  and  courtesies,  and  continued  the  good 
understanding  which  prevailed  ; the  room  had  been  carpeted  and 
gaily  ornamented  with  lanterns  and  scrolls  for  the  occasion,  while 
it  and  the  adjacent  grounds  accommodated  a crowd  of  natives. 
A more  important  meeting  for  discussing  the  points  of  the 
treaty  was  held  between  the  plenipotentiaries  in  the  college  hall 


568 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


on  the  26th.  Sir  Henry  Pottinger  and  his  suite,  consisting  of  his 
secretary,  Major  Malcom,  Messrs.  Morrison,  Thom,  and  Gutz- 
lafF,  the  three  interpreters,  and  three  other  gentlemen,  proceeded 
up  the  canal  about  four  miles  in  a barge  to  the  landing-place, 
where  they  were  met  by  a brigadier  and  two  colonels ; the  banks 
of  the  canal  were  lined  with  troops.  The  party  then  took  their 
horses,  and,  preceded  by  a mounted  escort,  were  received  at  the 
city  gate  by  the  secretaries  of  flipu  ; the  procession  advanced  to 
the  place  of  meeting,  guarded  by  a detachment  of  Manchu  ca- 
valry, whose  shaggy  ponies  and  flowing  dresses  presenting  a sin- 
gular contrast  to  the  envoy’s  escort  mounted  on  beautiful  Arabs. 
He  himself  was  conducted  through  the  outer  gate  up  the  court, 
and  through  the  second  gateway  ascending  the  steps  into  the  third 
entrance,  where  he  dismounted,  and  entered  the  building  with 
the  commissioners  and  governor-general.  The  room  had  been 
elegantly  fitted  up,  and  a crowd  of  official  attendants  dressed  in 
their  ceremonial  robes  stood  around.  Sir  Henry  occupied  the 
chief  seat  between  Kiying  and  llipu,  their  respective  attendants 
being  seated  in  proper  order,  with  small  tables  between  every  two 
persons,  while  dinner  was  served  up  in  the  usual  Chinese  style. 

These  formalities  being  over,  the  articles  of  the  treaties  were 
discussed.  1.  Lasting  peace  between  the  two  empires.  2.  The 
Chinese  government  to  pay  twenty-one  millions  of  dollars  by  the 
end  of  1845,  twelve  being  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  three  for 
debts  due  the  English  merchants,  and  six  for  the  opium.  3.  The 
ports  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Fuhchau,  Ningpo,  and  Shanghai,  to  be 
thrown  open  to  British  trade  and  residence,  and  trade  conducted 
according  to  a well  understood  tariff.  4.  The  island  of  Hong- 
kong to  be  ceded  to  the  queen.  5.  All  British  prisoners  to  be 
unconditionally  released.  6.  All  Chinese  in  the  service  of  the 
English  to  be  pardoned  and  held  guiltless.  7.  Correspondence 
hereafter  to  be  conducted  on  terms  of  perfect  equality.  8.  When 
the  treaty  receives  the  emperor’s  assent,  and  six  millions  of  dol- 
lars are  paid,  the  English  forces  shall  withdraw  from  the  river 
and  the  places  now  occupied,  but  Chusan  and  Kulang  su  to  be 
retained  till  all  provisions  of  the  treaty  are  completed.  These 
items  had  been  already  discussed  by  the  Chinese,  so  that  no  seri- 
ous objection  was  made  to  them  ; the  importance  of  the  points 
relating  to  commerce  was  also  fully  stated,  and  it  was  intimated 
that  any  delay  or  refusal  to  settle  the  tariff’  satisfactorily  would 


TREATY  OF  NANKING  SIGNED. 


569 


lead  to  a renewal  of  hostilities.  When  these  matters  were  ar- 
ranged, Sir  Henry  proposed  to  say  a few  words  upon  “ the  great 
cause  that  produced  the  disturbances  which  led  to  the  war,  viz. 
the  trade  in  opium.”  When  this  was  translated  to  them,  Capt. 
Loch  says  they  unanimously  declined  entering  upon  the  subject, 
until  they  were  assured  that  he  had  introduced  it  merely  as  a 
topic  for  private  conversation. 

“ They  then  evinced  much  interest,  and  eagerly  requested  to  know  why 
we  would  not  act  fairly  towards  them  by  prohibiting  the  growth  of  the 
poppy  in  our  dominions,  and  thus  effectually  stop  a traffic  so  pernicious 
to  the  human  race.  This,  he  said,  in  consistency  with  our  constitutional 
laws  could  not  be  done  ; and  he  added,  that  even  if  England  chose  to  ex- 
ercise so  arbitrary  a power  over  her  tillers  of  the  soil,  it  would  not  check 
the  evil  so  far  as  the  Chinese  were  concerned,  while  the  cancer  remained 
uneradicated  among  themselves,  but  that  it  would  merely  throw  the  mar- 
ket into  other  hands.  It,  in  fact,  he  said,  rests  entirely  with  yourselves. 
If  your  people  are  virtuous,  they  will  desist  from  the  evil  practice ; and 
if  your  officers  are  incorruptible  and  obey  your  orders,  no  opium  can  enter 
your  country.  The  discouragement  of  the  growth  of  the  poppy  in  our 
territories  rests  principally  with  you,  for  nearly  the  entire  produce  culti- 
vated in  India  travels  east  to  China ; if,  however,  the  habit  has  become 
a confirmed  vice,  and  you  feel  that  your  power  is  at  present  inadequate 
to  stay  its  indulgence,  you  may  rest  assured  your  people  will  procure  the 
drug  in  spite  of  every  enactment ; would  it  not,  therefore,  be  better  at 
once  to  legalize  its  importation,  and  by  thus  securing  the  co-operation  of 
the  rich  and  of  your  authorities,  from  whom  it  would  thus  be  no  longer 
debarred,  thereby  greatly  limit  the  facilities  which  now  exist  for  smug- 
gling? They  owned  the  plausibility  of  the  argument,  but  expressed 
themselves  persuaded  that  their  imperial  master  would  never  listen  to  a 
word  upon  the  subject. 

“ To  convince  them  that  what  he  said  was  not  introduced  from  any 
sinister  wish  to  gain  an  end  more  advantageous  for  ourselves,  he  drew  a 
rapid  sketch  of  England’s  rise  and  progress,  from  a barbarous  state  to  a 
degree  of  wealth  and  civilization  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  the  world  ; 
which  rapid  rise  was  principally  attributable  to  benign  and  liberal  laws, 
aided  by  commerce,  which  conferred  power  and  consequence.  He  then 
casually  mentioned  instances  of  governments  having  failed  to  attain  their 
ends,  by  endeavoring  to  exclude  any  particular  objects  of  popular 
desire ; tobacco  was  one  of  those  he  alluded  to,  and  now  that  it  was  legal 
ized,  not  only  did  it  produce  a large  revenue  to  the  crown,  but  it  was 
more  moderately  indulged  in  in  Britain  than  elsewhere.” — Loch's 
Events , p.  173. 


570 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


To  ihe  wellwisher  of  his  fellow-men,  this  narrative  suggests 
many  melancholy  reflections.  On  the  one  hand,  were  four  or 
five  high  Chinese  officers,  who,  although  pagans,  and  unacquainted 
with  the  principles  of  true  virtue,  had  evidently  sympathized  with 
and  upheld  their  sovereign  in  his  fruitless  misdirected  endeavors 
to  save  his  people  from  a vicious  habit.  “ Why  will  you  not  act 
fairly  towards  us  by  prohibiting  the  growth  of  the  poppy  ? ”- — is 
their  anxious  inquiry  ; for  they  knew  that  there  was  no  moral 
principle  among  themselves  strong  enough  to  resist  the  pipe. 
“ Your  people  must  become  virtuous,  and  your  officers  incor- 
ruptible, and  then  you  can  stop  the  opium  coming  into  your  bor- 
ders,”— is  the  reply  ; just  the  same  kind  of  reply,  that  the  callous 
rumseller  gives  the  broken-hearted  wife  of  the  besotted  drunkard, 
when  she  beseeches  him  not  to  sell  liquor  to  her  enslaved  hus- 
band. “ Other  people  will  bring  it  to  you,  if  we  should  stop  the 
cultivation  of  the  poppy  ; if  England  chose  to  exercise  so  arbi- 
trary a power  over  her  tillers  of  the  soil,  it  would  not  check  the 
evil ;”  adds  the  envoy  ; “ you  cannot  do  better  than  legalize  it.” 
Although  nations  are  somewhat  different  from  individuals  in  re- 
spect to  their  power  of  resisting  and  suppressing  a vice,  and  Sir 
Henry  did  right  to  speak  of  the  legal  difficulty  in  the  way  of  re- 
straining labor,  yet  how  heartless  was  the  excuse,  that  if  we  do  not 
bring  it  to  you  others  will.  How  favorable  the  opportunity  then 
presented  to  the  representative  of  Christendom  to  refer  the  repre- 
sentatives of  civilized  heathendom  to  the  true  source  of  the  wealth 
and  civilization  of  England — the  Bible  and  the  religion  it  incul- 
cated— not  to  her  commerce,  or  her  benign  and  liberal  laws,  and 
assure  them,  that  until  they  admitted  that  only  safe  guide  and  in- 
structor in  morals,  all  their  endeavors  to  put  down  the  use  of 
opium,  as  well  as  other  evils,  would  be  ineffectual.  Nor  was  any 
suggestion  made  to  them,  as  to  the  most  judicious  mode  of  re- 
straining what  they  were  told  they  could  not  prohibit;  no  hint  of 
the  farming  system,  which  would  have  held  out  to  them  a medium 
path  between  absolute  freedom  and  prohibition,  and  probably  been 
seriously  considered  by  the  court ; nor  was  any  frank  explana- 
tion made  as  to  the  real  position  the  English  government  itself 
held  in  respect  to  the  forced  growth  of  this  pernicious  article. 
How  much  nobler  would  that  government  have  stood  in  the  eyes  of 
mankind  in  this  war,  if  its  head  and  ministers  had  instructed  their 
plenipotentiary,  that  when  their  other  demands  were  all  paid  and 


CONVERSATION  RESPECTING  THE  OPIUM  TRAFFIC. 


571 


conceded,  no  indemnity  should  have  been  asked  for  smuggled 
opium  entirely  destroyed  by  those  who  had,  it  may  be,  illegally, 
but  with  honest  intention,  seized  it.  That  government  and  mi- 
nistry, which  had  paid  a hundred  millions  for  the  emancipation  of 
slaves,  could  surely  alford  to  release  a pagan  nation  from  such  an 
imposed  obligation,  instead  of  sending  their  armies  to  exact  a few 
millions,  which  the  revenue  of  one  year,  derived  from  this  very 
article  alone,  would  amply  discharge  to  their  own  subjects.  For 
this  pitiful  sum,  must  the  great  moral  lesson  to  the  emperor  of 
China  and  his  subjects,  which  could  have  been  taught  them  at 
this  time,  be  lost ; and  might  again  overcome  the  immutable  prin- 
ciples of  right. 

It  may  be  that  the  full  report  of  this  conversation  is  not  given, 
and  Mr.  Gutzlaff,  who  acted  as  the  interpreter,  might  have  sug- 
gested something  of  this  kind,  for  the  envoy  himself  was  not 
likely  to  speak  of  it.  His  reference  to  tobacco  was  very  unhappy, 
since  it  tvould  be  likely  to  leave  the  wrong  impression  upon  the 
minds  of  the  Chinese,  that  he  thought  opium  was  no  worse  than 
that  narcotic,  which  they  knew  was  not  true. 

Sir  Henry  inquired  if  an  envoy  would  be  received  at  Peking, 
if  he  should  be  sent  from  England,  which  Kiying  assured  him 
would  no  doubt  be  a gratification  to  his  master,  though  what  ideas 
the  latter  connected  with  such  a suggestion  must  be  inferred. 
The  conference  lasted  three  or  four  hours,  and  when  the  proces- 
sion returned  to  the  barges,  through  an  immense  crowd  of  people, 
nothing  was  heard  from  .them  to  indicate  dislike  or  dread  ; all  was 
merged  in  overpowering  curiosity.  It  was  also  remarkable,  that 
this  was  the  anniversary  of  the  day  when  English  subjects, 
among  whom  were  the  three  interpreters  here  present,  left  Macao 
in  1839,  by  order  of  Lin  ; on  the  26th  August,  1840,  the  pleni- 
potentiaries entered  the  Pei  ho  to  seek  an  interview  with  Kishen  ; 
that  day,  the  next  year,  Amoy  and  its  extensive  batteries  fell  ; 
and  now,  the  three  years’  game  is  won,  and  China  is  obliged  to 
bend,  her  magnates  come  down  from  their  eminences,  and  her 
wall  of  supremacy,  isolation,  and  conceit,  shattered  beyond  the 
possibility  of  restoration.  Her  rulers  apparently  submitted  with 
good  grace  to  the  hard  lesson,  which  seemed  to  be  the  only 
effectual  means  of  compelling  them  to  abandon  their  ridiculous 
pretensions ; though  it  cannot  be  too  often  repeated  that  the  effect 
of  kindness,  honorable  dealing,  and  peaceful  missions,  had  not 


572 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


been  fairly  tried,  and  the  war  did  do  what  those  means  would 
perhaps  have  done  with  less  carnage. 

Arrangements  were  made  on  the  29th,  to  sign  the  treaty  on 
board  the  Cornwallis.  Baying  and  Niu  Kien  came  in  the  admi- 
ral’s barge,  and  llipu,  who  was  very  infirm  and  ill,  arrived  soon 
after  in  his  own  boat,  and  was  lifted  on  board  ; Sir  Henry,  the 
admiral,  and  general,  all  went  out  to  support  him  into  the  cabin, 
for  he  could  not  walk,  and  a couch  was  arranged  for  his  accom- 
modation. Four  copies  of  the  treaty  were  prepared  in  both  lan- 
guages, and  Mr.  Morrison,  as  the  envoy’s  secretary,  first  sealed 
it  with  his  seal,  and  then  W ang,  the  treasurer  of  the  province, 
sealed  it  with  the  seal  of  the  imperial  commissioners.  The  table 
was  then  drawn  up  for  their  superiors  to  sign  it ; Kiying,  llipu, 
and  the  governor,  put  their  names  under  their  seals,  and  lastly  Sir 
Henry  wrote  his  name  under  his  seal.  After  it  was  signed,  all 
sat  down  to  table,  and  the  admiral,  as  the  host  in  his  flag-ship, 
gave  the  healths  of  their  majesties,  the  Queen  of  England  and 
the  Emperor  of  China,  which  was  announced  to  the  fleet  and 
army  by  a salute  of  twenty-one  guns,  and  hoisting  the  Union 
Jack,  and  a yellow  flag,  at  the  main  and  mizen.  The  treaty  was 
forwarded  to  Peking  that  evening,  for  the  emperor’s  ratification, 
and  the  steamer  Sesostris  dispatched  to  Bombay  the  next  day, 
by  which  communications  were  sent  announcing  the  conclusion 
of  the  war.  The  embargo  on  the  rivers  and  ports  was  taken  off*, 
the  troops  reembarked,  and  preparations  made  to  return  to  Wu- 
sung.  The  six  millions  were  paid  without  much  delay,  and  on 
the  15th  of  September  the  emperor’s  ratification  was  received. 
The  secretary  of  legation,  Major  Malcom,  immediately  left  to 
obtain  the  Queen’s  ratification,  going  by  steam  the  entire  distance 
from  Nanking  to  London. 

The  imperial  assent  was  also  published  in  a rescript,  dated 
September  8th,  addressed  to  Kfying,  in  reply  to  his  account  of 
the  settlement  of  affairs,  in  which  he  gives  directions  for  disband- 
ing the  troops,  rebuilding  such  forts  as  had  been  destroyed,  and 
cultivating  peace,  as  well  as  providing  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
articles.  It  is,  on  the  wrhole,  a dignified  approval  of  the  treaty, 
and  breathes  nothing  of  a spirit  of  revenge,  or  intention  to  pre- 
pare for  future  resistance.  The  officers  at  Canton,  Amoy,  and 
elsewhere,  on  its  receipt,  republished  it,  and  soon  after  dismissed 
the  volunteers  to  their  homes,  and  restored  the  garrisons  to  their 


MASSACRE  OF  PRISONERS  IN  FORMOSA. 


573 


quarters.  Preparations  for  rebuilding  the  Bogue  forts  were 
shortly  after  begun,  and  the  injury  done  to  the  defences  in  other 
places  was  gradually  repaired. 

The  fleet  of  ships  and  transports  returned  down  the  river,  and 
reassembled  at  Tinghai,  without  losing  a vessel,  at  the  end  of  Oc- 
tober. Even  before  leaving  Nanking,  and  in  the  passage  down 
the  river,  the  troops  and  sailors,  especially  the  Hindus,  were 
greatly  afflicted  by  cholera,  fever,  and  other  diseases,  some  of 
the  transports  being  nearly  disabled  ; the  deaths  amounted  to 
more  than  a thousand  before  reaching  Hongkong. 

On  reaching  Amoy,  the  plenipotentiary  was  highly  incensed, 
on  hearing  of  the  melancholy  fate  of  the  captive  crews  of  the 
Nerbudda  and  Ann,  wrecked  on  Formosa.  The  first  was  a trans- 
port, containing  two  hundred  and  seventy-four  souls,  and  when 
she  went  ashore,  all  the  Europeans  on  board  made  their  way  over 
to  the  main,  abandoning  two  hundred  and  forty  Hindus  to  their 
fate,  most  of  whom  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Chinese.  The  Ann 
was  an  opium  vessel,  and  her  crew  of  fifty-seven  souls  were 
taken  prisoners,  and  carried  to  Taiwan  fu.  The  prisoners  were 
divided  into  small  parties,  and  had  little  communication  with  each 
other  during  their  captivity,  which  wus  aggravated  by  want  of 
food  and  clothing,  filthy  lodgings,  and  other  hardships  of  a Chi- 
nese jail,  so  that  many  of  the  Indians  died.  The  survivors,  on 
the  13th  of  August,  with  the  exception  of  ten  persons,  were  car- 
ried out  to  a plain  near  the  city,  one  of  whom,  Mr.  Newman,  a 
seacunnie  on  board  the  Ann,  and  the  last  in  the  procession,  gave 
the  following  account. 

“ On  being  taken  out  of  his  sedan,  to  have  his  hands  shackled  behind 
his  back,  he  saw  two  of  the  prisoners  with  their  irons  off,  and  refusing 
to  have  them  put  on.  They  had  both  been  drinking,  and  were  making  a 
great  noise,  crying  out  to  him  that  they  were  all  to  have  their  heads  cut 
off.  He  advised  them  to  submit  quietly,  but  they  still  refusing,  he  first 
wrenched  off  his  own,  and  then  put  them  into  theirs,  to  the  great  plea- 
sure of  the  soldiers,  but  when  the  soldiers  wished  to  replace  his,  he  de- 
clined. As  they  were  on  the  point  of  securing  him,  he  accidentally  saw 
the  chief  officer  seated  close  to  him.  Going  before  him,  he  threw  himself 
on  his  head,  and  commenced  singing  a few  Chinese  words  which  he  had 
frequently  heard  repeated  in  a temple.  The  officer  was  so  pleased  with 
this  procedure,  that  he  turned  round  to  the  soldiers,  and  ordered  them  to 
carry  him  back  to  the  city.  All  the  rest,  197  in  number,  were  placed  at 
small  distances  from  each  other  on  their  knees,  their  feet  in  irons,  and 


574 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


hands  manacled  behind  their  backs,  thus  waiting  for  the  execu doners, 
who  went  round,  and  with  a kind  of  two-handed  sword  cut  off  their  heads 
without  being  laid  on  a block.  Afterwards,  their  bodies  were  throw?* 
into  one  grave,  and  their  heads  stuck  up  in  cages  on  the  seashore.” — Chi 
Rep.,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  248. 

Three  Chinese  were  executed  a few  days  after,  and  the  re- 
mainder kept  to  be  sent  to  Peking  as  trophies,  but  were  delivered 
up  on  the  publication  of  the  treaty.  This  slaughter  was  said  to 
have  been  done  by  orders  from  court,  grounded  on  a lying  report 
of  a severe  contest  in  which  several  natives  were  killed,  sent  up 
by  the  Manchu  commandant  Tahungah,  and  his  colleagues. 
When  their  sad  fate  was  learned,  Sir  Henry  Pottinger  published 
two  proclamations  in  Chinese,  in  which  the  principal  facts  were 
detailed,  so  that  all  might  know  the  truth  of  the  matter  ; and  a 
demand  made  for  the  degradation  and  punishment  of  the  lying 
officers  who  had  superintended  it,  and  the  confiscation  of  their 
property  for  the  use  of  the  families  of  the  sufferers.  Iliang,  the 
governor-general,  expressed  his  sincere  regret  to  the  English 
envoy  at  what  had  transpired,  and  examined  into  the  facts  him- 
self, which  led  to  the  degradation  and  banishment  of  the  com- 
mandant and  intendant.  While  the  prisoners  were  still  at  Taiwan 
fu,  the  Serpent  was  sent  over  from  Amoy  to  reclaim  them,  by 
which  the  truth  of  the  tragedy  was  first  learned.  She  afterwards 
went  there  again,  to  receive  the  shipwrecked  crew  of  the  Hercu- 
laneum transport,  who  were  all  restored. 

The  citizens  of  Amoy,  Ningpo,  and  Shanghai,  hailed  the  ces- 
sation of  the  war,  and  the  opening  of  their  ports  to  foreign  trade  ; 
but  not  so  at  Canton.  The  volunteers,  discharged  about  the  mid- 
dle of  October,  still  remained  about  the  city,  ready  for  any  evil 
work,  notwithstanding  the  orders  of  their  rulers  to  return  home 
and  resume  their  usual  employments,  most  of  whom  probably 
had  neither.  Scheming  demagogues  took  advantage  of  a rumor, 
that  the  English  army,  on  its  return  from  the  north,  intended  to 
form  a settlement  on  Honan,  and  issued  a paper  in  the  name  of 
the  gentry,  calling  upon  all  to  combine  and  resist  the  aggression. 
This  was  extensively  circulated,  and  the  enthusiasm  it  caused 
worked  up  to  a higher  pitch  by  an  inflammatory  manifesto  (given 
Vol.  I.,  p.  389)  sent  forth  by  the  leaders,  in  which  desperate 
measures  were  plainly  intimated  ; but  the  district  magistrates 
took  no  steps  against  them.  An  invitation  was  circulated,  Dc- 


RIOT  AT  CANTON. 


575 


cember  2d,  for  the  citizens  and  gentlemen  from  other  provinces, 
to  meet  at  the  Public  Assembly  hall,  to  consult  upon  public 
affairs.  A counter,  but  less  spirited  manifesto,  was  pasted  up  in 
the  hall,  which  had  the  effect  of  inducing  about  half  the  people 
to  disperse.  The  writers  of  this  paper  dissuaded  their  country, 
men  from  hasty  measures,  by  telling  them  that  no  land  could  be 
taken,  or  dwellings  occupied,  without  permission  from  the  pro- 
vincial authorities,  and  urged  upon  them  to  live  at  peace  with 
the  English,  in  accordance  with  the  injunctions  of  their  wise 
sovereign. 

The  other  party,  taking  advantage  of  the  fact  that  the  English 
superintendent  had  already  engaged  carpenters  to  repair  the 
British  Consulate,  pillaged  in  1841,  made  it  a pretext  for  further 
violence.  The  magistrates  merely  issued  an  edict  on  the  6th, 
denouncing  these  seditious  assemblages,  and  requiring  all  well 
disposed  people  not  to  aid  or  abet  them  ; but  this  indecisive  step 
encouraged  the  movers,  and  the  next  morning  they  gathered  about 
the  factories,  ready  for  any  violence.  A brawl  occurred  in  Hog 
lane  between  some  hucksters  and  lascars,  who  were  pursued  into 
the  Square,  where  the  mob  rapidly  increased,  and  about  2 o’clock 
began  pulling  down  a brick  wall  around  the  Company’s  garden, 
and  forcing  open  one  of  the  factories,  which  was  speedily  pillaged, 
the  inmates  escaping  through  the  back  doors.  The  British  flag- 
staff was  fired  by  a party  which  kept  guard  around  it,  and  the 
flames  communicating  to  the  verandah  of  the  factory,  other  parts 
of  the  establishment  soon  caught,  and  by  midnight  the  three  hongs 
east  of  Hog  lane  were  burning  furiously.  Only  a few  of  the 
houses  were  occupied ; the  inmates  of  one,  Messrs.  A.  Heard  & 
Co.,  American  merchants,  defended  themselves  by  strewing  the 
court  with  broken  glass,  and  firing  upon  every  person  who  en- 
tered the  door  ; five  Chinese  were  killed,  when  the  advancing 
flames  compelled  them  to  retire  through  a back  passage. 

The  ringleaders  held  the  ground  at  first,  and  satisfied  with 
firing  the  Consulate,  endeavored  to  prevent  thieves  carrying  away 
the  plunder;  but  they  were  overcome,  and  forced  to  escape  about 
midnight,  leaving  the  ruins  in  possession  of  the  mob.  These 
w retches  soon  began  to  quarrel  among  themselves  for  the  dollars 
found  in  the  ruins,  and  it  was  not  till  noon  that  the  police  and 
soldiers  ventured  to  attack  the  knotted  groups  of  struggling  des- 
peradoes, and  arrest  the  most  conspicuous,  and  with  the  aid  of 


576 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


boats’  crews  from  the  shipping,  recapture  some  of  the  specie. 
This  outbreak  showed  most  conclusively  the  ascendency  of  law- 
lessness,  and  the  weakness  of  the  government,  though  the  go- 
vernor, Ki  Kung,  took  strong  measures  to  arrest  the  rioters,  and 
succeeded  in  imparting  confidence,  so  that  the  foreigners  returned 
to  their  dwellings  in  a short  time.  Full  compensation  was  sub- 
sequently made  for  the  losses  sustained,  amounting  to  $67,397, 
and  some  of  the  instigators  in  the  movement  were  executed. 

The  largest  part  of  the  expedition  left  Hongkong  for  India, 
with  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  in  December.  In  a valedictory  address 
to  the  force  he  remarks,  “ that  the  warm  anticipations  which  he 
had  entertained  on  assuming  the  command  had  been  amply  ful- 
filled.” A large  part  of  the  officers  in  the  army  and  navy  en- 
gaged in  the  war  received  promotion,  or  honorary  titles,  some 
during  its  progress,  and  others  at  its  close.  Sir  Hugh  was  first 
made  a baronet,  and,  after  more  service  in  India,  elevated  to  the 
peerage,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Gough,  Baron  of  Chinkiang  fu ; 
the  plenipotentiary  and  the  admiral  were  made  Grand  Crosses  of 
the  Bath.  The  three  interpreters,  Messrs.  Morrison,  Thom,  and 
Gutzlaff,  whose  services  had  been  arduous  and  important,  received 
no  distinctive  reward  from  their  government.  The  amount  of 
prize  money  distributed  among  the  soldiers  and  sailors  was  small, 
considering  the  length  of  the  war  and  amount  of  force  engaged 
Troops  were  left  at  Chusan,  under  major  general  Schoedde, 
amounting  to  1989  rank  and  file  ; at  Kulang  su,  under  lieutenant- 
colonel  Cowper,  there  were  980 ; and  at  head  quarters,  at  Hong- 
kong, under  lord  Saltoun,  1753 ; in  all  4822,  rank  and  file,  one 
third  of  whom  were  sipahis.  About  the  same  number  returned 
to  India.  The  losses  of  the  English,  from  shipwreck,  sickness, 
and  casualties,  during  the  war,  amounted  to  more  than  3000  ; 
the  mortality  was  greatest  among  the  Indian  regiments  and  the 
European  recruits,  especially  after  the  operations  behind  Canton, 
and  the  capture  of  Chinkiang. 

While  the  English  government  rewarded  its  successful  officers, 
the  emperor  expressed  his  displeasure  at  the  conduct  of  his  gene- 
rals who  survived,  and  distributed  posthumous  honors  to  those 
who  had  died  at  their  posts.  Hailing,  with  his  wife  and  grandson, 
were  honored  with  a fane,  and  his  sons  promoted.  Kiying  was 
appointed  governor-general  of  Kiangnan  and  Kiangsi.  Yihking, 
Yihshan,  and  Wanwei,  were  degraded,  and  condemned  to  death 


HONGKONG  BECOMES  AN  ENGLISH  COLONY. 


577 


for  cowardice,  but  the  sentences  were  never  executed.  Tih-i-shun 
and  Tsishin  were  banished.  All  these  were  Manchus.  The 
Chinese  dignitaries  were  treated  in  the  same  manner ; but  al- 
though many  civil  and  military  officers  were  condemned  to  death, 
none  actually  lost  their  lives,  except  Yu  Puyun,  the  governor  of 
Chehkiang,  who  fled  from  Ningpo  in  October,  1841. 

The  settlement  of  the  duties,  and  regulations  for  carrying  on 
foreign  commerce,  immediately  engaged  the  attention  of  the  ple- 
nipotentiary. He  called  on  the  British  merchants  for  information, 
but  such  had  been  the  miscellaneous  way  in  which  the  duties  had 
been  formerly  levied,  that  they  could  give  him  little  or  no  infor- 
mation as  to  the  proportion  of  duties  paid  the  government,  and 
those  pocketed  by  the  local  authorities.  The  whole  matter  was 
placed  by  both  parties  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Thom,  who  had  been 
engaged  in  business  at  Canton,  and  Hwang  Ngantung,  secretary 
to  Kiying.  To  settle  these  multifarious  affairs,  and  restore  quiet 
to  the  disturbed  province,  flipu  was  sent  to  Canton  as  commis- 
sioner. On  his  arrival,  he  set  about  repressing  the  popular  dis- 
content at  the  treaty,  and  his  edict  was  a good  instance  of  the 
mixture  of  flattery  and  instruction,  coaxing  and  commanding, 
which  Chinese  officers  frequently  resort  to,  when  they  are  not 
sure  of  gaining  their  end  by  power  alone,  and  do  not  wish  to  irri- 
tate. In  this  instance  it  was  well  timed,  and  did  much  to  remove 
the  misapprehension,  and  allay  the  excitement,  which  kept  the 
whole  region  in  a ferment.  He  had  not  long  been  engaged  in 
these  arduous  duties  before  he  “ made  a vacancy,”  by  death, 
aged  seventy-two,  having  been  more  than  half  his  life  engaged 
in  high  employments  in  his  country’s  service;  his  conduct  and 
foresight  in  the  last  two  years,  not  only  did  credit  to  himself,  but 
elevated  his  nation  in  the  opinion  of  foreigners.  His  old  associate, 
Kiying,  was  appointed  in  his  place,  whose  nomination  to  this 
station  was  sufficient  intimation  of  the  peaceful  intentions  of  the 
court,  and  the  emperor’s  desire  to  fulfil  the  treaty.  Towards  the 
last  of  June,  the  ratifications  of  the  treaty  of  Nanking  were  ex- 
changed at  Hongkong  with  Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  ten  months  after 
it  had  been  signed  by  the  same  persons.  The  island  was  then 
taken  possession  of  on  behalf  of  the  Queen  by  proclamation,  and 
the  warrant  read  appointing  Sir  Henry  governor  of  the  colony. 
The  usual  colonial  officers  were  subsequently  nominated  by  the 
vol.  ii.  26 


578 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


governor,  most  of  them  selected  from  among  those  connected  with 
the  expedition. 

The  tariff  and  commercial  regulations  being  prepared,  .hey 
were  published  July  22d,  by  the  English  and  Chinese  authorities, 
in  both  languages.  In  this  tariff,  all  emoluments  and  illegal  ex- 
actions superimposed  upon  the  imperial  duties,  were  taken  off, 
and  a permanent  duty  put  on  every  article,  which  seldom  exceeded 
five  per  cent,  on  the  cost ; all  kinds  of  breadstuffs  were  free. 
Commercial  dealings  were  placed  on  a well  understood  basis,  in- 
stead of  the  former  immethodical,  loose  way  of  conducting  busi- 
ness ; the  monopoly  of  the  hong-merchants  was  done  away,  the 
fees  exacted  at  Whampoa,  under  the  names  of  cumshaw  and 
measurement  duty,  were  abolished,  and  a tonnage  duty  of  five 
mace  per  ton  substituted  ; the  charge  for  pilotage  was  reduced 
so  much,  that  the  pilots  were  nearly  stripped  of  all  they  received, 
after  paying  the  usual  fees  to  the  tidewaiters  along  the  river. 
Disputes  between  English  and  Chinese  were  to  be  settled  by  the 
consuls,  and  in  serious  cases  by  a mixed  court,  when,  upon  con- 
viction, each  party  was  to  punish  its  own  criminals. 

The  proclamation,  giving  effect  to  the  tariff  and  commercial 
regulations,  was  one  of  the  most  important  documents  ever  issued 
by  the  Chinese  government ; for  by  it  China  fully  opened  her 
ports  and  people  to  foreign  intercourse.  After  referring  to  the 
war,  and  treaty  of  peace,  Kiying  goes  on  to  say  respecting  the 
tariff,  that  as  soon  as  replies  shall  be  received  from  the  Board  of 
Revenue,  “ it  will  then  take  effect  with  reference  to  the  commerce 
with  China  of  all  countries,  as  well  as  of  England.  Henceforth, 
then,  the  weapons  of  war  shall  for  ever  be  laid  aside,  and  joy  and 
profit  shall  be  the  perpetual  lot  of  all  ; neither  slight  nor  few  will 
be  the  advantages  reaped  by  the  merchants,  alike  of  China  and 
of  foreign  countries.  From  this  time  forward,  all  must  free 
themselves  from  prejudice  and  suspicions,  pursuing  each  his 
proper  avocation,  and  careful  always  to  retain  no  inimical  feel- 
ings from  the  recollection  of  the  hostilities  that  have  before  taken 
place.  For  such  feelings  and  recollections  can  have  no  other 
effect  than  to  hinder  the  growth  of  a good  understanding  between 
the  two  people.”  The  paper  then  states  the  day  when  the  new 
arrangements  are  to  take  effect  at  Canton,  and  announces  the 
regulations,  referring  more  particularly  to  Chinese  vessels  trading 
to  Hongkong,  and  to  the  liberation  of  all  natives  engaged  in  the 


DEATHS  OF  HOWQUA  AND  J.  R.  MORRISON. 


579 


service  of  the  English  during  the  war ; and  it  is  to  the  credit  of 
the  imperial  government,  that  none  of  the  many  hundreds,  who 
served  the  English  on  ship  and  shore  against  their  country,  were 
molested  in  any  way  for  so  doing.  Many  were  apprehended,  but 
the  commissioner  says,  “ he  has  obtained  from  the  good  favor  of 
his  august  Sovereign,  vast  and  boundless  as  that  of  heaven  itself, 
the  remission  of  their  punishment  for  all  past  deeds  ; . . . . they 
need  entertain  no  apprehension  of  being  hereafter  dragged  for- 
ward, nor  yield  in  consequence  to  any  fears  or  suspicions.” 

These  new  arrangements  pleased  the  leading  Chinese  mer- 
chants far  better  than  they  did  the  hoppo  and  his  underlings  in 
the  custom-house,  and  others,  who  held  lined  their  pockets  and 
feed  their  friends  with  their  illegal  exactions.  The  never  failing 
sponge  of  the  co-hong  could  no  longer  be  sucked,  but  for  a last 
squeeze,  the  authorities  called  upon  the  merchants  for  five  mil- 
lions of  dollars,  which  they  refused  to  pay,  and  withdrew  from 
business  with  so  much  determination  and  union  that  the  hoppo 
and  his  friends  were  foiled.  The  avowed  object  of  this  demand 
was  to  pay  that  portion  of  the  $21,000,000,  alleged  to  be  for 
their  debts,  and  they  finally  contributed  among  themselves  about 
$1,700,000  towards  it,  the  remainder  coming  out  of  the  consoo 
fund.  Howqua,  the  leading  member  of  the  body  during  thirty 
years,  died  about  this  time,  aged  seventy-five  ; he  was  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  men  known  to  foreigners,  and  while  he  filled  the 
difficult  station  of  senior  merchant,  exhibited  great  shrewdness 
and  ability  in  managing  the  delicate  and  difficult  affairs  con- 
stantly thrown  upon  him.  His  property,  perhaps  over-estimated 
at  four  millions  sterling,  passed  quietly  into  the  hands  of  his 
grandchildren. 

The  foreign  community  also  suffered  a great  loss  at  this  time 
in  the  death,  by  the  prevailing  fever,  of  John  Robert  Morrison, 
son  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Morrison,  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine.  He 
was  born  in  China,  and  had  identified  himself  with  the  best  inte- 
rests of  her  people,  and  their  advancement  in  knowledge  and 
Christianity.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  on  his  father’s  decease,  he 
was  appointed  Chinese  secretary  to  the  British  superintendents, 
and  filled  that  responsible  situation  with  credit  and  efficiency 
during  all  the  disputes  with  the  provincial  authorities  and  com- 
missioner Lin,  and  of  the  war,  until  peace  was  declared.  His 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  policy  of  the  Chinese  government, 


580 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


and  the  habits  of  thought  of  its  officers,  eminently  fitted  ri:n  for 
successfully  treating  with  them,  and  enlightening  them  upon  the 
intentions  and  wishes  of  foreign  powers,  while  his  unaffected 
kindness  to  all  natives  assured  them  of  the  sincerity  of  his  pro- 
fessions. The  successful  conduct  of  the  negotiations  at  Nanking, 
under  God,  depended  very  much  upon  him,  and  the  manner  in 
which  he  performed  the  many  translations  to  and  from  Chinese, 
connected  with  that  event,  was  such,  as  to  impart  the  utmost 
confidence  to  the  imperial  commissioners  that  they  were  fairly 
dealt  with.  The  benevolent  societies  at  Canton  found  in  him  a 
ready  cooperator,  and  the  Morrison  Education  Society,  established 
in  honor  of  his  father,  depended  not  a little  upon  his  efforts  and 
aid  for  its  success  and  popularity. 

Above  all,  he  was  eminently  a Christian  man,  and  whenever 
opportunity  allowed,  failed  not  to  speak  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Bible  to  his  native  friends,  among  whom  he  ardently  wdshed  to 
see  the  Gospel  introduced.  The  projected  revision  of  the  Chinese 
version  of  the  Scriptures  by  the  Protestant  missionaries,  engaged 
his  attention,  and  it  was  expected  w'ould  receive  his  assistance. 
With  his  influence,  his  pen,  his  property,  and  his  prayers,  he  con- 
tributed to  the  welfare  of  the  people,  and  the  confidence  felt  in 
him  by  natives  who  knew  him  was  often  strikingly  exhibited  at 
Canton  during  the  commotions  of  1841,  and  the  negotiations  of 
1843.  He  died  at  Macao,  August  29th,  a year  after  the  treaty 
of  Nanking  was  signed,  and  was  buried  by  the  side  of  his  parents 
in  the  Protestant  burying-ground.  SirHenry  Pottinger  announced 
his  death  as  a “ positive  national  calamity, ’’and  it  was  so  received 
by  the  government  at  home.  He  also  justly  added,  “ that  Mr. 
Morrison  was  so  well  known  to  every  one,  and  so  beloved,  re- 
spected, and  esteemed  by  all  who  had  the  pleasure  and  happiness 
of  his  acquaintance  or  friendship,  that  to  attempt  to  pass  any 
panegyric  upon  his  private  character  would  be  a mere  waste  of 
words w'hile  his  own  sorrow  w-as  but  a type  of  the  universal 
feeling  in  which  his  memory  and  wrorth  are  embalmed.  As  a 
testimony  of  their  sense  of  his  worth,  the  foreign  community, 
learning  that  he  had  died  poor,  leaving  a maiden  sister  who  had 
been  dependent  upon  him,  and  that  his  official  accounts  were  in 
some  confusion,  immediately  came  forward,  and  contributed 
nearly  fourteen  thousand  dollars  to  relieve  his  estate  and  relatives 
from  all  embarrassment. 


POSITION  AND  BEARINGS  OF  THE  OPIUM  TRADE. 


581 


The  negotiations  between  the  English  and  Chinese  plenipoten- 
tiaries were  concluded  by  signing  a supplementary  treaty  of 
seventeen  articles  on  the  Sabbath,  Oct.  8th  (the  day  was  a lucky 
one  in  the  Chinese  calendar),  at  the  Bogue.  This  treaty  provided 
for  the  settlement  of  debts,  treatment  of  criminals,  restraint  of 
British  subjects,  registry  of  Chinese  vessels  at  Hongkong,  and 
the  small  foreign  craft  plying  between  Canton  and  that  colony, 
&c.  The  VUIth  article,  providing  for  the  admission  of  all  foreign- 
ers who  had  previously  traded  to  Canton,  to  the  other  ports  on  the 
same  terms  as  English  subjects,  was  inserted  at  the  special  re- 
quest of  Klying,  that  all  might  know  the  intentions  of  his  govern- 
ment ; for  neither  he  nor  his  master  knew  anything  of  that  favorite 
phrase  in  western  diplomacy,  “ the  most  favored  nation,”  and  ex- 
pected and  wished  to  avoid  all  controversy  by  putting  every  ship 
and  flag  on  the  same  footing. 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  Chinese  government  would 
have  now  taken  some  action  upon  the  opium  trade,  which  was 
still  going  on  unchecked  and  unlicensed.  Opium  schooners  were 
going  in  and  out  of  Hongkong  harbor,  though  the  drug  sold  by 
government  at  Calcutta  was  not  allowed  by  the  same  government 
at  Hongkong  to  be  stored  on  shore ; and  the  article  was  landed  along 
the  whole  coast  even  to  the  Pei  ho,  and  publicly  smoked  at  Macao 
and  Canton.  Yet  no  edicts  were  issued,  few  or  no  seizures  made, 
no  notice  taken  of  it,  no  proposition  to  repress,  legalize,  or  ma- 
nage it,  came  from  the  imperial  commissioner.  The  old  laws, 
denouncing  its  use,  purchase,  or  sale,  under  the  penalty  of  death, 
still  remained  on  the  statute  book,  but  no  one  feared  or  cared  for 
them.  This  conduct  can  be  explained  only  on  the  supposition 
that  having  suffered  so  much,  the  emperor  and  his  ministers 
thought  safety  from  future  trouble  lay  in  enduring  what  was  past 
curing ; they  had  already  suffered  greatly  in  attempting  to  sup- 
press it,  and  another  war  might  be  caused  by  meddling  with  the 
dangerous  subject,  since  too  it  was  now  guarded  by  well  armed 
vessels.  Public  opinion  was  still  too  strong  against  it,  or  else 
consistency  obliged  the  monarch  to  forbid  legalization  ; which  he 
could  hardly  avoid  acknowledging  was  the  least  of  two  evils. 

Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  hearing  that  persons  were  about  sending 
opium  to  Canton  under  the  pretence  that  unenumerated  articles 
were  admissible  by  the  new  tariff  at  a duty  of  five  per  cent., 
issued  a proclamation  in  English  and  Chinese,  to  the  intent  that 


582 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


such  proceedings  were  illegal,  and  would  meet  no  protection  from 
British  officers  or  ships.  He  also  forbade  British  vessels  going 
beyond  lat.  32°  N.,  and  intimated  to  the  Chinese  that  they  might 
seize  all  persons  and  confiscate  all  vessels  found  above  that  line, 
or  anywhere  else  on  the  coast  beside  the  five  ports;  and,  more- 
over, published  an  Order  in  Council,  which  restricted,  under  pe- 
nalty of  £100  for  each  offence,  all  British  vessels  violating  the 
stipulations  of  the  treaty  in  this  respect.  Yet  this  was  done 
chiefly  to  throw  dust  in  their  eyes,  and  put  the  onus  of  the  con- 
traband traffic  on  the  Chinese  government,  and  the  violation  of 
law  on  those  who  came  off  to  the  smuggling  vessels ; and  these 
proclamations  and  orders,  like  their  edicts,  were  to  be  put  “ on 
record.”  This  was  shown  when  Capt.  Hope  of  H.  M.  S. Thalia,  for 
stopping  two  or  three  of  the  opium  vessels  proceeding  above 
Shanghai,  was  recalled  from  his  station  and  ordered  to  India, 
where  he  could  not  “ interfere  in  such  a manner  with  the  under- 
takings of  British  subjects,” — to  quote  Lord  Palmerston’s  dispatch 
to  Capt.  Elliot.  This  effectually  deterred  all  others  from  meddling 
with  it. 

Yet  the  commercial  bearings  of  this  trade  were  clearly  seen 
in  England,  and  a memorial  to  Sir  Robert  Peel,  signed  by  235 
merchants  and  manufacturers,  was  drawn  up,  in  which  they 
proved  that  the  “ commerce  with  China  cannot  be  conducted  on 
a permanently  safe  and  satisfactory  basis  so  long  as  the  contra- 
band trade  in  opium  is  permitted.  Even  if  legalized,  the  trade 
would  inevitably  undermine  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain  with 
China,  and  prevent  its  being,  as  it  otherwise  might  be,  an  ad- 
vantageous market  for  our  manufactures.  It  would  operate  for 
evil  in  a double  way : first,  by  enervating  and  impoverishing  the 
consumers  of  the  drug,  it  would  disable  them  from  becoming  pur- 
chasers of  our  productions ; and  second,  as  the  Chinese  would 
then  be  paid  for  their  produce  chiefly  as  now  in  opium,  the  quan- 
tity of  that  article  imported  by  them  having  of  late  years  ex- 
ceeded in  value  the  tea  and  silk  we  receive  from  them,  our  own 
manufactures  would  consequently  be  to  a great  extent  precluded.” 
The  memorial  shows  that  between  1803-08,  the  annual  demand 
for  woollens  alone  was  nearly  £150,000  more  than  it  was  for  all 
products  of  British  industry  between  1834-39 ; while  in  that 
interval,  the  opium  trade  had  risen  from  3,000  to  30,000 
chests  annually.  Nothing  in  the  annals  of  commerce  ever 


REMUNERATION  MADE  TO  THE  MERCHANTS. 


583 


showed  more  conclusively  how  heartless  a thing  trade  is  when  it 
comes  in  contact  with  morality  or  humanity,  than  the  discussions 
respecting  the  opium  traffic.  These  memorialists  plead  for  their 
manufactures,  but  the  East  India  Company  would  have  been  sorry 
to  have  had  their  market  spoiled  : what  could  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
or  even  Wilberforce,  if  he  had  been  premier,  do  against  them  in 
this  matter  ? The  question  was  which  party  of  manufacturers 
should  be  patronized.  Yet  none  of  these  “ merchants  and  manu- 
facturers of  the  highest  standing  and  respectability”  refer  to  the 
destruction  of  life,  distress  of  families,  waste  of  mind,  body,  and 
property,  and  the  many  other  evils  connected  with  the  growth 
and  use  of  opium,  except  as  connected  with  the  sale  of  their  goods. 
One  paper,  in  order  to  compound  the  matter,  recommended  the 
manufacture  of  morphine  to  tempt  the  Chinese,  in  order  that  if 
they  would  smoke  it,  they  might  have  a delicate  preparation  for 
fashionable  smokers. 

The  conduct  of  the  ministry  in  remunerating  the  merchants 
and  other  subjects,  who  had  surrendered  their  property  to  Capt. 
Elliot,  was  appropriate  to  the  character  of  the  trade.  The  six 
millions  of  dollars  received  from  the  Chinese,  instead  of  being 
divided  in  China  among  those  who  were  to  receive  it,  which  could 
have  been  done  without  expense,  was  carried  to  England  to  be 
coined,  which,  with  the  freight,  reduced  it  considerably.  Then 
by  the  manner  of  ascertaining  the  market  value  at  the  time  it 
was  given  up,  and  the  holders  of  the  opium  scrip  got  their  pay, 
they  received  scarcely  one-half  of  what  was  originally  paid 
to  the  East  India  Company,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  thereby 
reducing  it  nearly  a million  sterling.  Furthermore,  by  the  form 
of  payment,  they  lost  nearly  one-fifth  even  of  the  promised  sum, 
about  £240,000  more.  Then  they  lost  four  years'  interest  on 
their  whole  capital,  or  about  £800,000  more.  While  the  mer- 
chants lost,  the  government  profited.  The  Company  gained, 
during  these  four  yeai’3,  at  least  a million  sterling,  by  the  in- 
creased price  of  the  drug,  while  Sir  Robert  Peel  also  transferred 
that  amount  from  the  pockets  of  the  merchants  to  the  public 
treasury.  However,  those  who  gave  up  their  opium  in  March, 
1839,  also  realized  much  greater  profits  in  the  latter  part  of  that 
year,  than  they  would  have  done  had  the  opium  trade  gone  on  as 
usual ; though  this  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  justice  of  their 
claims  to  full  compensation  from  government. 


584 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


The  war  was  brought  to  a close  by  the  signing  of  the  supple- 
mentary treaty  of  the  Bogue,  and  the  conduct  of  England  in  it 
fully  exhibited  to  the  world.  Public  opinion  will  ever  character- 
ize it  as  an  opium  war,  entered  into  and  carried  on  to  obtain  in- 
demnity for  opium  seized  ; and,  setting  aside  the  niceties  of 
western  international  law,  which  the  Chinese  government  knew 
nothing  of,  most  justly  seized.  The  British  and  American  mer- 
chants who  voluntarily  subscribed  1,037  chests  to  commissioner 
Lin,  acknowledged  themselves  to  be  transgressors  by  this  very 
act.  Yet  war  seemed  to  be  the  only  way  to  break  down  the  in- 
tolerable assumptions  of  the  court  of  Peking ; and  that  a war 
would  do  it,  was  almost  plain  to  every  one  acquainted  with  the 
character  of  that  court  and  the  genius  of  the  people,  and  the  re- 
sult has  shown  the  expectation  to  be  well  based.  Members  of 
Parliament  expressed  their  gratification  at  being  at  last  out  of  a 
bad  business ; and  their  desire,  frequently  uttered,  that  the  light 
of  the  Gospel,  and  the  blessings  of  Christian  civilization,  might 
now  be  introduced  among  the  millions  of  China,  seemed  very  like  a 
kind  of  peace-offering  of  good  wishes,  somewhat  in  the  manner 
of  the  Hebrews  offering  a kid  when  they  had  committed  a 
trespass. 

The  announcement  of  the  treaty  of  Nanking  caused  considerable 
sensation  in  Europe  and  America,  chiefly  in  commercial  circles. 
M.  Auguste  Moxhet,  the  Belgian  consul  at  Singapore,  was  sent 
on  to  China  to  make  such  inquiries  for  transmission  to  his  govern- 
ment as  would  direct  it  in  its  efforts  to  open  a trade,  which  here- 
tofore had  been  very  trifling.  The  Netherlands  government  sent 
orders  to  the  authorities  at  Batavia  on  this  subject,  who  dispatched 
M.  Tonco  Modderman,  as  their  special  agent  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. The  king  of  Prussia  appointed  M.  Grube  to  proceed  to 
China  as  his  councillor  of  commerce,  to  prosecute  researches  as 
to  the  prospect  of  finding  a market  for  Prussian  or  German  manu- 
factures. The  Spanish  ministry,  through  the  authorities  at  Manila, 
designated  Don  Sinibaldo  de  Mas  as  their  agent  in  this  new  sphere. 
The  governor  of  Macao,  M.  Pinto,  having  been  superseded,  was 
also  appointed  commissioner  on  behalf  of  Her  Most  Faithful  Majesty, 
to  treat  respecting  the  rights  and  privileges  of  Macao  under  the 
new  order  of  things,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  some  important 
modifications  for  the  trade  of  the  place.  These  gentlemen  arrived 
in  China  during  the  latter  part  of  1843,  and  most  of  them  had 


EMBASSY  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


585 


interviews  or  communication  with  Kiying  before  he  returned  to 
court  in  December. 

The  governments  of  the  United  States  and  France  early  directed 
their  attention  to  this  matter,  and  appointed  ministers  extraordinary 
to  the  court  of  Peking.  The  Hon.  Caleb  Cushing  was  appointed 
commissioner  on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  and  the  President 
sent  by  him  the  following  letter  to  the  emperor,  which  explains 
the  object  of  his  mission. 

Letter  to  the  Emperor  of  China  from  the  President  of  the  United  Stales 
of  America. 

I,  John  Tyler,  president  of  the  United  States  of  America — which  States 
are  : Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut, 
Vermont,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland, 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Tennes- 
see, Ohio,  Louisiana,  Indiana,  Mississippi,  Illinois,  Alabama,  Missouri, 
Arkansas,  and  Michigan — send  you  this  letter  of  peace  and  friendship, 
signed  by  my  own  hand. 

I hope  your  health  is  good.  China  is  a great  empire,  extending  over  a 
great  part  of  the  world.  The  Chinese  are  numerous.  You  have  millions 
and  millions  of  subjects.  The  twenty-six  United  States  are  as  large  as 
China,  though  our  people  are  not  so  numerous.  The  rising  sun  looks 
upon  the  great  mountains  and  great  rivers  of  China.  When  he  sets,  he 
looks  upon  rivers  and  mountains  equally  large  in  the  United  States.  Our 
territories  extend  from  one  great  ocean  to  the  other ; and  on  the  west  we 
are  divided  from  your  dominions  only  by  the  sea.  Leaving  the  mouth  of 
one  of  our  great  rivers,  and  going  constantly  towards  the  setting  sun,  we 
sail  to  Japan  and  to  the  Yellow  sea. 

Now,  my  words  are,  that  the  governments  of  two  such  great  countries 
should  be  at  peace.  It  is  proper,  and  according  to  the  will  of  heaven, 
that  they  should  respect  each  other,  and  act  wisely.  I therefore  send  to 
your  court  Caleb  Cushing,  one  of  the  wise  and  learned  men  of  this  country. 
On  his  first  arrival  in  China,  he  will  inquire  for  your  health.  He  has  strict 
orders  to  go  to  your  great  city  of  Peking,  and  there  to  deliver  this  letter. 
He  will  have  with  him  secretaries  and  interpreters. 

The  Chinese  love  to  trade  with  our  people,  and  to  sell  them  tea  and 
silk,  for  which  our  people  pay  silver,  and  sometimes  other  articles.  But 
if  the  Chinese  and  the  Americans  will  trade,  there  shall  be  rules,  so  that 
they  shall  not  break  your  laws  or  our  laws. — Our  minister,  Caleb  Cushing, 
is  authorized  to  make  a treaty  to  regulate  trade.  Let  it  be  just.  Let  there 
be  no  unfair  advantage  on  either  side.  Let  the  people  trade  not  only  at 
Canton,  but  also  at  Amoy,  Ningpo,  Shanghai,  Fuhchau,  and  all  such  other 
places  as  may  offer  profitable  exchanges  both  to  China  and  the  United 
States,  provided  they  do  not  break  your  laws  nor  our  laws.  We  shall 

VOL.  II.  26* 


586 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


not  take  the  part  of  evil-doers.  We  shall  not  uphold  them  that  break 
your  laws.  Therefore,  vve  doubt  not  that  you  will  be  pleased  that  our 
messenger  of  peace,  with  this  letter  in  his  hand,  shall  come  to  Peking, 
and  there  deliver  it ; and  that  your  great  officers  will,  by  your  order,  make 
a treaty  with  him  to  regulate  affairs  of  trade — so  that  nothing  may  hap- 
pen to  disturb  the  peace  between  China  and  America.  Let  the  treaty  be 
signed  by  your  own  imperial  hand.  It  shall  be  signed  by  mine,  by  the 
authority  of  our  great  council,  the  Senate. 

And  so  may  your  health  be  good,  and  may  peace  reign. 

Written  at  Washington,  this  twelfth  day  of  July,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  forty-three.  Your  good  friend. 

Mr.  Cushing  and  his  suite  arrived  in  China  in  the  frigate 
Brandywine,  commodore  Parker,  February  24th,  1844,  and  took 
up  their  residence  in  Macao.  The  announcement  of  the  general 
purposes  of  his  mission,  and  the  directions  he  had  to  proceed  with 
this  letter  to  Peking,  was  made  to  lieutenant-governor  Ching, 
who  instantly  informed  the  court  of  his  arrival ; and  with  a 
promptitude  indicative  of  the  desire  of  the  emperor  to  give  no 
cause  of  offence,  Kiying  was  reappointed  commissioner,  with 
higher  powers  than  before.  During  the  interval  between  the 
arrival  of  the  Brandywine  and  the  entry  of  Kiying  into  Canton, 
that  ship  went  up  to  Whampoa,  but  Ching,  a timid  old  man, 
refused  the  polite  invitation  of  commodore  Parker  to  visit  her. 
The  frigate  had  brought  out  a flagstaff  and  vane  for  the  Consulate 
at  Canton,  which  was  erected  in  the  garden  before  the  factories ; 
the  vane  was  in  the  form  of  an  arrow,  and  as  it  turned  its  barb  to 
the  four  points  of  the  compass,  the  superstitious  people  thought  it 
conveyed  destructive  influences  around,  transfixing  all  the  benign 
operations  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  thereby  causing  disease  and 
calamity  among  them.  An  unusual  degree  of  sickness  prevailed 
at  this  time  in  the  city  and  its  environs,  which  the  geomancers 
and  doctors  declared  would  not  cease  until  the  deadly  arrow  was 
removed.  The  people  accordingly  waited  on  the  consul,  Mr. 
Forbes,  to  request  the  removal  of  the  arrow,  which  he  acceded 
to,  and  substituted  a vane  of  another  shape.  An  unsuccessful 
attempt  was  made  to  get  possession  of  it  for  some  superstitious 
purpose,  and  the  gentry  issued  a placard  the  next  day,  commend- 
ing its  removal,  and  requesting  the  people  to  harbor  no  ill-will 
towards  the  Americans  as  the  cause  of  the  sickness,  for  the  mor- 
tality would  no  doubt  now  soon  diminish. 


TREATY  OF  WANGHIA. 


587 


Kiying  having  announced  his  appointment  and  powers  to  the 
people,  proceeded  to  the  Bogue  to  meet  Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  and 
be  introduced  to  governor  Davis,  from  whence  he  went  to  Macao, 
and  took  up  his  residence  in  the  village  of  Wanghia,  in  the 
suburbs  of  that  city.  He  had  associated  three  assistants  with 
himself  in  the  commission,  viz.  Hwang  Ngantuug,  already  well 
known  for  his  affability  and  intelligence  in  the  conduct  of  the 
negotiations  with  the  English  ; Pwan  Sz’shing,  one  of  the  late 
hong-merchants ; and  Chau  Changling,  a prefect,  then  out  of 
employ.  The  American  plenipotentiary,  H.  E.  Hon.  Caleb 
Cushing,  was  sole  commissioner  and  envoy  extraordinary. 
Fletcher  Webster,  Esq.,  was  secretary  to  the  special  mission  ; 
Rev.  E.  C.  Bridgman,  d.d.,  and  Rev.  Peter  Parker,  m.d.,  were 
joint  Chinese  secretaries,  and  Dr.  Bridgman,  chaplain  ; Messrs. 
J.  H.  O’Donnell,  R.  McIntosh,  S.  Hernisz,  T.  R.  West,  and 
John  R.  Peters,  Jr.,  Esqs.,  were  attached  to  the  legation. 

Visits  between  the  plenipotentiaries  having  been  exchanged, 
negotiations  commenced,  the  details  being  conducted  by  a depu- 
tation of  three  persons  from  each  party.  Mr.  Cushing  had 
already  prepared  the  general  outline  of  the  treaty,  which  greatly 
abridged  the  negotiations,  and  the  few  disputed  or  doubtful  points 
in  the  draft  having  been  modified  and  settled,  it  was  signed  at 
Wanghia  on  the  third  of  July,  1844,  by  the  two  plenipotentiaries, 
commodore  Parker  and  a few  other  Americans,  and  a large  crowd 
of  Chinese,  being  present. 

Soon  after  Kiying  left  Canton,  the  populace  began  to  show  signs 
of  disturbance,  for  since  the  death  of  Ki  Kung,  they  had  had  little 
to  fear  from  his  inefficient  successor,  and  the  prospect  of  plunder- 
ing the  factories  prompted  them  to  make  further  commotions.  A 
party  of  gentlemen  were  walking  in  the  Company’s  garden  one 
evening,  when  the  gate  was  burst  open  by  a mob,  and  they  were 
obliged  to  escape  by  boats.  On  the  next  evening,  the  mob  again 
collected  with  the  intention  of  getting  possession  of  the  large  gar- 
den, but  were  driven  out  of  the  passage  without  much  opposition. 
Two  or  three  Americans,  in  escorting  one  of  their  countrymen 
to  his  house,  through  the  crowd,  were  attacked  by  stones  and 
missiles  on  their  return  ; whereupon  one  of  them  fired  low,  to 
drive  the  people  back,  but  unhappily  killed  a native,  named  Sii 
Amun.  The  case  was  investigated  by  the  district  magistrate, 
and  a report  made  by  the  lieut. -governor  to  Kiying  ; but  he  took 


588 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


no  pains  to  send  a sufficient  force  to  repress  the  excited  populace, 
nor  did  the  inefficient  man  seem  to  know  what  to  do.  In  a com- 
munication to  the  American  consul,  he  says,  after  ordering  him 
to  deliver  up  the  murderer,  “ It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  man 
who  was  killed  was  from  the  district  of  Tsingvuen,  having  no 
relatives  in  Canton.  But  if  he  had  been  a citizen,  it  would  have 
become  at  the  moment  an  occasion  for  attack,  for  it  would  have 
been  told  to  the  populace,  and  they  would  have  revenged  it  by 
again  setting  fire  to  the  factories  and  plundering  their  contents, 
or  something  of  that  sort.  The  people  are  highly  irritated  against 
the  offender,  and  it  is  impossible  but  that  they  have  constant 
debates  among  themselves  until  they  are  revenged.”  Nothing 
.could  show  more  conspicuously  how  strong  the  mob  at  Canton 
had  become  since  the  commencement  of  the  war,  and  his  own 
impotency,  than  such  a document. 

A party  of  marines  from  the  corvette  St.  Louis,  came  up  to 
Canton  the  next  day,  and  quiet  was  restored.  Kiying  brought 
the  case  before  Mr.  Cushing,  stating  it  to  be  his  conviction  that 
“ the  murderer  ought  to  forfeit  his  life,”  and  begging  him  to  give 
orders  for  a speedy  and  clear  examination  of  the  case,  which  was 
accordingly  made.  In  his  reply,  Mr.  Cushing  expressed  his 
regret  at  what  had  occurred,  his  willingness  to  institute  an 
inquiry  into  the  truth  of  the  case,  and  added  a few  remarks  upon 
the  necessity  of  better  protecting  the  foreigners  at  Canton  from 
the  insults  of  the  mob,  in  order  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  such 
scenes,  and  embroiling  the  two  countries.  Kfying  replied  to 
these  communications  in  a friendly,  considerate  manner,  still 
upholding  the  authority  of  his  government  and  laws.  A few 
extracts  will  exhibit  the  character  of  the  man.  Speaking  of  the 
general  subject  under  consideration,  he  says  : — “ It  seems  from 
this,  that  regarding  our  nations  and  their  subjects,  the  people  of 
our  land  may  be  peaceful,  and  the  citizens  of  the  United  States 
may  be  peaceful,  and  yet,  after  their  governments  have  become 
amicable,  that  then  their  people  may  become  inimical ; and 
albeit  the  authorities  of  the  two  governments  may  day  after  day 
deliberate  upon  friendship,  it  is  all  nothing  but  empty  words. 
Thus,  while  we  are  deliberating  and  settling  a treaty  of  peace, 
all  at  once  the  people  of  our  two  countries  are  at  odds,  and  taking 
lives.”  He  also  speaks  of  the  overbearing  and  violent  character 
of  the  people  of  Canton;  “fiery  banditti  are  numerous,”  who 


HOMICIDE  BY  AN  AMERICAN  AT  CANTON. 


589 


being  destitute  of  employment,  do  little  else  than  gamble  and 
skulk  about  to  steal  in  order  to  get  a livelihood  : — 

“ Since  the  period  when  the  English  brought  in  soldiers,  these  ladrones 
have  been  banding  together  and  forming  societies ; and  while  some, 
taking  advantage  of  their  strength,  have  plundered  and  robbed,  others 
have  called  upon  the  able-bodied  and  valiant  to  get  their  living.  There- 
fore, employing  troops,  which  is  the  endangering  of  the  authorities  and 
[peaceable]  people,  is  the  profit  of  these  miscreants ; peace  and  good 
order,  which  traders,  both  native  and  foreign,  desire,  is  what  these  bad 

men  do  not  at  all  wish I have  heard  that  usually  the  citizens 

of  Canton  have  respected  and  liked  the  officers  and  people  of  the  United 
States,  as  they  were  peaceable  and  reasonable ; that  they  would,  even 
when  there  was  a cause  of  difference,  endeavor  to  settle  it,  which  is  very 
unlike  the  English.  But,  unexpectedly,  on  the  16th  instant,  a cause 
for  animosity  was  given  in  the  shooting  of  Sii  Amun.  I have  heard 
different  accounts  of  this  affair;  I judge  reasonably  in  thinking  that  the 
merchants  of  your  country  causelessly  and  rashly  took  life.  But  the 
populace  are  determined  to  seek  a quarrel,  and  I very  much  fear  lest 
they  will  avail  of  this  to  raise  commotion,  perhaps  under  the  pretence 
of  avenging  his  death,  but  doubtless  with  other  ideas  too.” 

The  American  minister  referred  in  a subsequent  communica- 
tion to  the  death  of  Sherry,  in  May,  1841,  when  the  boat’s  crew 
from  the  ship  Morrison  was  attacked  and  captured.  This  affair 
had  been  already  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment by  Commodore  Kearny,  and  a sum  of  $7,800  received 
from  it  for  losses  and  damages  sustained  ; but  the  present  was  a 
fitting  opportunity  for  reviving  it,  since  it  and  the  case  of  Sii 
Amun  furnished  a mutual  commentary  upon  the  necessity  of 
securing  better  protection  for  foreigners.  Kiying,  on  his  return, 
made  an  investigation  of  the  case,  and  reported  the  successive 
actions  of  his  predecessor  Ki  Kung  in  a business-like  manner, 
and  so  much  was  his  reply  divested  of  all  the  rhodomontade 
usually  seen  in  Chinese  state  papers,  that  one  could  hardly 
believe  it  was  written  by  a governor-general  of  Canton.  The 
exciting  circumstances  of  that  casualty  did  indeed  go  far  to 
extenuate  it ; though  now,  both  Kiying  and  his  master  could  not 
but  see  that  the  time  for  demanding  life  for  life  had  passed  away. 
The  parallel  between  the  two  casualties  could  not  fail  to  be 
most  instructive  to  them,  and  lead  them  to  put  more  importance 
upon  human  life.  The  commissioner  was,  however,  in  a dilem- 
ma. He  could  only  appease  the  populace  by  stating  in  his 


590 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


proclamations,  that  he  was  making  every  effort  to  ascertain  who 
was  the  murderer  and  bring  him  to  justice,  and  they  must  leave 
the  management  of  the  case  in  the  hands  of  the  regular  authori- 
ties. On  the  other  hand,  the  arguments  of  Mr.  Cushing  and  the 
stipulations  in  the  English  treaty,  both  convinced  him  that  foreign 
nations  would  not  give  up  the  right  of  judging  their  own  coun- 
trymen, much  less  would  they  submit  to  have  homicide  treated 
as  murder.  He  finally  escaped  the  trouble  by  deferring  the 
petitioners  and  relatives  of  the  deceased  awhile,  and  then  appeas- 
ing them  by  a small  donation.  The  American  gentleman  who 
had  been  the  unwitting  cause  of  the  unhappy  result,  also  made 
some  provision  for  the  family  of  the  deceased  before  he  left  China. 

In  conducting  these  negotiations,  and  settling  this  treaty  “ be- 
tween the  youngest  and  oldest  empires  in  the  world,”  Mr.  Cush- 
ing exhibited  both  ability  and  knowledge  of  his  subject.  In  his 
instructions,  he  was  directed  to  deliver  the  President’s  letter  to 
the  emperor  in  person,  or  to  an  officer  of  rank  in  his  presence ; 
and,  therefore,  on  his  arrival,  he  informed  the  governor  that  he 
had  been  sent  to  the  imperial  court,  and  being  under  the  neces- 
sity of  landing  and  remaining  a few  weeks  at  Macao,  before  he 
continued  his  journey,  he  improved  the  first  opportunity  which 
presented  itself  to  inquire  after  the  health  of  his  majesty. 
Whether  he  regarded  the  mere  going  to  court  as  important,  can- 
not be  inferred  from  his  correspondence,  but  if  so,  instead  of 
communicating  with  the  governor  at  Canton,  he  should  have 
gone  directly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Pei  ho,  and  waited  there  for  a 
commissioner  to  be  sent  to  meet  him.  Yet  the  real  advantages 
of  such  a proceeding  at  this  time  would  have  been  trifling  ; and 
as  the  emperor  was  not  disposed  to  forego  that  homage  required 
of  all  who  appeared  before  him,  however  willing  he  might  be  to 
grant  commercial  privileges,  it  was  undesirable  to  excite  discus- 
sions on  this  point.  Moreover,  the  appointment  of  Kiying  with 
such  unusual  powers  indicated  a favorable  disposition  towards 
the  Americans,  and  a desire  to  treat  their  envoy  with  due  respect. 
As  it  happened,  it  was  fortunate  the  two  plenipotentiaries  were 
at  hand,  when  the  riot  and  homicide  of  the  15th  of  June  occurred  ; 
and  the  discussion  which  grew  out  of  those  events  was  no  small 
benefit  to  the  local  government.  The  secret  of  much  of  the  power 
of  the  emperor  of  China  consists  in  the  acknowledgment  by 
his  subjects  of  his  vice-heavenly  character ; and  although 


DISCUSSION  BETWEEN  MR.  CUSHING  AND  KfYING. 


591 


that  lofty  assumption  must  come  down  before  the  advance  of 
truth  and  religion,  and  will  erelong  crumble  of  itself,  still  to 
rudely  shock  it  by  forcing  him  to  receive  an  ambassador  without 
the  usual  mark  of  respect,  is  to  irritate  him,  weaken  his  author- 
ity, and  displease  his  subjects,  before  a corresponding  benefit 
would  accrue.  In  opening  the  negotiations,  the  first  two  letters 
from  Kiying  were  returned  for  correction,  since,  when  referring 
to  the  United  States,  he  had  placed  the  characters  one  line  lower 
than  those  for  China ; the  error  was  immediately  rectified,  and 
the  correspondence  afterwards  conducted  on  terms  of  perfect 
equality  and  courtesy. 

The  treaty  of  VVanghia  embodied  all  the  important  stipulations 
of  the  two  English  treaties  and  commercial  regulations ; and 
provided  further  for  the  erection  of  hospitals,  chapels,  and  ceme- 
teries at  the  five  ports,  and  the  visits  of  ships-of-war  to  any  part 
of  the  coast.  The  duty  on  lead  and  ginseng  was  reduced,  and 
tonnage  duty  was  not  to  be  demanded  a second  time  from  a ves- 
self  going  to  another  port  to  clear  off  her  cargo.  These  privi- 
leges also  extended  to  all  nations  as  well  as  the  United  States. 
Mr.  Cushing,  having  accomplished  the  object  of  his  mission,  left 
China  without  seeing  the  other  ports,  making  only  a transient 
visit  at  Canton  and  Hongkong,  and  embarked  in  the  U.  S.  brig 
Perry,  Aug.  27th,  direct  for  San  Bias.  The  emperor  ratified  the 
treaty,  and  commodore  Parker  published  a circular  Sept.  14th, 
announcing  that  all  the  provisions  in  it  had  been  agreed  to  by  the 
Chinese.  The  President  and  Senate  accepted  it  without  altera- 
tion, and  the  ratifications  were  exchanged  on  the  last  day  of  De- 
cember, 1845,  at  the  country  seat  of  Pwan  Sz’shing  by  Commo- 
dore Biddle  and  Kiying.  Since  that  date,  the  Hon.  Alexander 
H.  Everett  has  been  sent  to  China  as  minister  plenipotentiary 
from  the  United  States  ; though  in  our  humble  opinion,  it  is  some- 
what demeaning  to  a government  like  that  of  the  United  States 
to  send  a resident  minister  to  a nation  which  will  not  reciprocate 
the  courtesy,  nor  even  allow  him  to  reside  in  the  capital,  but 
keeps  him  at  a distance  in  one  of  the  provincial  towns.  Under 
such  circumstances,  a charge-d’affaires,  with  sufficient  powers, 
would  better  comport  with  dignity  and  be  equally  beneficial. 

The  French  ambassador,  H.  E.  Th.  de  Lagrene,  and  his  suite, 
arrived  in  China,  Aug.  14th,  to  negotiate  a commercial  treaty 
with  the  Chinese.  In  addition  to  the  two  secretaries  MM.  le 


592 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


Marquis  de  Ferridre  le  Voyer  and  le  Comte  d’Harcourt,  and 
other  attaches  of  the  embassy,  five  other  gentlemen  were  sent 
out  by  the  government  to  make  investigations  into  the  commerce, 
arts,  and  industrial  resources  of  the  Chinese.  M.  de  Lagrene 
landed  at  Macao  under  a salute,  and  took  possession  of  the  lodg- 
ings prepared  for  him  in  the  same  building  which  Mr.  Cushing 
and  his  suite  had  occupied.  Kiying  was  immediately  informed 
of  these  events,  and  made  arrangements  for  opening  the  negotia- 
tions at  Macao  by  sending  his  three  associates  to  congratulate 
the  French  minister  on  his  arrival ; and  reached  that  place  him- 
self, Sept.  29th.  The  gratification  of  the  Chinese  statesmen  at 
finding  that  the  missions  from  the  American  and  French  govern- 
ments were  not  sent  to  their  borders  like  the  English  expedition 
to  demand  indemnity  and  the  cession  of  an  island  on  the  coast, 
was  great.  The  anticipated  arrival  of  these  embassies  had  been 
rumored  among  the  people-  of  Canton,  the  number  of  ships  of 
war  and  force  in  them  had  been  largely  exaggerated,  and  the 
design  of  the  ambassadors  strangely  misrepresented  as  including 
the  seizure  of  an  island.  These  reports  could  hardly  fail  to  reach, 
and  have  some  effect  upon  the  highest  officers  in  the  land.  The 
time,  therefore,  was  favorable  to  the  arrangement  of  a treaty,  not 
merely  to  obtain  the  same  political  and  commercial  advantages 
which  had  been  granted  to  England,  but  also  to  explain  to  the 
Chinese  officers  something  of  the  relations  their  nation  should 
enter  into  with  the  other  powers  of  the  earth.  The  first  inter- 
views between  Kiying  and  M.  de  Lagrenb  were  held  in  October, 
and  the  negotiations  continued  nearly  the  whole  month.  His 
excellency  took  the  treaty  of  Wanghia  as  the  basis  of  his  own, 
and  on  the  23d  of  October,  having  settled  all  the  preliminaries, 
proceeded  to  Whampoa  in  the  steamer  Archimede  with  Kiying, 
where  the  treaty  was  signed.  It  was  subsequently  ratified  by 
the  sovereigns  of  both  countries,  and  the  ratifications  duly  ex- 
changed. Twelve  years  were  agreed  upon,  both  in  the  French 
and  American  treaties,  as  the  time  which  should  elapse  before 
any  alterations  were  made ; and  in  the  latter,  it  was  stipulated 
that  none  of  the  individual  slates  of  the  American  Union  should 
ever  send  embassies  to  form  separate  treaties  for  themselves. 

The  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Whampoa  may  be  said  to  have 
concluded  the  opening  of  China,  so  far  as  its  government  was 
prepared  for  the  extension  of  this  intercourse.  The  instalments 


TREATY  OF  WHAMPOA. 


593 


to  be  paid  the  English,  according  to  the  treaty  of  Nanking,  were 
not  yet  all  paid,  but  the  Chinese  had  shown  their  desire  to  fulfil 
the  provisions  of  that  engagement ; and  the  twenty-one  millions 
of  dollars  were  all  paid  over  within  a short  period  of  the  speci- 
fied time.  This  was  a minor  consideration,  however,  in  compa- 
rison with  the  great  advantages  gained  by  England  for  herself 
and  all  Christendom  over  the  seclusive  and  exclusive  system  of 
former  days,  which  had  now  received  such  a shock  that  it  could 
not  only  never  recover  from  it,  but  was  not  likely  even  to  main- 
tain itself  where  the  treaties  had  defined  it.  The  intercourse 
begun  by  these  treaties  will  extend  as  fast  as  the  two  parties  find 
it  for  their  benefit,  despite  of  all  enactments  and  restrictions ; 
and  faster  than  this  it  ought  not  to  extend.  The  war  between 
England  and  China,  as  has  been  remarked,  though  eminently 
unjust  in  its  cause  as  an  opium  war, — and  even  English  officers 
and  authors  do  not  try  to  disguise  that  the  seizure  of  the  opium 
was  the  real  reason  for  an  appeal  to  arms,  though  the  imprison- 
ment of  Capt.  Elliot  and  other  acts  was  the  pretext — was  still,  so 
far  as  human  sagacity  can  perceive,  a wholesome  infliction  upon 
a government,  which  haughtily  refused  all  equal  intercourse  with 
other  nations,  or  explanations  regarding  its  conduct,  and  forbade 
its  subjects  having  free  dealings  with  their  fellow-men. 

If  in  entering  upon  this  war,  England  had  published  to  the 
world  her  declaration  of  the  reasons  for  engaging  in  it,  the  merits 
of  the  case  would  have  been  better  understood.  If  she  had 
said  at  the  outset,  that  she  commenced  the  struggle  with  the  em- 
peror, because  he  would  not  treat  her  subjects  resorting  to  his 
shores  by  his  permission  with  common  humanity,  allowing  them 
no  intercourse  with  his  subjects,  nor  access  to  his  officers ; because 
he  contemptuously  discarded  her  ambassadors  and  consular 
agents,  sent  with  friendly  design  ; because  he  made  foolish  regu- 
lations, which  his  own  subjects  did  not  observe,  an  occasion  of 
offence  against  others,  when  it  suited  him,  and  had  despoiled 
them  of  their  property  by  strange  and  arbitrary  proceedings, 
weakening  all  confidence  in  his  equity ; and  lastly,  because  he 
kept  himself  aloof  from  other  sovereigns,  and  shut  out  his  people 
from  that  intercourse  with  their  fellow-men  which  was  their  privi- 
lege and  right : if  England  had  said  these  were  the  grounds  of  an 
appeal  to  arms,  her  character  in  this  war  would  have  appeared 
rather  better.  But  it  is  the  prerogative  of  the  Governor  of  na 


594 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


tions  to  educe  good  out  of  evil,  and  make  the  wrath,  the  avarice, 
and  the  ambition  of  men  to  serve  his  purposes,  and  advance  his 
own  designs,  although  their  intentions  may  be  far  otherwise.  In 
this  view  the  last  act  in  the  negotiations  which  ended  with  the 
treaty  of  Whampoa,  the  qualified  permission  obtained  for  the 
reception  and  exercise  of  Christianity,  was  one  of  the  most 
important.  Its  effects  will  be  greater,  there  can  hardly  be  a 
doubt,  than  the  commercial  stipulations  and  political  arrange- 
ments in  all  the  treaties ; and  its  ultimate  consequences  of  the 
highest  moment. 

The  external  and  internal  relations  of  the  Chinese  empire  at 
the  close  of  the  year  1844,  were  in  a far  better  state  than  one 
would  have  supposed  they  could  have  become  in  so  short  a time 
after  such  a convulsion.  The  cities  and  provinces  where  the 
storm  of  war  had  beat  most  violently  were  reviving,  the  author- 
ity of  the  officers  was  becoming  re-established,  the  bands  of  law- 
less desperadoes  were  gradually  dispersing,  and  the  people 
resuming  their  peaceful  pursuits.  No  ill-will  was  manifested  in 
Amoy  on  account  of  the  losses  its  citizens  had  sustained,  nor  at 
Ningpo  or  Shanghai  for  their  occupation  by  English  troops. 
The  English  consuls  at  the  five  ports  had  all  been  received,  and 
trade  was  commencing  under  favorable  auspices.  The  opium 
trade,  for  this  dark  feature  everywhere  forces  itself  into  the  pros- 
pect, was  also  extending,  and  opium  schooners  plying  up  and 
down  the  coast,  and  lying  on  the  outside  limits  of  every  port  to 
deliver  the  drug. 

From  the  close  of  the  year  1844  to  the  present  period,  nothing 
has  occurred  to  disturb  the  amicable  relations  existing  in  general 
between  China  and  other  nations,  except  the  opposition  of  the 
citizens  of  Canton  to  granting  foreigners  a larger  space  for  resi- 
dences there,  and  freedom  to  enter  the  city  and  ramble  in  its 
vicinity.  Their  hostility  proceeded  to  such  a length  that  the 
local  government  became  utterly  powerless  to  carry  the  stipula- 
tions of  the  treaties  in  these  particulars  into  effect  ; Governor 
Davis  consequently  proceeded  to  Canton  in  May,  1847,  with 
several  vessels  of  war,  capturing  all  the  guns  at  the  Bogue  in 
his  progress  up  the  river,  and  compelled  the  authorities  to  grant 
a larger  space  for  residences  and  warehouses,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  river  opposite  the  factories,  to  be  occupied  as  soon  as 
arrangements  could  be  made,  and  also  provide  for  the  prospect- 


PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  CHINA. 


595 


ive  fulfilment  of  the  other  stipulations  of  the  treaty.  The  dis- 
like to  foreigners  exhibited  by  the  people  of  Canton  is  owing  to  a 
variety  of  reasons,  chiefly  growing  out  of  the  war  ; and  there  is 
danger  that  it  will  not  be  removed  or  concealed  without  some 
violent  outbreak  and  dreadful  example.  The  well-known  wishes 
of  the  government  to  maintain  peace,  and  the  good  disposition 
manifested  at  the  other  ports,  strengthen  the  hope  that  collisions 
there  will  not  involve  the  whole  country. 

The  present  position  of  the  Chinese  empire  is  both  interesting 
and  critical ; and  whether  the  present  government  has  most  to 
fear  the  internal  or  external  causes  of  disturbance,  is  hard  to 
say,  though  perhaps  the  elements  of  discord  within  are  more 
likely  to  cause  a revolution  than  any  movement  from  without. 
The  ignorance  of  the  government  respecting  its  own  rights  in  its 
intercourse  with  other  nations,  and  a full  understanding  of  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  demands  of  western  powers  for  greater 
privileges  and  freedom,  is  to  be  regretted,  since  it  excites  suspi- 
cions of  their  designs,  and  a fear  that  to  grant  one  privilege  is 
only  establishing  a precedent  for  another.  This  ignorance  not 
only  disables  the  officers  from  proper  action  when  the  time  for 
acting  arrives ; leads  them  into  rash  measures  and  false  posi- 
tions, which  they  would  avoid  if  they  were  better  informed  ; and 
makes  them  hesitate  as  to  the  course  of  conduct  when  they  are 
forced  to  do  something  ; but  it  prevents  them  from  wishing  to 
learn  anything,  because  they  suppose  there  is  nothing  worth 
learning.  Their  course  of  classical  education  does  not  enlarge  or 
stimulate  the  mind,  and  as  the  student  comes  into  the  busy  scenes 
of  life,  his  prospects,  ideas,  and  conclusions,  being  bounded  by 
his  own  country  and  literature,  are  all  cramped,  inconclusive, 
and  erroneous,  when  applied  to  affairs  beyond  that  sphere. 

The  mass  of  people  being  likewise  ignorant,  are  also  easily 
induced,  as  at  Canton,  to  resist  innovation,  and  oppose  the  execu- 
tion of  the  stipulations  of  treaties,  or  any  other  plans  which  their 
rulers  may  see  to  be  absolutely  necessary.  Tt  has  been,  in  some 
degree,  owing  to  the  almost  total  want  of  books  from  which 
either  people  or  ruler  could  learn  the  truth  about  other  countries ; 
for  the  Chinese  student,  who  might  wish  to  investigate  such  sub- 
jects, had  no  dictionaries  or  guides,  nothing  to  aid  in  understand- 
ing other  languages,  or  assist  him  in  his  pursuit. 

Another  source  of  future  difficulty  in  the  intercourse  of  China 


596 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


with  western  nations  is  the  long-established  notion  of  the  empe- 
ror’s supremacy  ; which,  though  it  has  received  a stunning  blow 
by  the  war  with  England,  in  the  minds  of  both  the  sovereign  and 
his  people,  is  not  yet  given  up,  nor  even  seen  to  be  foolish. 
Wounded  pride  easily  winces  at  what,  under  other  circumstances, 
would  be  passed  by  with  contempt.  The  emperor  receives 
nearly  divine  adulation  and  homage  from  his  subjects  ; and  even 
the  Romish  missionaries,  who  well  knew  the  meaning  of  the 
ceremony,  did  not  hesitate  to  make  the  nine  prostrations.  For  a 
subject  to  omit  this  homage,  even  before  his  picture,  is  tanta- 
mount to  rebellion,  and  a disavowal  of  his  character,  and  would 
be  sufficient  cause  for  dismission  and  disgrace.  For  the  emperor 
to  give  up  this  ceremony,  which  involves  his  religious  character, 
would  be,  in  some  measure,  to  part  with  a portion  of  his  power; 
for  in  this  case  the  ceremony  itself  is  power,  as,  apart  from 
religious  scruples,  no  subject  would  object  to  it.  If  the  emperor 
could  not  do  away  with  it  to  his  own  subjects  and  tributaries 
without  impairing  his  influence,  he  would  feel  humbled  in  their 
sight  by  admitting  despised  foreigners  to  an  audience  without 
requiring  it ; nor  could  he  allow  the  repetition  of  such  audiences 
without  weakening  it  in  some  degree.  He  would  feel  mortified 
at  this  continual  disavowal  of  his  own  imperial  character  on  the 
part  of  a few  foreigners,  and  decline  the  audiences  altogether,  if, 
in  his  irritation,  he  did  nothing  more  unbecoming.  This  is  a 
fundamental  part  of  the  Chinese  system  of  government,  which 
must,  so  far  as  can  be  seen,  undergo  an  entire  change,  before  it 
is  given  up.  If  western  powers  should  require  the  emperor  to 
receive  resident  ministers,  difficulties  would  almost  unavoidably 
arise  touching  the  etiquette  of  his  court. 

No  acknowledged  representative  of  any  foreign  power  has 
ever  resided  in  his  borders.  Consuls  are  regarded  as  headmen 
over  their  countrymen,  and  are  not  invested  with  any  represen- 
tative character  by  the  Chinese  government ; being  appointed 
simply  to  guide  and  restrain  their  own  people.  A resident  mi- 
nister at  Peking  from  the  court  of  St.  Cloud  evidently  requires 
that  a Chinese  envoy  live  at  Paris  ; but  the  emperor  would  be 
puzzled  to  know  what  use  either  of  them  could  be,  since  there 
were  no  Frenchmen  in  his  capital,  nor  Chinese  at  Paris  for  them 
to  restrain  and  control.  Until  the  court  of  Peking  places  its 
ceremonies  on  a different  basis,  and  accepts  obeisance  instead  of 


CAUSES  OF  FUTURE  COLLISION. 


597 


requiring  worship,  respectful  etiquette  instead  of  tributary  fealty, 
and  becomes  better  acquainted  with  its  relations  to  foreign  powers, 
ministers  and  ambassadors  from  abroad  had  better  not  be  forced 
on  it,  though  their  desirableness  and  necessity  should  be  constantly 
impressed  on  it.  The  result  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  English 
resident  from  Ava  has  been  a cessation  of  unpleasant  feelings  on 
the  part  of  the  Burmese  ; while  he  was  there,  he  was  looked 
upon  as  a spy  and  busybody,  making  inquiries  into  everything, 
which,  in  their  view,  could  have  no  other  motive  than  with 
reference  to  ulterior  conquest.  Such  would  be  the  case  in  China. 
The  novelty  of  his  position  inciting  the  minister  to  examine  into 
everything,  would  excite  suspicions,  and  the  train  of  ill  conse- 
quences likely  to  spring  from  them,  nurtured  as  they  would  be 
by  past  experience  of  the  power  of  one  nation,  and  strengthened 
by  ignorance  and  misapprehension  of  the  designs  of  all.  A 
man  can  judge  of  what  he  does  not  know  only  by  what  he  does 
know,  and  in  such  a case  the  conclusion  would  of  course  be  very 
incorrect.  The  irresistible  progressof  the  intercourse  now  com- 
menced will  probably  be  such  as  in  a few  years  to  lead  the  court 
to  see  the  advantage  of  having  the  envoys  of  other  powers  nearer 
to  it ; and  then  they  can  be  received,  too,  on  well-understood 
grounds.  The  three  treaties  were,  it  is  highly  probable,  more 
satisfactorily  negotiated,  because  the  plenipotentiaries  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  America,  did  not  make  it  an  indispensable 
preliminary  that  they  should  go  to  the  capital. 

Another  probable  cause  of  collision  is  the  recurrence  of  popu- 
lar tumults  at  the  five  ports.  The  citizens  of  these  places  once 
prejudiced  by  designing  persons,  it  would  not  be  difficult  to 
excite  them  against  the  foreign  residents,  and  a riot  ensue  in 
which  the  loss  of  life  and  property  might  be  dreadful,  before  the 
local  authorities  could  effectually  interpose.  In  such  a case,  the 
consul  and  his  government  would  call  on  them  for  indemnifica- 
tion for  the  past,  and  security  for  the  future.  The  Chinese 
government  cannot  restrain  every  outbreak  of  popular  indigna- 
tion among  those  whom  it  can  hardly  govern  itself ; nor,  when 
its  intentions  are  peaceable,  can  it  be  held  in  the  same  measure 
guilty  for  the  violence  of  its  subjects,  and  visited  with  general 
war  because  of  the  misdeeds  of  a few.  In  Asia,  if  any  dis- 
turbance occur  between  the  native  princes  or  their  subjects  and 
foreigner,  a resort  to  force  is  the  first  thing  talked  of.  No  for- 


598 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


bearance  is  to  be  shown  the  offending  party,  but  they  must  be 
chastised,  or  they  will  never  learn  to  treat  their  visitors  well. 
Little  or  no  allowance  is  made  for  the  ignorance,  the  prejudices, 
the  suspicions,  and  the  excitability  of  the  weaker  party ; nor  for 
the  effect  of  unfounded  rumors  as  to  the  intentions  and  conduct 
of  the  stronger.  Such  things  are  likely  to  occur  often  between 
people  so  ignorant  of  each  other’s  habits,  and  foreigners  from 
Christian  countries  are  usually  least  ready  to  respect  the  preju- 
dices of  the  heathen.  Sir  John  Davis  mentions  an  instance  where 
the  passage  of  a corpse  at  the  public  landing-place  in  Macao  was 
resisted  by  the  custom-house  tidewaiters  stationed  there,  and  the 
sailors  immediately  prepared  to  resent  the  indignity,  and  a row 
would  have  ensued  if  they  had  not  been  told  on  the  spot  that  no 
insult  was  intended,  and  that  it  was  considered  both  unlucky  and 
illegal  for  a dead  body  to  pass  over  any  place  appropriated  to  im- 
perial use.  The  coffin  was  consequently  landed  at  another  jetty 
without  any  opposition.  Cases  of  collision  from  similar  causes 
are  constantly  liable  to  arise,  and  their  repetition  breeds  a settled 
dislike,  which  vents  itself  in  many  ways,  and  grows  by  its  own 
exhibition. 

The  opium  trade  is,  however,  more  likely  than  anything  else 
soonest  to  give  rise  to  collision.  The  manner  in  which  this  traffic 
has  been  left  by  the  treaties  apparently  allows  the  Chinese  author- 
ities great  freedom  of  action  ; but  whenever  attacked,  the  vessels 
engaged  in  it  have  resisted,  under  the  plea  of  defending  them- 
selves against  pirates.  It  is  impossible  to  say  what  course  of  ac- 
tion the  government  will  take  in  relation  to  it,  but  the  emperor 
will  be  obliged  to  do  something  before  many  years.  The  pros- 
pect in  this  direction  is  dark  in  the  extreme,  both  as  respects  in- 
ternal peace,  and  the  continuance  of  amicable  relations  with 
England.  Her  rulers  at  home  would  be  sorry  to  see  the  trade 
lessened,  and  every  official  effort  of  the  Chinese  to  stay  the  dread- 
ful scourge  is  likely  in  some  way  or  other  to  be  resisted. 

The  introduction  of  Christian  truth,  of  liberal  principles,  of 
free  discussion,  of  sound  knowledge,  and  of  pure  religion,  among 
the  millions  of  China,  will  also  tend  to  break  up  the  long  existing 
state  of  society.  The  people  will  erelong  understand  and  assert 
their  rights  ; at  first  the  rulers  will  oppose  them,  until  the  pres- 
sure becomes  too  strong,  when  they  will  either  quietly  yield,  or 
be  overwhelmed  in  their  own  opposition.  There  are  many  rea- 


PROBABLE  EFFECTS  OF  EXTENDED  INTERCOURSE.  599 


sons  for  thinking  that  these  changes  may  take  place  without  gene 
ral  convulsion  and  disorganization  ; but  they  will,  almost  necessa 
rily,  be  attended  with  many  evils.  The  internal  condition  of  the 
country  is  now  so  bad  that  the  people  are  restive  under  their 
misgovernment  and  oppression ; how  much  more  intractable  will 
they  be  when  they  see  the  antidotes  of  their  calamities,  and  find 
that  their  rulers  will  not  adopt  them  ! 

On  the  other  hand,  the  result  of  these  powerful  principles 
working  upon  the  rulers  first,  and  leading  them  to  propose  new 
measures  before  the  people  are  ready  for  them,  is  almost  as  likely 
to  work  disturbance.  It  is  not  easy,  nor  is  it  necessary,  to  spe- 
culate upon  the  chances  of  the  peaceable  or  violent  introduction 
of  such  mighty  causes  of  change  into  the  social  and  political  sys- 
tem of  China,  for  in  practice  there  are  so  many  modifying  causes 
to  alleviate  the  shock  upon  existing  institutions,  and  weaken  the 
power  of  resistance  of  the  various  parts  of  society,  that  nothing 
can  be  predicated.  It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  the  extension 
of  these  principles  will  carry  with  them  in  some  degree  their 
own  safeguards ; and  that  those  who  are  most  fully  imbued  with 
the  true  spirit  of  Christianity,  and  best  instructed  in  the  real  wel- 
fare of  their  country,  will  prove  the  best  preservers  of  peace 
and  the  guardians  of  life  and  property.  There  is  more  to  fear 
from  the  insensate  anger  of  the  excited,  ignorant  populace  stirred 
up  by  designing  men,  than  from  the  indiscreet  acts  of  those  who 
are  desirous  to  benefit  their  country. 

Connected  with  the  opium  trade  as  likely  to  prove  a source  of 
collision,  is  the  presence  of  an  armed  force  at  Hongkong.  The 
nearness  of  this  force  is  a matter  of  annoyance  to  the  Chinese 
authorities,  and  tends  to  restrain  their  free  action.  They  are 
afraid  to  act  against  the  opium  vessels  on  the  coast,  most  of  whom 
sail  under  English  colors,  lest  the  governor  of  that  colony  demand 
reparation  for  the  seizure,  and  require  that  those  who  insulted  the 
British  flag  be  condignly  punished.  It  is  difficult  for  the  Chinese 
officers  to  oppose  force  to  force  in  putting  down  this  traffic,  and 
when  they  resort  to  cunning  and  deceit  to  compass  their  ends, 
they  are  very  likely  to  transgress  some  of  the  “ laws  of  nations,” 
and  straightway  down  comes  the  vengeance  of  England  to  teach 
them  their  meaning.  It  is  the  settled  policy  of  that  government 
to  strain  every  nerve  to  extend  her  manufactures  and  trade  ; and 
if  it  is  believed  that  the  possession  of  another  island  on  the  coast 


600 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


of  China,  or  a lodgment  on  the  mainland,  will  benefit  their 
trade,  the  “ occasion  for  amending  their  position,”  as  an  English 
editor  terms  it,  will  not  long  be  wanting.  There  are  so  many 
motives  operating  to  excite  another  war  with  China,  if  the  English 
government  find  that  the  trade  does  not  rapidly  increase,  such  as 
the  ambition  of  the  governors  of  Hongkong,  who  feel  cramped  in 
that  rocky  islet ; the  haughty  bearing  of  many  towards  the  Chi- 
nese in  their  personal  intercourse,  which  of  course  begets  like 
feelings  in  the  minds  of  the  weaker ; the  expectation  of  war  and 
further  conquests  in  China  on  the  part  of  British  subjects,  grow- 
ing out  of  their  past  successes,  and  consciousness  of  immense 
power,  which  leads  them  to  look  with  less  consideration  upon  the 
mistakes  and  ill  temper  of  the  Chinese  government  and  people  ; 
the  great  difference  in  the  habits,  opinions,  motives,  and  energy 
of  two  races  so  unlike  as  the  Saxon  and  Chinese,  leading  to 
assumption  and  encroachment  on  the  one  hand,  and  fear,  treachery, 
and  resistance,  on  the  other:  that  such  a contest  may  be  regarded 
as  not  improbable.  The  desires  and  efforts  of  a few  honorable, 
philanthropic  rulers  could  not  stay  such  an  event  long,  if  the 
people  of  China  became  irritated  ; and  past  experience  does  not 
hold  out  much  hope  that  future  intercourse,  in  its  constant  round 
of  daily  events,  will  be  conducted  in  a different  manner  from  what 
it  has  been.  The  signing  of  a treaty  containing  certain  stipula- 
tions is  a mere  form,  embodying  present  feelings ; the  effective- 
ness of  such  a paper  depends  wholly  upon  the  ideas,  wishes,  and 
conduct  of  the  subjects  of  the  respective  nations.  The  provisions 
of  a treaty  may  be  broken,  when  there  is  not  the  least  probability 
of  a collision  in  consequence,  because  both  parties  see  that  it  is  for 
their  mutual  advantage  to  disregard,  what  experience  has  proved 
to  be  unwisely  written ; and  the  articles  of  such  a paper  may  be 
rigidly  observed,  in  order  to  avoid  a contest,  which  would  be  in- 
evitable from  the  state  of  feeling  between  the  two  people.  There 
may  be  no  intention  on  the  part  of  England  to  bring  about  such 
a morbid  state  of  feeling,  for  the  danger  is  on  the  other  side  ; it 
is  misapprehension  of  her  purposes,  fear  of  her  power,  and  im- 
patience at  her  supposed  dictation,  which  are  the  causes  most 
likely  to  arouse  the  wounded  pride  of  the  Chinese  officers,  and 
urge  them  to  resistance. 

There  are,  however,  some  restraining  causes  of  great  influence 
found  in  the  Chinese  character  and  habits,  which  in  such  an 


RESTRAINING  INFLUENCES. 


601 


emergency  would  be  called  into  action.  On  the  part  of  the  em- 
peror and  his  council,  a consciousness  of  their  inability  to  cope 
with  the  power  from  which  they  have  suffered  so  severely,  will 
restrain  them,  and  more  or  less  their  underlings,  from  doing  many 
things  they  might  wish  to  do,  and  once  thought  they  could  do 
with  impunity.  Trade,  too,  by  strengthening  mutual  interests 
and  advantages,  tends  to  lessen  the  ill  feelings  nations  may  have 
had  for  each  other  at  first;  and  among  the  Chinese  especially, 
the  lovo  of  country,  dislike  of  others,  or  gratification  of  revenge, 
are  all  weaker,  and  will  give  way  to  the  hope  of  profit.  The 
chances  of  a war  are  materially  less  among  a people  so  devoted 
to  traffic  and  gain,  than  among  such  nations  as  the  Japanese  or 
Persians,  more  accustomed  to  arms,  and  ambitious  of  martial 
renown.  This  predilection  for  traffic,  and  the  esteem  in  which 
the  arts  of  peace  and  pursuits  of  literature  are  held,  will  prove 
a strong  conservative  influence,  among  the  Chinese,  operating 
against  the  causes  for  war  already  mentioned.  They  usually 
think  it  better  to  trade  than  fight,  and  are  unwilling  to  risk  the 
former  for  the  doubtful  chance  of  success  in  the  latter.  The 
sufferings  which  come  upon  all  classes  of  valuable  citizens  from 
an  interruption  of  peace  in  so  thickly  settled  a country,  arising 
from  the  failure  of  sufficient  supplies  of  food,  and  demand  for 
labor,  and  the  consequent  calamities  of  banditti,  beggars,  and 
lawlessness,  still  further  indispose  them  to  hazard  its  safety,  and 
will  tend  somewhat  to  restrain  all  classes  from  outrageous  con- 
duct. The  chances  of  foreign  rupture  are  lessened  by  this  con- 
sideration ; but  it  will  do  still  more  to  preserve  internal  peace, 
by  inclining  the  wealthy,  the  learned,  and  the  industrious,  to 
throw  all  their  influence  into  the  scale  of  good  order  and  good 
government,  that  they  may  save  what  they  have.  Even  in  case 
of  a contest  between  the  adherents  of  the  old  order  of  things  and 
those  who  are  seeking  to  reform  the  principles  of  government,  on 
the  high  grounds  of  liberty  of  conscience  and  equity  of  adminis- 
tration, the  same  knowledge  of  the  unhappy  consequences  of 
civil  war  to  all  parties,  would  do  much  to  reduce  it  to  a persecu- 
tion of  individuals,  until  their  principles  had  made  such  progress 
that  they  could  dictate  a new  law  ; and  if  the  reformers  were  such 
men  as  they  ought  to  be,  there  would  then  be  no  danger  of  further 
disorganization. 

There  are,  it  must  be  confessed,  in  looking  at  this  dispute, 

vol.  ii.  27 


602 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


which  is  almost  unavoidable,  more  grounds  lor  fear  than  hope,  as 
to  its  first  results,  though  no  doubts  need  be  entertained  as  to  the 
final  triumph  of  religion  and  knowledge.  Some  minor  grounds 
for  hoping  that  the  integrity  of  the  empire,  at  least  of  the  eighteen 
provinces,  will  not  be  impaired,  nor  the  present  government  over- 
thrown, in  consequence  of  the  spread  of  liberal  opinions,  are  to 
be  found  in  the  little  intercourse  of  mind  and  interchange  of 
opinion  between  the  people  in  distant  parts  of  these  provinces. 
There  may  be  a very  serious  commotion  in  Sz’chuen  or  Shan- 
lung,  for  instance,  which  hardly  excites  any  notice  in  Canton  or 
Ningpo;  it  is  almost  as  much  a mere  matter  of  news  to  the  citi- 
zens of  those  towns  as  if  it  were  in  India  or  Luqonia.  A discus- 
sion on  important  questions  in  morals  and  politics  may  therefore 
arise  and  make  considerable  progress  along  the  coasts  of  the  em- 
pire, while  the  central  and  western  provinces  know  and  care  little 
about  the  points  at  issue.  This  circumscribed  field,  however, 
offers  greater  facilities  for  the-  government  to  act  with  energy  at 
first  to  put  down  the  dispute  and  punish  the  reformers;  and  the 
diffusion  of  these  new  principles  w ill  be  more  rapid,  perhaps, 
than  is  here  contemplated.  The  literary  examinations  are  sure 
to  become  scenes  of  hot  debate  among  the  students  on  these  en- 
grossing topics,  and  their  discussions  cannot  fail  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  whole  empire.  Another  ground  of  hope  lies  in 
the  matter-of-fact  habits  of  the  Chinese,  their  want  of  enthusiasm 
and  dislike  of  change,  which  are  rather  favorable  than  otherwise. 
The  presentation  and  reception  of  the  highest  truths  ar.d  motives 
the  human  rnind  is  capable  of,  always  excites  thought  and  action, 
and  the  fear  is  of  going  too  fast  in  the  schemes  of  reform  and 
correction,  and  demolishing  the  fabric  before  its  elements  arc- 
ready  for  reconstruction.  The  non-existence  of  caste,  the  weak- 
ness of  a priesthood  which  cannot  nerve  its  persecuting  arm  with 
the  power  of  the  state,  the  little  influence  religion  has  over  the 
Chinese,  the  simplicity  of  the  ancestral  worship,  and  the  absence 
of  all  the  enticing  allurements  of  art,  painting,  gorgeous  temples, 
splendid  ritual,  gay  processions,  and  above  all,  sanctified  licen- 
tiousness, to  uphold  it,  and  make  it  enticing  to  depraved  human 
nature  ; the  popular  origin  of  the  officers  of  government,  and 
lastly,  the  degree  of  industry,  lov  *lty,  and  respeet  of  life  and 
property  characteristic  of  this  people ; all  of  these  furnish  some 
grounds  for  thinking  that  the  regeneration  of  China  will  be  a c- 


GHOUNDS  >OK  HOFE  AND  FERSEVEK ANCE. 


603 


complished,  like  the  operation  of  leaven  in  meal,  withou  shiver- 
ing the  vessel. 

The  real  grounds  of  trust  as  to  the  ultimate  issue  of  t.iis  con- 
troversy, however,  lie  chiefly  in  the  promises  of  the  Bible.  The 
progress  of  civil  and  religious  liberty  throughout  the  world  has 
been  greater  since  1815,  than  ever  before  during  the  same  period 
in  its  history.  This  progress  has,  generally  speaking,  been  un- 
attended with  convulsions.  Madagascar  and  Abyssinia  have 
shut  themselves  up  within  their  own  borders,  refusing  to  allow 
the  further  dissemination  of  Christian  truth  ; while  in  India, 
Turkey,  Egypt,  and  North  America,  the  power  or  fear  of  the 
Saxon  race  has  restrained  persecution.  In  China,  this  fear  may 
also  curb  the  arm  of  opposition.  The  purposes  of  God  go  on  to 
their  accomplishment  in  the  way  best  calculated  to  glorify  him  ; 
and  there,  too,  the  wrath  of  man,  which  is  likely  to  arise  to  op- 
pose  them,  will  be  made  to  glorify  him.  He  infinitely  loves  the 
race  he  has  done  so  much  to  bless  and  redeem,  and  will  direct 
all  things  to  fulfil  the  end  he  had  in  view  in  commencing  his  de- 
signs of  mercy.  The  reasons  just  adduced /or  supposing  that  the 
extension  of  religion,  science,  and  justice,  may  be  unattended 
with  disturbance,  are  of  a mixed  character ; all  of  them  present 
something  unfavorable  as  well  as  favorable,  some  good  influences 
mixed  with  many  bad  ones.  It  affords  the  greatest  encourage- 
ment to  look  through  and  beyond  them  all  to  the  sure  and  final 
result.  The  evangelization  of  the  people  of  China  is  far  more 
important  than  the  form  of  their  government,  the  extent  of  their 
empire,  or  the  existence  of  their  present  institutions.  They  can 
live  as  happily  under  other  rule  as  under  that  of  their  own 
princes ; they  cannot  find  either  security  or  liberty  while  the 
principles  of  their  government  remain  as  illiberal  as  they  now 
are.  Many  influences  will  be  called  in  to  begin  and  direct  this 
desirable  work ; but  the  greatest  p<#tion  of  the  labor  and  suffer- 
ing in  accomplishing  it,  will  doubtless  be  done  by  natives,  by 
Chinese  of  intelligence,  piety,  learning,  and  judgment.  Diffusion 
of  sound  learning,  improvement  in  the  arts  of  life,  increase  in 
domestic  comforts,  elevation  of  the  female  character,  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  social  system  by  giving  woman  her  rightful  place  in 
it,  interchange  of  thought  with  other  nations  and  with  themselves, 
—in  a word,  everything  that  can  make  them  happier  and  better 
will  flow  from  the  progress  of  the  religion  of  the  Cross.  The 


604 


THE  MIDDLE  KINGDOM. 


way  is  opeuing  and  will  enlarge,  the  mountains  be  levelled  and 
the  valleys  filled  up,  until  a free  path  is  made  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  all  these  blessings ; and  opposition  will  only  add  vigor  to 
the  determination  of  those  who  know  and  feel  their  value  to  per- 
severe till  all  shall  know  them. 

Few  plans  of  usefulness  demand  more  wisdom,  prudence,  and 
union  on  the  part  of  the  church  than  this,  and  the  variety  of 
agencies  to  be  employed  in  so  extensive  a field  will  call  for  all 
her  means.  Trade,  manufactures,  facilities  for  travelling  and 
transportation,  development  of  the  industry  and  resources  of  the 
country,  political  changes,  and  even  commotions,  may  and  pro- 
bably will  tend  to  the  furtherance  of  this  work.  They,  and  those 
engaged  in  them,  are  all  instruments  in  the  hands  of  the  same 
wise  Governor  of  the  nations,  and  although  sometimes  they  appa- 
rently conflict  with  the  rapid  progress  of  truth  and  good  order, 
still  good  is  educed  in  the  end.  The  introduction  of  China  into 
the  family  of  Christian  nations,  her  elevation  from  her  present 
state  of  moral,  intellectual,  and  civil  debasement,  to  that  standing 
which  she  should  take,  and  the  free  intercourse  of  her  people  and 
rulers  with  their  fellowmen  of  other  climes  and  tongues,  is  a great 
work,  and  a glorious  one.  It  can  only  be  done  through  the  in- 
fluences of  the  Gospel,  and  the  truths  and  hopes  of  that  system 
of  religion  are  enough  to  do  it.  Through  whatever  scenes  of 
commotion,  war,  and  distress  they  are  to  pass,  the  Chinese  can- 
not again  seclude  themselves  as  they  have  done,  nor  can  they 
shut  out  these  causes  of  change.  The  Gospel  is  the  only  sure 
means  of  guiding  them  through  their  troubles,  it  is  the  only  sys- 
tem on  which  they  can  safely  reconstruct  their  shattered  frame- 
work. This  has  now  commenced  and  must  go  on,  and  happy 
they  who  shall  assist  in  the  consummation.  The  promise  which 
seems  to  refer  to  this  people  (Is.  xlix.,  17)  has  begun  to  be  ac- 
complished, and  its  encouraging  nature  offers  a fit  ending  for  the 
hasty  sketch  of  the  character  and  condition  of  the  Chinese  con- 
tained  in  these  volumes. 

“ Behold  these ! from  afar  they  shall  come, 

And  behold  these ! from  the  north  and  from  the  west : 

And  these  ! from  the  land  of  Sinim.” 


INDEX 


A. 

Abacus,  principle  of,  il,  146. 

Abdel's  trip  to  Tung-ngan,  i*  115 ; instances 
of  Chinese  falsity,  ii,  97  ; notice  of  in- 
fanticide, ii.,  261. 

Academy  at  Peking,  i.,  340. 

Agar-agar  made  from  seaweed,  ii.  404. 

Agriculture,  importance  attached  to  it,  ii., 
100;  objects  and  utensils  of  agricultural 
labor,  ii.,  103. 

Almanac,  its  manner  of  preparation,  ii.,  152. 

Altars  to  Heaven  and  Earth  at  Peking,  i.,  65. 

Alum,  its  manufacture,  i.  243;  its  export  ii., 
399. 

Amber  and  arabergrise,  ii.,  405. 

Americans,  conduct  of,  in  a case  of  homi- 
cide, ii.,  457 ; trade  to  China,  ii.,  465  ; make 
a treaty  with  China,  ii„  585;  commit  a 
homicide  at  Canton,  ii..  587. 

Antov,  its  size,  i.,  114  ; dialect  spoken  there, 

1.,  491 ; hospital  at  ii.,  352  ; mission  at,  ii., 
362  ; trade  at,  ii.,  449;  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish, ii.,  541. 

Amusements  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  89  ; peace- 
ful character,  ii.,  91. 

Anatomy  of  human  body,  ii.,  180. 

Ancestral  worship  of  Chinese,  ii.,  259  ; hall 
and  its  uses,  ii.,  268  ; nature  of  this  wor- 
ship, ii.,  269 ; disputes  respecting  it  ii., 
308. 

Anglo-Chinese  College  at  Malacca,  ii.,  332. 

Animals  of  China,  i.,  247 ; those  used  In 
agriculture,  ii.,  101. 

Aniseed  stars,  a spice,  ii.,  399. 

Ant-eater,  or  pangolin,  i.,  257. 

Aphorisms  of  the  Lun  Yu,  i.,  520. 

Arab  travellers  to  China,  ii.,  423 ; account 
of  mode  of  travelling,  ii.,  431. 

Arabdan,  khan  of  the  Songares,  i.,  186. 

Architecture  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  3;  of  shop*, 

11.,  10 ; reasons  for  little  advance  in,  ii., 
178. 

Army  of  China,  its  numbers  and  pay,  i., 
238;  its  regulation,  i.,  332;  disposal  of 
garrisons,  i.,  351  ; its  effectiveness,  ii.,  158; 
uniforms,  ii.,  161 ; character  of  one  of  its 
generals,  ii..  554. 

Arms  in  use,  ii.,  159 ; number  and  names  of 
those  taken  at  Shanghai,  ii.,  555. 

Arts  of  the  Chinese,  their  simplicity,  ii., 
113  ; expenditure  of  human  labor,  ii.,  112  ; 
imitation  of  foreign  arts,  ii.,  142. 

Assembly  halls  in  Chinese  cities,  1.,  100 ; 
their  arrangement  ii.,  13. 

Astronomical  College  at  Peking,  i.,  342. 

Astronomy,  attainments  made  in,  ii.,  147 ; 
cycle  used  in,  ii.,  148  ; Tsinglai’s  ideas  of. 
Un  150. 


Attaches  of  officers,  i.,  343. 

Authors,  native,  upon  geography,  , 43 ; ot 
natural  history,  I.,  248. 

Average  population  of  Europe  and  China, 

i.,  216. 

Azalea  much  prized  by  Chinese,  i.,  288. 

B. 

Ballad  on  picking  tea,  i.,  577 
Balls,  spherical,  mode  of  carving  them,  ii, 
140. 

Bamboo,  its  various  uses,  1.,  276. 

Banditti  numerous  in  China,  1.,  398. 
Barbers*  mode  of  shaving,  11,  31 ; their 
treatment  of  the  eyes,  ii,  187. 

Barkoul,  a town  in  Kansuh,  i,  173. 
Barrow’s  notice  of  Hangchau  fu,  i,  96  ; de- 
scription of  a bridge,  ii,  26. 

Batavia,  mission  at,  ii,  335. 

Beale’s  aviary  at  Macao,  i,  264. 

Beggars  in  towns  and  streets,  ii,  16,  283. 
Belles-lettres,  their  character  and  variety, 

i,  512. 

Bellows  of  the  Chinese,  ii,  113. 

Bells  cast  by  the  Chinese,  i,  64  ; it.,  115. 
Belur-tag,  or  Onion  mountains,  i,  9. 
Betel-nut,  a masticator}',  ii,  404. 

Benevolent  institutions  in  China,  ii,  280. 
Betrothment,  when  performed,  ii,  54  ; cere- 
monies attending  it.  ii.,  55  ; evils  resulting 
from  its  haste,  ii,  64. 

Bible  translated  into  Chinese,  ii,  328  ; dis- 
tributed along  the  coast,  ii,  340;  mode 
and  etlects  of  the  distribution,  ii,  342; 
revision,  ii,  373. 

Biche-de-mer  imported  into  China,  ii,  404. 
Birds  of  China,  their  variety,  i,  258. 
Birdsnests,  an  article  of  food,  ii,  405. 
Birthday  celebration,  ii , 79  ; of  Yuh-hwang 
Shangti.  ii,  248. 

Blacksmith’s  portable  shop,  li„  139. 

Boards,  Six,  in  government.  Civil  office,  1, 
329  ; Revenue,  i,  330  ; Rites,  i,  331 ; War, 
L,  332 ; Punishments,  i,  333 ; Works,  i,  334 
Boats  of  various  kinds,  ii,  21 ; fast-boats, 

ii,  23. 

Books,  appearance  and  manufacture,  i,  478; 
price  and  nuinbdVs,  i,  479  ; burnt  by  Tsin 
ii,  212. 

Books,  Chinese,  quoted : 

Chun  Tsiu,  or  Annals,  1,  512  - 
Chung  Yung,  or  True  Medium,  i,  517. 
Geographical  works,  i,  43,  ii,  153. 

Hiau  King,  i,  512. 

Kang  Chih  Tu  Shi,  a work  on  Agricu* 
ture,  1,  553. 

Kanghi  Tsz’  Tien,  a Dictionary,  1,  468. 
Kia  Pan.  or  Family  Jewels.  1,  425. 


606 


INDEX, 


Li  Ki,  or  Book  of  Rites,  i.,  509. 

Liau  Chai,  or  Pastimes  of  the  Study,  1.,  561. 
Luu  Yu,  or  Conversations,  iM  519. 

Nui  Hioh,  or  Female  Instructor,  i.,  454. 
Pei  Wan  Yun  Fu,  a Thesaurus  of  charac- 
ters, i.,  540. 

Pih  Kia  Sing,  or  Century  of  Surnames,  i., 

531. 

Pun  Tsau  or  Herbal,  i.,  248  ; i..  288 ; i.,  560. 
San  Kwoh  Chi,  or  the  History  of  Three 
States,  i.,  544. 

Santsz’  King,  i.,  428. 

Shan-hai  King,  i , 267. 

Shi  King,  or  Book  of  Odes,  i.,  506. 

Shing  Yu,  or  Sacred  Commands,  i.,  554. 
Shu  King,  or  Book  of  Records,  i.,  504 ; ii., 
147. 

Sian  Hioh,  or  Juvenile  Instructor,  i.,  423; 

i.,  538. 

Siu  Shin  Ki,  or  Records  of  the  Gods,  ii.,248. 
Sz’  Fu  Tsiuen  Shu  Tsung-muh,  i.,  502. 
Sz’  Ki,  or  Historical  Memoirs,  i.,  543. 

Ta  Hioh,  or  Superior  Lessons,  i.,  516. 

Ta  Tsing  Liuh  Li.  i.,  300. 

Ta  Tsing  Hwui  Tien,  i.,  319. 

Tsien  Tsz*  Wan,  or  Millenary  Classic,  i., 

532. 

Tsui-mi  Shan  Fang  Slio  Hioh,  ii.,  146. 

Yih  King,  or  Book  of  Changes,  i.,  502. 

Yu  Hioh,  or  Odes  for  Children,  i.,  534. 
Borneo,  mission  in,  ii.,  335. 

Botany  of  China,  i.,  275. 

Boundaries  of  the  Chinese  empire,  i.,  5 ; of 
the  Eighteen  provinces,  i.,  21. 

Brass  leaf,  its  uses,  ii.,  114;  an  export,  ii., 
400. 

Bribery  common,  i.,  377 ; instance  of,  ii.,  387. 
Bridge  of  boats  at  Ningpo,  i.,  99  ; construc- 
tion of  stone  bridges,  ii.,  25. 

Bronze  figures  and  mirrors,  ii.,  115. 

Budhism,  its  tenets,  ii.,  251 ; similarity  to 
Romanism,  ii.,  257 ; employment  of  its 
priests,  ii.,  273. 

Budhist  priesthood  in  Tibet,  i.,  198 ; in 
China,  ii.,  250  ; ridicule  of  their  faith,  i., 
557;  their  founder,  ii.,  249. 

Buffalo  of  China,  i.,  251 ; used  in  rice  culti- 
vation, ii.,  101. 

Bullion,  or  sycee,  regulations  respecting,  ii., 
157. 

Burial  places  in  China,  i.,  220,  ii.,  265. 

C. 

Cabinet,  or  Nui  Koh,  its  members,  1.,  324. 
Camellia,  many  kinds  cultivated,  i.,  285; 

allied  to  the  tea,  ii.,  127. 

Camphor,  how  prepared,  ii.,  137 ; export  of, 

11.,  408. 

Canal,  Grand,  its  length,  i.,  23  ; appearance, 

1.,  30  ; its  banks,  i.,  75. 

Candles  made  from  vegetable  tallow,  ii.,  108. 
Canfu,  a port  in  Chehkiang,  ii.,  423  ; its  pre- 
sent condition,  i.,  107. 

Cangue,  or  movable  pillory,  i.,  411. 

Canton,  its  climate,  i.,  47;  its  position,  i., 
128;  description,  i.,  130;  tankia  people  at, 

1.,  321 ; dialect  spoken  there,  i.,  490  ; 
crowded  streets,  ii.,  15;  mission  at,  ii., 
339  ; hospital  at,  ii.,  346  ; missionaries  in, 

11.,  360 ; riot  at,  ii.,  506,  567,  575 ; attack- 
ed and  ransomed  by  the  English,  ii.,  559. 

Cards,  visiting,  ii.,  70  ; invitation,  ii.,  73. 
Caricatures,  ii.,  177. 


Carts  and  wagons  miserably  made,  ii.,  19. 

Carving  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  140. 

Cassia,  how  prepared  for  market,  ii.,  137 
its  export,  ii.,  400. 

Censorate,  its  duties,  i.,  337 ; effect  of  this 
body,  i.,  339. 

Censors,  reports  from,  i.,  379,  449. 

Censuses  of  population,  i.,  208 ; cannot  lie 
verified,  i.,  225 ; objections  to,  i.,  232. 

Ceremonies  an  important  feature  of  govern 
meat,  i.,  332  ; between  guest  and  host,  i., 
539 : in  society,  ii..  68  ; of  ploughing,  ii. 
108 ; on  a person’s  decease,  ii.,  262. 

Changchau  fu,  visit  to,  i.,  116 ; bridge  at,  ii. 
26. 

Changling,  premier  of  China,  i.,  354.  359. 

Chapu,  attack  upon,  i.,  106 ; garrisoned,  iU 
547  ; battle  at,  ii.,  551. 

Characters  of  the  language,  six  kinds,  i., 
461 ; total  number,  i.,  466 ; variants  among 
them,  i.,  470;  mode  of  learning,  i.,  499. 

Charms  worn  upon  the  person,  ii.,  272. 

Chau  dynasty,  its  founder  Wu  wang,  ii., 
209;  its  dissolution,  ii.,  211. 

Checks  upon  officers  in  their  position,  i.f 
351 ; popular  checks,  i.,  3G4 ; to  tyranny, 
i , 418. 

Chehkiang,  its  productions,  i.,  93;  great  po- 
pulation, i.,  232 ; military  operations  in,  ii., 
543. 

Chemistry,  little  known,  ii.,  179. 

Chess  and  draughts  of  Chinese,  ii.,  90. 

China,  names  given  to  the  country,  i.,  2; 
its  area,  i.,  5 ; aspect,  i.,  34  ; its  revenue, 

1.,  234;  its  extent  in  the  Tang  dynasty, 

11.,  218  ; intercourse  with,  ii.,  417;  opened 
to  foreigners,  ii.,  578 ; result  of  future  in- 
tercourse, ii.,  597. 

Chinese,  their  physical  characteristics,  i.t 
36  ; national  development,  i.,  40  ; advance- 
ment affected  by  their  langnage,  i.,  459; 
notion  of  foreign  countries,  ii.,  2 ; morals, 
ii.,  95;  moral  standard,  ii.,  98;  imitation, 
ii.,  143;  their  history,  ii.,  193;  their  origin, 
ii.,  200  ; religious  character,  ii.,  231 ; mis- 
sions among  them,  ii.,  290;  efforts  to  sup- 
press opium,  ii..  401. 

Ching-hwang  miau  in  Canton,  i.,  133  ; one 
in  Shanghai,  ii.,  239. 

Chinhai,  near  Ningpo,  i.,  101;  battle  at,  and 
capture  of,  ii.,  543. 

Chinkiang  fu,  its  position,  1.,  85;  attacked 
by  the  English,  ii.,  559. 

Cholera  and  small-pox  prevalent,  ii.,  190. 

Chopsticks,  why  so  called,  ii.,  74. 

Christianity  introduced  by  Nestorians,  ii., 
290 ; by  Roman  Catholics,  ii.,  299  ; perse- 
cuted by  Yungching,  ii.,  313;  edict  of 
toleration,  ii.,  368;  obstacles  in  way  of, 
ii.,  378;  a remedy  for  evils  of  China,  ii., 
599. 

Chronology  of  the  Chinese  not  incredible, 
ii.,  199 ; its  eras,  ii.,  200 ; early  dates  of, 
ii.,  203. 

Chu  fuyuen  of  Canton,  his  address,  i.,  365. 

Chu  Hi,  his  residence,  i.,  93;  his  work  for 
beginners,  i.,  538;  his  principles  of  philo- 
sophy, i.,  550 ; his  religious  opinions,  ii., 
237. 

Chu  kiang,  or  Pearl  river,  i.,  127 ; boat®  up- 
on it,  ii.,  21. 

Chusan  archipelago,  i.,  102 ; island  taken 
by  the  English,  ii.,  528  ; retaken,  ii.,  542. 


INDEX 


601 


Chwangtsz’,  a wrilef  of  the  Rationalists,  ii., 
245. 

Civilization  of  China,  i.,  297 ; compared 
with  other  countries,  ii.,  52. 

Clans  found  among  the  Chinese,  i.,  385. 

Classical  works,  their  character,  i.,  435; 
number  and  antiquity,  i.,  502 ; their  influ- 
ence, i.,  511. 

Climate  of  China,  i.,  44;  of  Manchuria,  i., 
159 ; of  Mongolia,  i.,  164  ; of  Tibet,  i.,  191. 

Coal  found  in  China,  i.,  241. 

Coast  of  China,  its  character,  i.,  21 ; islands 
near  it,  i.,  23. 

Cobdo,  a province  of  Mongolia,  i.,  169. 

Collins,  form  and  value  of,  ii.,  2G3  ; mode  of 
disposing  of,  ii.,  271. 

Colonial  Office,  or  Li  Fan  Yuen,  i.,  335. 

Colonies  belonging  to  the  empire,  i.,  152. 

Commerce  of  China,  ii.,  381 ; its  extent  and 
facilities,  ii.,  396;  inland,  ii.,  398;  tables 
of  foreign,  ii.,  411. 

Commissariat  departments  in  the  provinces, 

i.,  349. 

Commissioners  sent  to  the  provinces,  i., 
351. 

Confession  of  official  delinquency,  i.,  367. 

Confucius,  his  birthplace,  i.,  74 ; remarks 
upon  filial  duty,  i.,  513;  his  knowledge  of 
his  countrymen,  i.,  519;  his  aphorisms, 

i.,  520 ; sketch  of  his  life,  i.,  526 ; estimate 
of  his  genius,  i.,  530;  meets  a boy,  i.,  535; 
remarks  upon  friendship,  i.,  539;  his  reli- 
gious opinions,  ii.,  236;  visits  Lautsz’,  ii., 
245. 

Contrarieties  between  Chinese  and  Europe- 
an customs,  ii.,  92. 

Copper,  its  uses,  i.,  245;  composition  of 
white  copper,  ii.,  114. 

Corea,  trade  with,  i.,  158. 

Cormorant,  the  fishing,  ii.,  111. 

Coronation  proclamation  of  Taukwang,  i., 
311. 

Corvino,  a bishop  at  Peking,  ii.,  299. 

Cosmetics  much  used,  ii.,  41. 

Cosmogony  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  194. 

Cotton,  origin  of  the  name,  i.,  183 ; manner 
and  extent  of  its  culture,  ii.,  105  ; nankeen 
cottons,  ii.,  124. 

Council,  Inner,  i.,  324 ; General,  i.,  326. 

Courts  of  Justice  at  Peking,  i.,  334  ; minor 
courts,  i.,  341 ; retainers  about,  i.,  380 ; of 
Representation  and  Judicature,  i.,  340. 

Craftsmen,  their  cries,  ii.,  140. 

Creation,  notions  respecting  the,  ii.,  196. 

Crickets,  gambling  with,  ii.,  90. 

Cubebs,  a spice,  ii.,  399. 

Cushing  sent  as  envoy  to  China,  ii.,  585. 

Customs,  collection  of,  i.,  350. 

Cutch,  a dye  imported  into  China,  ii.,  40G. 

Cycle  adopted  by  Hwangti,  ii.,  201 ; its  ar- 
rangement, ii.,  148. 

D. 

Dances  not  known,  ii.,  173. 

Daourian  Mountains,  i.,  8. 

Davis’s  account  of  Canal,  i.,  28 ; notice  of 
Duke  Ho,  i.,  67 ; proceeds  to  Canton  with 
a force,  ii.,  594. 

De  Guignes’  remarks  on  roads,  L,  33;  at 
Hangchau,  i.,  97  ; upon  the  population,  i., 
211 ; on  naming  foreign  things,  ii.,  1. 

Dead,  ceremonies  in  burying  the,  i!.,  263. 


Debts,  mode  of  recovering,  ii.,  78. 

Deer  and  wild  sheep,  i.,  252. 

Degrees,  four  literary,  i.,  436 ; sale  of,  i.,  440l 
Deluge,  one  spoken  of  in  history,  ii.,  202. 
Dent  requested  to  go  into  Canton,  ii.,  511. 
Diagrams  of  the  Yih  King,  i.,  503. 

Dialects  of  the  Chinese  language,  i.,  488. 
Dictionaries  in  the  Chinese  language,  i.,  467. 
Dinners  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  73. 

Diseases  most  prevalent,  ii.,  187 ; their  clas- 
sification, ii.,  191. 

Dishes,  at  dinner,  succession  of,  ii.,  74. 
Divisions  of  China,  i.,  7 ; of  the  provinces 

1.,  50. 

Divorces  net  common,  ii.,  62. 

Dog  of  China,  i.,  250. 

Domestic  animals,  i.,  251. 

Dragon  of  the  Chinese,  i.,  267 ; emblem  of 
imperial  power,  i.,  309. 

Dragon  boats,  festival  of,  ii.,  82 
Dramas  of  the  Chinese,  i.,  581. 

Dress  of  the  Chinese,  ii  , 29;  its  materials 
and  parts,  ii.,  30  ; female  costume,  ii.,  33. 
Dutch  come  to  China,  ii.,  437. 

Dwarfing  trees,  ii.,  108. 

Dwellings  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  3 ; their  plan, 

11.,  5 ; mode  of  lighting  and  warming,  ii., 
6;  huts  of  the  poor,  ii.,  8;  on  the  water, 

ii.,  22  ; decorated  at  newyear,  ii.,  77. 

Dynasties  of  the  Chinese,  the  Ilia,  ii.,  204 ; 
the  Shang,  ii.,  208 ; the  Chau,  ii.,  209 ; tho 
llan,  ii.,  213 ; their  synopsis,  ii.,  229. 

E. 

East  India  Company  grow  opium,  ii.,  384 # 
its  trade  to  China,  ii.,  448;  its  action  in 
case  of  homicides,  ii.,  454  ; stop  the  trade, 

11.,  462;  its  conduct  in  China,  ii.,  464. 
Eclipses,  popular  ideas  concerning,  ii.,  150. 
Edicts  of  officers,  i.,  371. 

Education,  its  extent,  i.,  421 ; purposes,  I., 
423;  commencement,  i.,  426;  deficiencies, 

1.,  435 ; among  females,  i.,  453. 

Eggs  hatched  artificially,  ii.,  48. 

Elders  of  villages,  their  position,  i.,  384. 
Elliot  succeeds  as  chief  superintendent,  ii., 

487 ; returns  to  Canton,  ii.,  501 ; issues 
orders  to  British  subjects,  ii.,  512 ; leaves 
Canton,  ii.,  517 ; attacks  the  Chinese,  ii., 
520;  appointed  plenipotentiary,  ii.,  529; 
treaty  of  the  Bogue,  ii.,  533 ; attacks  and 
ransoms  Canton,  ii.,  539;  superseded,  ii., 
541. 

Embassy  of  Romans  to  China,  ii.,  259 ; from 
the  Pope,  ii.,  424 ; of  the  Portuguese,  ii., 
433 ; of  the  Spaniards,  ii.,  436 ; of  the 
Dutch,  ii.,  442 : of  the  Russians,  ii.,  445 ; 
of  the  English,  ii.,  459. 

Embroidery,  skill  in,  ii.,  123. 

Emperor’s  palace  at  Peking,  i.,  58 ; his  posi- 
tion in  the  government,  i.,  299, 308 ; names 
given  him,  i.,  309  ; coronation,  i.,  313  ; al- 
lowance, i.,  319;  religious  duties,  ii.,  233; 
mourning  for,  ii.,  267 ; sends  Lin  to  Can- 
ton, ii.,  513 ; feelings  in  regard  to  the  war, 

11.,  557 ; ratifies  the  treaty  of  Nanking,  ii., 
572. 

Empress  dowager,  her  position,  i.,  319. 
English  appear  in  China,  ii.,  446 ; attack  the 
Bogue  forts,  ii.,  447 ; send  two  embassies 
to  Peking,  ii.,  459  ; trade  with  China,  ii., 
411 ; appoint  Lord  Napier  superintendent. 


608 


INDEX. 


11-  469  ; frigates  eater  the  Bogne,  ii.,  431 ; 
merchants  imprisoned  at  Canton,  ii.,  513  ; 
required  to  leave  Canton,  ii.,  517 ; ministry 
resolve  on  war,  ii.,  526 ; send  Sir  Henry 
Pottinger,  ii.,  541  ; force  proceed  up  the 
Yangtsz’kiang,  ii.,  553 ; consulate  burned. 

11.,  575. 

Essav  of  a student,  i.,  441 ; how  examined, 

1.,  443. 

Etiquette  among  officers,  ii.,  69;  principle' 
of  Chinese,  ii.,  70 ; of  dinners,  ii.,  73 ; of 
newyear,  ii.,  81. 

Eunuchs  of  the  palace,  i.,  318. 

Examinations,  literary',  when  established,  i., 
422 ; for  the  first  degree,  i..  436 ; second 
degree,  i.,  438 ; military,  i.,  440  ; defects  of, 

1.,  448 ; good  results  of,  i„  452. 

Execution  of  criminals,  summary,  i„  407; 

number,  i.,  414  ; of  three  for  opium  smug- 
gling, ii.,  506. 

Expenditures  of  the  Chinese  government,  i., 
237. 

Exports  from  China,  ii.,  399 ; table  of,  ii., 
414. 

Extortion,  various  modes  of,  i.,  378 ; means 
of,  i , 381. 

F. 

Factories  at  Canton,  i„  137 ; three  of  them 
pillaged,  ii.,  538  ; three  burned,  ii.,  575. 

Farce,  a Chinese,  i.,  582. 

Feast  of  lanterns,  how  observed,  ii.,  82. 

Feather  mosaic  of  the  Chinese,  i„  260. 

Feet,  mode  of  compressing,  ii.,  38 ; results, 

11.,  40. 

Feline  animals  in  China,  i.,  249. 

Females,  their  education,  i.,  453 ; respect 
paid  them,  ii.,  63 ; their  dress,  ii.,  33 ; 
compressed  feet,  ii.,  39 ; their  position  in 
society,  ii„  54 ; seclusion,  ii.,  55. 

Festivals  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  76 ; to  appease 
wandering  spirits,  ii.,  274. 

Filial  affection,  how  to  be  shown,  i.,  510 ; 
regard  paid  this  duty,  i.,  513 ; examples  of 
it,  i.,  514 ; poetical  exhortation  to,  i.,  558. 

Filthiness  of  streets,  ii.,  12. 

Fires,  how  extinguished,  ii.,  17. 

Fishes  in  Chinese  waters,  i.,  269 ; exten- 
sively reared  and  eaten,  i.,  221,  ii.,  49; 
modes  of  catching  them,  ii.,  109. 

Flint,  Mr.,  imprisoned,  ii.,  452. 

Flowers  much  esteemed,  i.,  283  ; worn  in 
the  hair,  ii.,  34. 

Food  of  Chinese  generally,  i.,  218,  ii.,  42 ; of 
Irish,  i.,  217 ; its  principal  articles,  ii.,  42. 

Foreigners,  ill  behavior  of,  ii.,  431 ; names 
given  them,  ii.,  466 ; imprisoned  at  Can- 
ton, ii.,  513. 

Formosa,  its  description,  i.,  117 ; seized  by 
the  Dutch,  ii.,  437 ; execution  in,  ii.,  573. 

Forts  and  towers  of  defence,  ii.,  28 ; place 
and  mode  of  building  them,  ii.,  162 ; at  the 
Bogue  taken,  ii.,  532. 

Fortune-telling,  modes  of,  ii.,  277. 

Foundling  hospital  at  Shanghai,  ii.,  280. 

Four  Books,  their  character  and  authors,  i., 
516. 

France  negotiates  a treaty  with  China,  ii., 
591. 

Fruits  cultivated  for  food,  i.,  282  ; their 
quality,  ii.,  44 ; large  variety,  ii.,  45. 

Fuhchau  fu,  its  position,  i.,  11 ) ; mission  at. 
ii-  363. 


Fuhhi,  the  founder  of  the  nation,  ii.,  199. 
Fuhkien,  its  boundaries,  i.,  108  ; its  dialects, 

1.,  490 ; customs  respecting  marriage,  il„ 
55. 

Funeral  ceremonies,  ii.,  263. 

Furniture  of  houses,  ii.,  8. 

Furs  used  for  winter  garments,  ii.,  33 ; their 
importation,  ii.,  410. 

G. 

Gambling  at  newyear,  ii.,  81 ; modes  of,  ii, 

89. 

Game  at  dinners,  ii.,  74. 

Gardens  of  large  mansions,  il.,  9. 

Gems  and  precious  minerals,  i.,  244;  work- 
ing of  them,  ii.,  116. 

General  Council  or  Kiun-Ki  Chu,  i.,  326. 
Geography  of  the  eastern  provinces,  i.,  43; 
of  the  western  provinces,  i.,  120 ; of  the 
colonies,  i.,  151 ; popular  ideas  concerning, 

11.,  153. 

Geology  of  China,  i..  240. 

Glass  made  by  the  Chinese,  ii.,  115;  paint- 
ings on,  ii.,  176. 

Gobi,  desert  of,  its  extent,  i.,  13. 

Gold,  its  uses  and  amount,  i.,  244  ; not  much 
known,  ii.,  113. 

Gold  fish,  mode  of  rearing,  i.,  269. 

Gong,  its  composition,  ii.,  114;  frequently 
used,  ii.,  171. 

Government  of  Peking,  i.,  68;  of  Manchu- 
ria, i.,  156,  163 ; of  Iii,  i.,  184  ; of  Tibet,  i., 
201 ; of  China,  i.,  296 ; its  three  principles, 

1.,  299 ; of  the  provinces,  i.,  343. 

Governors  of  provinces,  their  powers,  i.,  344. 
Grains  eaten  by  the  Chinese,  ii.,  43;  those 

most  cultivated,  ii.,  102. 

Grammar  of  the  Chinese  language,  1.,  493 ; 

syntax  and  prosody,  i,  497. 

Grandees,  their  houses  and  gardens,  ii.,  7. 
Grass  cloth,  plants  from  which  it  is  made 

11.,  106. 

Grasshoppers,  edict  against  the,  i.,  372. 
Graves,  care  in  choosing,  ii.,  264. 

Great  Wall,  its  length,  i.,  25. 

Guilds  and  associations  in  tow  ns,  1.,  388. 
Guitars,  many  sorts  of,  ii.,  169. 

Gums  and  resins  imported  into  China,  ii., 
406. 

Gunpowder  invented  by  the  Chinese,  ii.,  160. 
Gutzlaff’s  voyages  on  Chinese  coast,  it.. 
395 ; attempts  to  enter  the  country,  ii., 
488. 

Gypsum,  its  uses,  i.,  242. 

H. 

Hailing,  dies  at  Chingkiang  fu,  i.,  86,  ii.,  559. 
Hainan,  I.,  and  its  divisions,  i.,  144  ; whales 
on  its  coast,  i.,  258. 

Hair,  mode  of  dressing,  ii.,  30. 

Hall  of  dwelling-houses,  ii.,  6. 

Halls  for  literary  examination,  i.,  439. 

Han  dynasty',  its  last  emperors,  i.,  545  ; its 
founder,  Liu  Pang,  ii.,  213  ; receive  an 
embassy  from  the  Romans,  ii.,  420. 

Han  jin,  a name  taken  by  the  Chinese,  i.,  4. 
Hangchau  fu  in  Chehkiang,  i.,  95 ; pagoda 
near  it,  ii.,  18 ; causeway  near  it,  ii.,  26 ; 
mosque  at,  ii.,  286. 

Hanlin  or  Imperial  Academy,  1.,  340;  mem- 
bership a degree  of  literary  rank,  1.,  445. 
Harashar,  a city  in  fli,  i.,  179. 


INDEX 


609 


H reem  and  its  management,  i.,  318. 

I .c  .(1  dress  of  women,  ii.,  34. 

I?e  ven  worshipped  by  emperor,  ii.,  234. 

Hemp  cultivated  for  cloth,  three  kinds,  ii., 
20(5. 

Herbal,  a medical  work,  i.,  288,  5GU. 

lli.i  dynasty,  character  of  its  princes,  ii.,206. 

Himalaya  mountains,  i.,  12. 

ii  Wigan  mountains,  Outer,  i.,  8 ; Inner  Hing- 
ira,  i.,  12. 

Historical  writings  of  the  Chinese,  i.,  543 ; 
tlieir  character,  ii.,  194. 

History  of  China,  ii.,  193. 

h’lassa.  capital  of  Tibet,  i.,  194,  200. 

ilo,  duke,  his  character,  i.,  C? ; rise  and 
power,  i.,  357. 

Hog.  his  appearance  and  usefulness,  i , 254. 

Hollanders,  Chinese  account  of,  ii.,  432. 

Homicides  at  Canton,  ii.,  454. 

Ilonam,  a suburb  of  Car.ton,  i.,  133. 

Ilonan  province,  its  size  and  capital,  i.,  79. 

Hong  monopoly  established,  ii.,  450;  its  po- 
sition and  responsibility,  ii.,  480. 

Hongkong,  its  position,  i.,  141 ; mission  at, 

li.,  361. 

Iioi.gs  at  Canton,  i.,  137. 

Honorary  portals,  ii.,  27 ; their  design,  ii., 
28. 

Hornbooks  used  in  schools,  i.,  428  ; their 
character,  i.,  429  ; number,  i.,  531 

Horse,  medical  uses  of,  i.f  292. 

Hospitals  in  China,  ii.,  344;  their  position 
in  missions,  ii..  352;  preaching  at,  ii.,  301. 

Hot  springs  in  Sz’chucn,  i.,  24G. 

Hunan,  its  position  and  rivers,  i.,  122. 

Hupeh,  its  rivers  and  fertility,  i..  120. 

Hwangti’s  reign  and  acts,  ii.,  201 

I. 

1 1m  Buluta,  a traveller,  ii.,  430. 

Idolatry,  when  commenced,  ii.,  209;  cha- 
racter of  Chinese,  ii.,  242 ; cost  of  it,  ii., 
279. 

Idols,  treatment  of,  ii.,  241;  account  of  a 
Rationalist,  ii.,  245. 

fii,  its  area  and  divisions,  i.,  173;  its  capi- 
tal, i.,  175;  other  cities,  i.,  178;  its  go- 
vernment, i.,  184. 

fiipu,  governor  of  Chehkiang,  ii.,  530;  his 
kindness  to  prisoners,  ii.,  551  ; signs  the 
treaty  of  Nanking,  ii.,  572;  dies  at  Can- 
ton, ii.,  577. 

Imperial  City  at  Peking,  i.,  60;  palace,  i., 
309;  clan,  and  its  government,  i.,  316; 
family,  i..  318;  academy,  i.,  340  ; commis- 
sioners, i.,  351. 

Imports  into  China,  ii.,  403;  table  of,  ii.,  411. 

Industry  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  143 

Infanticide  in  China,  ii.,  201. 

Ink,  materials  of  Indian,  i.,  47G. 

Inner  Council  or  Cabinet,  its  duties,  i.,  325. 

Inner  Mongolia,  its  inhabitants,  i..  ICG. 

Insects  in  China,  i.,  272 ; used  as  food,  ii.,  51. 

Intercourse  with  China,  ii.,  417;  difficulties 
in  the  way  of,  ii.,  595. 

Iron,  cast  and  wrought,  ii.,  114;  mode  of 
mending  iron  pans,  ii , J40. 

Irrigation,  extent  and  means  of.  ii.,  103. 

Ivory,  carving  in.  ii.,  141 ; painting  on,  ii., 
175 

J. 

ade  orjuh  of  the  Chinese,  i.,  243. 
vni..  it.  97* 


Jehangir,  his  rebellion  and  fate,  i.,  187. 

Jews  in  Chirm,  ii.,  287 ; their  country  name* 
Tu-tsin,  ii.,  420. 

Judicial  proceedings,  i.,  40J. 

Junks,  their  arrangement,  ii.,  24  ; commerce 
in,  ii.,  397. 

K. 

Kai fang  fu  in  Honan,  i.,  79  ; Jews  living  at 

ii.,  287. 

Kalkus,  a tribe  of  Mongol*'.,  i.,  167. 

Kan,  a tributary  of  the  Yangtsz'  kiang,  i. 
17  ; towns  on  it,  i.,  92. 

Kangbi’s  preface  to  the  Thesaurus,  i.,  540 
Sacred  Commands,  i.,  554;  hisreign.il. 
225. 

Kansuh,  its  area  and  surface,  i.,  124. 

Kashgar,  a city  in  Turkestan,  i.,  181. 

Kiakhn,  its  position  and  trade,  i.,  Kb  I. 

Kiu king’s  reign  and  character,  ii.,  227. 

Kiangsi.  its  rivers,  i.,  91 ; dress  of  the  wo 
men,  ii.,  37. 

Kiangsu,  its  fertility  and  population,  i.,  80. 

Kienlung  succeeds  to  the  throne,  ii.,  226. 

Kirin,  a province  of  Manchuria,  i.,  100. 

Kishen’s  interview  with  Elliot,  ii.,  530  ; 
failure  of  his  negotiations  at  Canton,  ii, 
533. 

Kiying,  imperial  commissioner,  i.,  363;  his 
appointment,  ii.,  505;  comes  to  Canton, 

ii.,  577  ; negotiates  tiie  American  treaty, 

11.,  586. 

Khoten,  district  and  cities  o£  i.,  182. 

Koko-nor.  1 1>  surface,  i.,  171. 

Koxing.i  opposes  the  Mane  bus,  ii.,  225;  ex- 
pels the  Dutch  from  Formosa,  ii.,  440; 
treaty  of  trade  with  English,  ii.,  448. 

Kublai  khan  founds  the  Yuen  dynasty,  ii, 

Kuci.c,  a city  in  Turkestan,  i..  179. 

Ktt-jin,  a literary  degree,  i,  438. 

Kuldsha,  the  capital  of  Ili,  i,  175. 

Kur-kar  i usu,  u part  of  fii,  i,  176. 

Kwitngsi,  its  capital  and  productions,  i.,  145. 

Kw.mgiung,  its  lnouutains,  i,  127 ; its  cities. 

^ i,  143. 

Kwanlun  or  Kculkun  mountains,  i.,  10. 

Kweichau,  its  surface  ai.d  inhabitants,  i.,  146. 

L. 

Lacquered  ware,  how  made,  ii,  120  ; not 
much  exported,  ii,  401. 

Ladak,  its  area  and  cities,  i.,  203. 

Lakes  of  China,  i,  19;  of  Manchuria,  i, 
155 ; of  Cobdo,  i,  170 ; of  Tibet,  i,  191. 

Land,  how  held,  ii,  100. 

Language,  Chinese,  its  groups  of  natural 
objects,  i,  291 ; labor  of  learning  its  cha- 
racters, i,  430;  extent  to  which  it  is  read, 

1.,  433;  structure  and  peculiarities,  i,  458  ; 
origin,  i,  459 ; classes  of  characters,  i.,  461 ; 
number  of  characters,  i,  466;  meaere- 
ncss,  i,  471;  phonetic  character,  i,  481 ; 
tones  in  it,  i,  486  , dialects,  i.,  488  ; gram- 
mar, i,  493  ; parts  of  speech,  i.,  495  ; mode 
of  studying,  i,  498;  its  peculiarities,  ii, 
92. 

Lanterns,  great  variety,  ii,  82. 

Lautsz’,  founder  of  the  Rationalists,  ii.,  242. 

Law  respecting  emigration,  i.,  226  ; obedience 
to  parents,  i..  305  ; respecting  oppression, 
i,  376 ; checking  hasty  decision,  408 ; of 
marriage,  ii,  62;  medical  practice,  ii,  191. 


610 


INDEX 


Laws  of  China,  I.,  3u0;  divisions  of  the 
statutes,  i.,  302;  their  administration,  i., 
334,  353;  mode  of  publishing,  i.,  371  ; 
their  execution,  i.,  375. 

Learned,  sect  of  the  Ju  kiau,  or,  ii.,  236. 
Leather  not  much  used,  ii.,  125. 

Legislation,  general  features  of,  iM  306. 

Leh,  the  capital  of  Larin  k,  i.,  204. 

Leprosy  and  elephantiasis,  ii.,  IrfS. 

Li  Fan  Yuen  or  Colonial  Office,  i.,  335. 

Li  Tuipeh,  a Cliinese  poet,  i.,  564. 
Licentiousness  not  sanctified  in  Chinn,  ii., 
231. 

Lime,  mode  of  burning,  ii.,  138. 

Lin’s  work  on  geography,  i.,  44,  il.,  153;  his 
character  and  official  life,  i.,  361 ; letter  to 
Queen  Victoria,  i.,  374;  appointed  com- 
missioner to  Canton,  ii.,  509  ; his  proceed- 
ings. ii.,  515;  ordered  to  return  to  Peking, 

11.,  531. 

Linear  measures  in  use,  ii.,  154. 

Literary  officers  in  the  provinces,  i.,  348. 
Literature  of  the  Chinese,  i.,  502;  polite 
literature,  i.,  542  ; its  character,  i.,  585. 

Lu,  governor  of  Canton,  ii.,  470. 

Luhchau’s  remarks  oil  Female  Education, 

1.,  454  ; instance  of  reproving  a mother-in 
law,  ii.,  63. 

Lute  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  168. 

M. 

Ma  Twanlin’s  Antiquarian  Researches,  i., 
549. 

Macao,  its  climate,  i.,  48;  its  population,  i., 
140;  its  settlement,  ii.,  433;  occupied  by 
the  English,  ii.,  461 ; skirmish  at,  ii.,  531. 
Magistrates  over  departments  and  districts, 

1.,  347. 

Malacca,  mission  at,  ii.,  332. 

Mammon  worshipped  in  shops,  ii.,  11. 
Manchu  race,  its  physical  traits,  i.,  37  ; in 
Fuhchau,  i.,  112;  education  and  habits, 

1.,  167 ; troops,  ii.,  163 ; found  a dynasty, 

11.,  223  ; bravery  of  troops  at  Chapu,  ii., 
551 ; defence  of  Chinkiang  fu,  ii.,  561. 

Manchuria,  its  divisions,  i.,  153;  its  pro- 
ducts, i.,  156;  its  climate,  i.,  158;  govern- 
ment, i.,  163. 

Mundarin  duck,  instance  of  its  fidelity,  i., 
264. 

Mandarin,  signification  of  the  word,  i.,  326. 
Manifesto  issued  at  Canton  against  the  Eng- 
lish, i.,  389. 

Manure,  sources  and  application  of,  ii.,  104. 
Map  of  Peking,  i.,  56. 

Marco  Polo’s  notice  of  Hangchau,  i.,  97 ; 
opinion  of  the  Cliinese,  ii.,  221 ; his  travels 
to  China,  ii.,  428. 

Marriage  ceremonies,  ii.,  54;  procession 
when  bringing  the  bride  home,  ii.,  56  ; its 
style,  ii.,  58  ; honored  among  the  Chinese, 

ii.,  61 ; ceremonies  among  the  Tibetans,  i., 
197. 

Matchmakers  employed  in  marriages,  ii..  56. 
Mathematics,  attainments  made  in.  ii.,  146. 
Matting,  grass  cultivated  for,  i.,  276  ; manu 
facture  of,  ii.,  J42;  exportation,  ii.,  402. 
Measures  of  capacity,  weight,  and  length,  ii., 
154. 

Meats  seen  on  Chinese  tables,  ii.,  47. 
Mechanics,  attainments  in,  ii.,  178. 


Medhurst's  labors  In  Java,  ii.,  335;  his  vlsi* 
to  Shanghai,  ii.,  365. 

Medical  Missionary  Society  established,  ii , 
348  ; its  hospitals  and  labors,  ii.,  351 ; 
principles  of  its  operations,  ii.,  352. 

Medicine,  its  present  condition,  ii.,  180 ; 
practice  of,  ii.,  183 ; remedies  used  in,  ii., 
184. 

Mencius,  his  writings,  i.,  521 ; his  youth  and 
character,  i.,  522;  influence  of  .liis  books, 

1.,  525;  conversation  with  the  king  of 
Wei,  i.,  523. 

Mendacity  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  96. 

Mender  of  Cracked  Chinaware,  i.,  582. 

Metallurgy,  manipulations  in,  ii.,  113. 

Metals  found  in  China,  i.,  244  ; import  of,  ii. 
409. 

Merit,  scale  of  official,  i.,  354 ; religious  scale 
of,  ii.,  253. 

Miautsz*,  aborigines  of  China,  i.,  37 ; their 
locality  and  habits,  i.,  147. 

Military  officers,  their  insignia,  i.,  322;  posi- 
tion in  the  provinces,  i..  345 ; stations.  1.. 
350;  examinations,  i.,  446. 

Milk  little  used,  ii.,  4G. 

Min,  river,  its  course,  i..  108. 

Minerals  of  China,  i.,  243;  used  in  medi- 
cine, ii.,  185. 

Ming  dynasty  founded  by  Iiungwu,  ii.,  222; 
its  princes,  ii.,  223,  229. 

Mint,  how  managed,  i.,  335;  regulations  of, 

11.,  156. 

Missionaries  at  Peking,  ii.,  304  ; list  of  Pro- 
testant, ii.,  375. 

Missions  indebted  to  commerce,  ii.,  421  ; in 
Formosa  by  Dutch,  ii.,  438 ; commenced 
by  Nestorians,  ii.,  290;  by  Romanists,  ii., 
269 ; by  Protestants,  ii.,  325  in  the  Indian 
Archi]>elago,  ii.,  331;  at  Canton,  ii.,  360; 
Amoy,  ii.,  362;  Shanghai,  ii.,  364. 

Mohammedans  in  Turkestan,  i.,  179 ; in 
China,  ii.,  285. 

Monetary  system  and  coins,  ii.,  156. 

Money,  paper,  at  Fuhchau,  i.,  112;  in  Marco 
Polo’s  time,  ii.,  157. 

Monkeys  in  China,  i.,  247. 

Mongol  or  Mogul  race,  its  characteristics,  I., 
38;  education,  i.,  167;  tribes  in  Tibet,  1., 
202;  the  regulation  of  their  tribes,  i.,  336; 
dynasty  called  the  Yuen,  ii.,  222;  receive 
a mission  from  the  pope,  H.,  424. 

Mongolia,  its  area,  i.,  151 ; divisions,  i.,  165. 

Morals  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  96. 

Morrison,  Dr.,  upon  the  census,  i.,  227  ; his 
arrival  in  China,  ii.,  325 ; his  labors,  ii.,  329. 

Morrison,  J.  R.,  death  of.  ii,  579. 

Morrison  Education  Society,  ii.,  355  ; its 
school  and  results,  ii.,  357. 

Mosque  at  Ningpo,  ii.,  285. 

Moukden,  capital  of  Manchuria,  i.,  157. 

Mountains  in  and  around- China,  i.,  8;  in 
Shantung,  i.,  75;  in  Manchuria,  i.,  153;  of 
Mongolia,  i.,  104  ; of  Koko-nor,  i.,  173;  of 
Tibet,  i.,  190. 

Mourning,  how  observed,  ii.,  266. 

Mulberry  grown  for  silk,  ii.,  IOC. 

Music  at  emperor’s  birthday,  i.,  314  ; Board 
of,  i.,  332  ; theory  of,  ii.,  164;  instruments 
of,  ii.,  167. 

Musk  deer,  its  habits,  i.,  252;  its  product 
exported,  ii.,  402. 

Mythological  history,  eras  of,  ii.,  198. 


INDEX. 


611 


N. 

Names  given  to  China,  i.,  3;  to  the  ciupe- 
tor,  L,  303  ; how  marked  in  books,  i.,  497  ; 
given  to  things,  ii..  1 ; several  taken  du- 
ring life,  ii.,  G5 : not  directly  spoken,  il.,  71. 

Nankeen  cloth  much  used,  ii.,  124  ; small 
exportation,  ii.,  402. 

Nanking,  its  climate,  i.,  45 ; its  position,  i., 
81 ; besieged  by  English,  ii.,  504 ; treaty 
of,  ii.,  507. 

X • pier  appointed  superintendent,  ii.,  469; 
disputes  with  governor  Lu,  ii.,  470 ; his 
conduct,  ii.,  476 ; retirement  and  death, 

11.,  431. 

National  College,  or  Kvvohtsz’  Kien,  I.,  342, 
432. 

Natural  history  of  China,  i.,  240;  attain- 
ments in,  i.,  269;  studied  for  medical  pur- 
poses, ii.,  192. 

N’estorian  missionaries  enter  China,  ii.. 
290;  tablet  commemorating  their  labors, 

11.,  291 ; thejr  success,  ii.,  239. 

Nets  and  fishing  tackle,  ii.,  110. 

Newyear,  great  festival,  il.,  77  ; customs  at- 
tending it.  ii.,  73  ; usages  at  Amoy,  ii.,  30. 

Nganhwui,  its  position  and  capital,  i.,  89. 

Ningpo,  its  climate,  i.,  46;  its  position,  i., 
93 : bondmen  at,  i.,  321 ; mosque  at,  ii., 
235 ; insurrection  near,  i.,  399 ; foundling 
hospital  at,  ii.,  283  ; Portuguese  at.  ii.,  433  ; 
e » ri y trade  at,  ii.,  449  ; mission  at,  ii.,  364  ; 
captured  by  the  English,  ii.,  544. 

Nobility  of  the  Chinese  empire,  i.,  316. 

Notation,  arithmetical,  ii.,  146;  musical,  ii., 
164. 

Novels  of  the  Chinese,  their  general  cha- 
racter, i.,  563. 

Numerals  in  Chinese,  i.,  495  ; mode  of  nota- 
tion, ii.,  146. 

Nunneries  in  China,  ii.,  255;  manner  of 
maintaining  them,  ii.,  256. 

Nuts  largely  consumed,  ii.,  45. 

O. 

Obeisance,  various  degrees  of,  il.,  68. 

Office,  sale  of,  i.,  449. 

officers  in  China,  their  extortions,  i.,  223: 
nine  ranks,  i.,  322 ; their  presentation  at 
court,  i.,  329  ; grades  of  provincial  officers, 
J , 341 ; their  triennial  gradation,  i.,  354  ; 
biographical  notices  of  them,  i.,  3G0  ; their 
great  aee:  i..  363;  mode  of  approaching, 
)..  403;  inferiority  of  military,  i.,  446; 
ceremonies  observed  in  their  intercourse, 

11.,  69;  discussion  respecting  opium  among 
them,  ii.,  491. 

Official  insignia,  i.,  322 ; merit  graduated,  i., 
354  ; character  for  intrigue,  356  ; tyranny, 

1.,  395  ; retinue,  i.,  404  ; worship,  il.,  233. 

Oksu,  a town  in  Turkestan,  i.,  160. 

Ophthalmic  hospital  at  Canton,  il.,  346. 

Opium,  progress  of  the  trade  in,  ii.,  382 ; cul- 
tivation of,  ii.,  333 : mode  of  smoking,  ii., 
383;  effects  of,  ii.,  393  ; remarks  on  by  Sir 
G.  B.  Robinson,  ii.,  489;  discussion  re- 
specting legalization,  ii.,  491 ; surrendered 
to  Captain  Elliot,  ii.,  515;  destroyed  at 
Bogue,  ii.,  513;  trade  discussed  at  Nan- 
king, ii.,  569  : nothing  done  to  stop  it  after 
the  war,  ii.,  581. 

Oranges,  several  kinds,  11.,  44. 

Ornaments  upon  houses,  11.,  6;  personal,  ii., 
33.  37  ; made  of  porreUii  il„  117 


Oroumtsi,  a town  in  Kansuh  1.,  173. 

Outer  Mongolia,  its  tribes,  l , 166. 

P. 

Pagoda  at  Nanking,  i.,  82 ; at  Ningpo,  1., 
101 ; at  Canton,  i.,  132;  object  of  pagodas, 

11.,  17. 

Painting,  attainments  in,  ii.,  173  ; on  leaves 
and  pith  paper,  ii.,  175. 

Palaces  at  Peking,  i.,  59. 

Palms  of  various  sorts,  i.,  278. 

Paper,  materials  and  manufacture,  1.,  476; 

paper  made  of  pith,  ii.,  175. 

Patriarchal  feature  of  government,  1.,  290. 
Pawnbroker’s  establishments,  ii.,  158. 

Pearls  found  in  China,  i.,  272. 

Pei  ho,  its  appearance,  i.,  71. 

Peking,  its  climate,  i.,  45  ; description,  i.,  55; 
Gazette,  i.,  328;  local  courts,  i.,  343 ; its 
crowded  streets,  ii.,  16. 

Penal  Code  translated  by  Staunton,  1..  300  ; 

its  excellences,  i.,  306. 

Penang,  mission  at,  ii.,  333. 

People  of  China,  their  clans.  i.t  334  ; feuds 
between  them,  387 ; their  social  evils,  i.. 
395  ; ignorance,  i.,  433. 

Pescadore  Island,  near  Formosa,  i.,  139; 

seized  by  the  Dutch,  ii.,  437. 

Pheasant*  in  China,  i.,  262. 

Philosophy  of  Chu  Hi  on  the  origin  of 
thing*,  i.,  550. 

Phoenix  of  the  Chinese,  i.,  26G. 

Physicians*  practice,  ii..  184  ; their  standing 
in  society,  ii.,  53;  mode  of  getting  prac- 
tice, ii.,  186. 

Pirates,  numerous  about  Canton,  ii.,  227. 
Pith  paper  for  painting,  ii.,  175. 

Pl  ain,  Great,  its  extent,  i..  24  ; climate,  i.,  45. 
Planets,  their  names  and  influences,  ii.,  150. 
Plough,  simplicity  of  its  construction,  ii.,  101. 
Ploughing,  annual  ceremony  of,  ii.,  108. 
Playactors  to  be  hired,  ii.,  85;  description 
of  their  performances,  ii.,  87. 

Poetical  extracts;  Chu’s  address,  1.,  365; 
stanzas  from  Book  of  Odes,  i.,  506 ; Mil- 
lenary Classic,  i.,  533  ; Odes  for  children, 

1.,  534;  Sacred  Commands,  i.,  558;  sonnet 
by  Ma,  on  recovery  from  blindness,  1.,  574  ; 
Inllad  on  picking  tea,  i.,  577 : ode  by  Su 
Hwui.  i.,  576;  a burletta,  i.,  582;  thanks 
for  a cure,  ii.,  346. 

Poetry,  character  of  Chinese,  i.,  572. 

Poets  of  China,  i.,  564. 

Police,  character  of  the,  i.,  331. 

Politeness  taught  children,  ii.,  72. 

Polyandry  in  Tibet,  i.,  197  ; in  Ladak,  i.,  205. 
Polygamy,  its  extent  and  effects,  ii.,  60. 

Pope  Innocent’s  letter  to  the  Mongols,  11., 
424  ; pope’s  legates  in  China,  ii.,  311. 
Population  of  China,  i.,  206;  rate  of  in 
crease,  i.t  214 ; encouragements  to  in- 
crease, i.t  *222. 

Porcelain  tower  at  Nanking,  i.,  82. 

Porcelain,  where  manufactured,  i.,  92;  its 
composition,  ii.,  116;  bottles  found  In 
Egyptian  tombs,  ii.,  118. 

Pork  largely  consumed,  ii.,  17. 

Porters,  or  coolies,  ii.,  20. 

Portuguese  in  Macao,  i.,  140;  forbidden  to 
trade  in  opium,  ii.,  33G  ; arrival  in  China, 

11.,  432. 

Post  for  letters,  !.,  304. 

Pottery  extensively  used,  ii  . 120. 


612 


INDEX 


Pottinger  arrives  at  Macao,  il.,  54]  , procla- 
mation respecting  the  war.  ii..  556  ; dis- 
cusses the  opium  trade,  ii.,  569. 

Preserves  of  various  kinds,  ii.,  46. 

Priests  in  state  religion,  ii.,  233;  efforts  of 
a Budhist,  ii.,  240. 

Printing,  manner  of,  i , 478. 

Prisons,  their  number  and  condition,  i.,  415. 
Procession  very  common  and  elegant,  ii..  84; 

at  marriages,  ii.,  57  ; of  lanterns,  ii.,  83. 
Professions  in  Chinese  society,  ii.,  53. 
Protestant  missions  to  China,  ii.,  325;  list 
of  missionaries,  ii.,  375. 

Proverbs  of  the  Chinese,  i.,  537. 

Provinces,  their  numbers  and  divisions,  i., 
52;  government  of,  i.,  345. 

Provincial  governments,  their  system,  i., 
344  ; powers  and  grades  of  the  officers,  i., 
346;  observance  of  ploughing,  ii.,  109. 
Prussian  biue  made  by  Chinese,  ii.,  142. 
Punishments,  legal,  i..  410. 

Puto,  island  of,  near  Chusan,  i.,  105 
Pwanku,  the  first  man,  ii.,  195. 

It. 

Race-  inhabiting  Chinn,  i.,  35;  compared 
with  other  race®,  i..  41. 

Radicals  in  Chinese  ! inguage,  i.,  463. 

Rain,  its  amount,  i..  49  ; prayer  for,  i.,  369  ; 

efforts  t<»  bring,  ii.,  240. 

Ranks,  titul  >r.  of  noblemen,  i.,  317 ; of  the 
people,  i.,  322 ; insigni  i of.  322. 
Rationalists,  ridicule  of  their  tenets,  i.,  557  : 
their  stories,  i..  564;  th-*ir  ideas  of  the 
creation,  ii.,  197;  their  founder,  ii.,  242 ; 
birth  of  one  of  their  gods,  ii.,  248;  their 
priesthood,  ii.,  246. 

Readers  among  the  Chinese,  i..  432. 

Red  Book  of  official  person*,  i..  357. 
Religion,  negative  features  of  Ciiirese,  ii., 
230;  of  the  state,  ii.,  233;  general  disre- 
gard of.  ii.,  234. 

R6 inn sat’s  rein  irks  on  natural  history,  i.. 
294;  on  grammar,  i.,  493;  on  >la  Twan- 
1 in’s  Researches,  i.,  549 
Rent  of  houses  and  lands,  ii.,  13. 

Replies  found  in  China,  i.,  268. 
Responsibility,  a main  feature  of  govern- 
ment. i.,  293;  its  operation,  i.,349:  for  na- 
tural calamities,  i.,  368;  ii.,  230;  remote 
elects,  i..  332. 

Revenue  of  China,  i.,  234  ; its  sources,  i., 
233 ; management,  i , 330 ; from  salo  of 
offices,  i..  450. 

Ricci’s  entrance  into  China,  ii.,  301 ; his 
character,  ii.,  303 ; compared  with  Morn- 
sou’s.  ii.,  330. 

Rice,  mode  of  cooking,  ii..  43 ; manner  of 
cultivating  it.  ii..  102;  use  of  the  straw, 

11.,  105  ; rice  or  pith  paper,  ii.,  175. 

Rues,  five  kinds,  i.,  331 ; discoursed  upon  in 

the  Li  Ki.  i.,  510. 

Rivers  of  Chinn,  i.,  15;  the  Kan.  i..  92;  the 
Min.  i.,  103;  of  Mongolia,  i.,  164;  of  Li, 

1.,  174.  177;  of  Tibet,  i..  189. 

Road?,  their  character,  i.,  33. 

Robinson’s,  Sir  G.  13.,  remarks  on  opium 

trade,  ii.,  4=9. 

Reman  Catholics  enter  Chinn,  ii..  299 : their 
mode  of  operations,  ii.,  314  ; their  present 
numbers,  ii.,  315 ; their  tenets  tolerated, 

11.,  368. 

Romanism  and  Budhism,  similarity  l>e- 
tween,  ii.,  257. 


Homans  known  to  the  Chinese,  ii.,  214 . 
send  an  embassy,  ii.,  420. 

Roofs,  and  manner  of  supporting  them,  ii.,  5 

Rubruquis  sent  to  Mangou  khan,  ii.,  426. 

Russian  intercourse  with  Chinese,  ii.,  444. 

S. 

Sabbath  unknown  in  China,  ii.,  76. 

Sacred  Commands  of  Kanghi,  i.,  553. 

Sacrifices,  human,  not  known  in  China,  II., 
231 ; generally  cooked,  ii.,  235. 

Sacrificial  Court  at  Peking,  i.,  341. 

S -gniien  river,  its  course  and  tributaries,  i., 
154;  island  and  its  inhabitants,  i.,  161. 

Salaries  of  officers,  i.,  233;  of  Mongol 
princes,  i.,  337. 

Salt,  how  obtained,  i.,  243;  a monopoly,  L, 
349. 

Schools,  their  number  and  location,  i.,  426; 
higher  grades,  i.,  432. 

Science  of  the  Chinese,  il.,  145. 

Seaweed,  its  u es  as  food,  i.,  £75;  an  article 
of  import,  ii.,  404. 

Sects  known  among  the  Chinese,  ii.,  236; 
their  mutual  toler.-fion,  ii.,  255. 

Sii  onanism  in  Mongolia,  ii.,  258. 

Shamoli,  desert  of,  i..  13. 

Siring  dynasty,  Chingt  »::g  founds,  ii.,  208  ; 
Chau -in  ends  it,  ii.,  209. 

Shanghai,  its  climate,  i..  46:  position,  i.. 
S7  ; temple  at,  ii..  239;  foundling  hospital 
at.  ii..  2-0 ; mission  at,  ii.,  365  ; taken  by 
the  Ejgiish.  ii.,  33-1. 

Sham  i.  its  area  and  towns,  i.,  73. 

Shantung,  it*  bound  r;es,  i . 173. 

Striving  the  he«d.  how  jierlurmed,  ii.,  30; 
origin  of  the  practice,  ii..  224. 

Shensi,  its  products  and  c i pit'll,  i..  123. 

Shingking.  its  cities  and  products,  i..  156. 

Shinnung,  an  ancient  monarch,  ii.,  201. 

Shops  ar.d  warehouses,  ii.,  10 ; names  ap- 
plied to  them,  ii.,  67. 

Shu  King,  or  Book  of  Records,  author  of,  i., 
504  ; its  character,  ii.,  205. 

Signboards  of  shops,  ii..  12. 

SilTk  early  known  to  the  Chinese,  ii.,  121 ; 
manufactures  in  it,  ii.,  123;  exported,  ii., 
402. 

Silver,  where  fount,  i , 244;  filigree  work 
in,  ii.,  113. 

Sina?  and  Seres,  their  position,  ii  . 419;  the 
trade  with  them,  ii.,  421. 

Singifiore.  mission  at.  ii..  333. 

Singing  bird ■;  re  ired.  i.,  259. 

Siu-tsai.  a literary  degree,  i.,  436,  examina- 
tion for  it.  i.,  438;  spirit  manifested  by 
them,  i.,  452. 

Smiuruling  trade  in  opium,  ii.,  336 

Snuff  bottles  found  in  Egypt,  ii.,  118. 

Social  life  in  China,  ii.,  52;  sexes  separated, 

ii.,  53;  visiting  in,  ii..  70. 

Societies  existing  among  the  Chinese,  i., 
394  ; their  rules,  ii.,  284. 

Society.  Medical  Missionary,  ii.,  349;  for 
the  Useful  Knowledge,  IL, 

353;  Morrison  Education,  ii.,  355. 

Song-aria,  a part  of  Li.  i..  174;  its  history,  i., 

186. 

Sounds  of  the  Chinese  language,  i.,  412; 
number  still  unwritten,  i.,  484. 

Soy.  a condiment,  i.,  283  ; an  export,  ii.,  403 

SpiLgies.  how  m -.de,  ii.,  124. 

Spaniards  come  to  China,  ii..  435. 

Spectacles  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  116. 


INDEX. 


613 


Spices  exported  from  China,  ii.,  399 ; a few 
imported,  ii.,  407. 

Spirits,  ardent,  how  made,  ii.,  75 ; dread  of 
wandering,  ii.,  274. 

State  religion  of  China,  ii.,  233. 

Statues  at  Nanking,  i.,  82 ; character  of  Chi- 
nese statuary,  ii.,  173;  subjects  of  statuary, 
ii_  176. 

Steamer,  description  of  a,  i.,  573. 

Stevens’s  visit  to  Shantung,  i.,  76;  visit  at 
Shanghai,  ii.,  365 ; his  character,  ii.,  377. 

Story  of  Confucius  and  the  boy  Hiang  Toh, 
i„  535 ; of  Lu  Po  and  chancellor  Wang 
Yun,  i..  545;  of  the  priest  and  villager,  i., 
561 ; of  the  man  who  stole  ducks,  562,  i. ; 
of  Li  Taipeh,  the  poet,  i.,  564. 

Streets  of  cities,  their  appearance,  ii.,  11 ; 
narrowness,  ii.,  12 ; placards,  ii.,  13 ; their 
bustle,  ii.,  215. 

Students,  direction  to.  i.,  425;  time  they 
spend  at  school,  i.,  431 ; essay  of  one,  i., 
441 ; honors  they  receive,  i.,  452;  luck  of 
unsuccessful,  i.,  453. 

Su  Hwui’s  ode  on  her  husband’s  return,  I., 
576. 

Succession  to  the  throne,  i.,  315. 

Suchau  fu,  situation  and  manufactures,  i., 
84. 

Sugar  largely  grown,  ii.,  46 ; mode  of  ex- 
pressing it,  ii.,  107 ; export  of,  ii.,  403. 

Sung,  a censor,  his  boldness,  i.,  338;  his 
life  and  character,  i.,  359. 

Sung  dynasty,  its  founder,  ii.,  221. 

Supremacy  assumed  by  the  Chinese,  ii., 
473 ; grounds  for  it,  ii.,  482 ; extended 
over  the  English,  ii.,  534. 

Sz’chuen,  its  rivers  and  capital,  1.,  125. 

Sz’ma  Kwang,  a Chinese  historian,  i.,  544. 

T. 

Tablet  concerning  the  Nestorians,  it.,  291. 

Taitsung  of  the  Tang  dynasty,  ii.,  217  ; fa- 
vors Christianity,  ii.,  293. 

Taiwan  in  Formosa,  i.,  118. 

Tallow  tree  and  its  products,  ii.,  107. 

Tang  jin,  or  Men  of  Tang,  i.,  4 ; dynasty  of, 

ii.,  217 ; one  of  its  empresses,  ii.,  219 ; fa- 
vorable to  Christianity,  ii.,  293. 

Tankia  boats  at  Canton,  ii.,  23. 

Tarakal,  or  Sagalien  I.,  i.,  161. 

Tarbagatai  in  Ili,  i.,  176. 

Tarim  river  in  Ili,  i.,  177. 

Tartars,  application  of  the  name,  i.,  38 ; 
origin,  1.,  165. 

Tartary,  an  erroneous  term,  i.,  151. 

Taukwang,  emperor  of  China,  i.,  309 ; prays 
for  rain,  i„  369. 

Taverns  and  wine  shops,  ii.,  14. 

Taxes  paid  in  China,  i.,  235;  exhortation  to 
pay  them,  i.,  555. 

Tea,  how  drunk  in  Tibet,  i.,  196 ; ballad  on 
picking  it,  i.,  577 ; where  grown,  ii.,  126 ; 
how  prepared,  ii.,  129 ; difference  between 
green  and  black,  li.,  133;  names  of,  ii., 
135 ; substitutes,  ii.,  136 ; amount  used,  li., 
416 ; called  malabathrum,  ii.,  422. 

Temple  of  Ancestors  at  Peking,  i.,  60;  at 
Nlngpo,  1.,  100;  on  Puto,  1.,  105;  at  Ho- 
nam,  i.,  132 ; general  arrangement  of  tern- 

Sles,  11.,  13 ; municipal,  il.,  238 ; one  built 
J Macao,  il.,  275. 

Terrace  cultivation,  extent  of  It,  11.,  102. 


Teshu-h’lumbu  in  Tibet,  1.,  195. 

Theatres,  how  managed,  li.,  85;  scenery 
and  acting,  ii.,  86. 

Themes  given  at  the  examinations,  i.,  440. 

Thousand  Character  Classic,  i.,  532. 

Tibet,  its  divisions  and  products,  i.,  188  ; its 
history,  i.,  200. 

Tibetans,  their  personal  appearance,  i.,  39 ; 
civilization  and  manners,  i.,  196. 

Tien  Kishih’s  congratulation  of  his  coun- 
try, ii.,  2. 

Tien-shan  Nan  Lu,  or  Southern  Circuit,  1., 
177. 

Tien  Shan,  or  Celestial  mountains,  I.,  9. 

Tien-shan  Peh  Lu,  or  Northern  Circuit,  1, 
175. 

Tientsin  fu,  its  importance,  i.,  70. 

Time,  mode  of  computing,  ii.,  151 ; charac- 
ters employed  in  denoting,  ii,14s;  how 
measured,  ii.,  152. 

Tinghai  in  Chusan,  1.,  103;  taken  by  the 
English,  ii.,  528  ; retaken,  ii.,  542. 

Titles  given  the  emperor’s  family,  1.,  310. 

Tobacco  used  by  all  classes,  ii.,  46. 

Tohtsin,  premier  of  China,  i„  358. 

Tombs  of  the  Chinese,  ii.,  265 ; worship  at, 

ii.,  268. 

Tones  in  Chinese  language,  i.,  467, 486. 

Topographical  works  of  the  Chinese,  i.,  44; 
divisions  of  the  empire,  i.,  50. 

Torture  practised  upon  criminals,  i.,  409. 

Trade  with  China,  tables  of,  ii.,  412  ; how 
conducted,  ii.,  410;  early  notices  of,  IL, 
417  ; stopped  in  1834,  ii.,  480. 

Transcendentalism  of  the  Rationalists,  IL, 
245. 

Transformations  of  animals,  i.,  294. 

Travellers’  statements  respecting  popula- 
tion, i.,  215. 

Treaty  of  the  Bogue,  li.,  533;  of  Nanking, 

ii.,  568;  supplementary,  ii.,  581 ; of  Wang- 
hia,  ii.,  587  ; of  Whampoa,  ii.,  592. 

Triad  Society,  its  extent,  i.,  394 ; its  charac- 
ter, ii.,  284. 

Trimetrical  Classic  used  in  schools,  i.,  428. 

Triumphal  arches,  misnamed,  ii.,  27. 

Tsin,  first  universal  monarch  of  China,  il. 
212;  name  China  derived  from  him,  1.,  2. 

Tsing  dynasty  founded  by  Shunchl,  li., 
224 ; its  princes,  ii.,  229. 

Tsing  hai,  or  Koko  nor  province,  i.,  170. 

Tsinsz’,  the  third  literary  degree,  L,  444. 

Tsitsihar,  a province  of  Manchuria,  L,  162. 

Tsungming  I.,  in  the  Yangtsz’  kiang,  L,  83. 

Tsz’ki  taken  by  the  English,  ii.,  549. 

Turmeric  used  as  a spice,  ii.,  399. 

Tyfoons,  their  periods  and  force,  L,  49. 

Types,  movable,  for  printing  Chinese,  L 
480. 

U. 

Uliasutai,  a town  in  Mongolia,  i.,  169. 

Unicorn  of  the  Chinese,  i.,  266. 

Useful  Knowledge  Society,  ii.,  353 ; Its  ol» 
jects  and  results,  ii.,  354. 

Ushi,  a city  in  Turkestan,  L,  180 

Utensils,  agricultural,  il.,  101. 

V. 

Varnishes,  where  obtained,  ii.,  121. 

Vegetables  largely  consumed,  11.,  43. 

Vehicles  for  travelling  11.,  19. 

Villages,  or  hiang,  their  number,  l.,2SS. 


614 


INDEX. 


Visiting,  ceremonies  of,  11.,  70 ; at  newyear, 
11.,  81. 

W. 

Wall,  Great,  Its  object,  i.,  27 ; its  builder,  ii., 

212. 

Walls  of  houses,  their  materials,  ii.,  4. 

War  department,  how  managed,  i.,  332. 

War,  theory  and  practice  of,  ii.,  158 ; books 
teaching  it,  ii.,  162. 

War  with  England,  features  of,  ii.,  468 ; 
first  steps  in,  ii.,  520;  causes  of,  ii.,  522 ; 
resumed  after  the  treaty  of  the  Bogue,  ii., 
534;  efforts  to  carry  it  on,  ii.,  544;  an 
opium  war,  ii.,  583  ; causes  of  future,  !i., 
596. 

Wasp,  notion  regarding  its  birth,  i.,  274. 

Water-cure  described  by  Ripa,  ii.,  184. 

Water-fowl  abundant,  i.,  263. 

Water-lily,  a vegetable,  ii.,  44. 

Wax  insect,  its  description,  i.,  274. 

Weights  and  measures  in  use,  ii.,  154. 

Whale-fishing  off  Hainan,  i.,  258. 

Wheelbarrow  for  travelling,  ii.,  20. 

i ,'ife,  her  positions  and  rights,  ii.,  60  ; only 
one  legal,  ii.,  61. 

Women,  their  physical  traits,  i.,  36 ; milk 
sold,  ii.,  46 ; general  condition,  ii.,  63 ; 
name  changed  at  marriage,  ii.,  66. 

Woollen  fabrics  made  in  China,  ii.,  126. 

Works,  public,  superintended,  1.,  335. 

Worship,  object  of,  in  state  religion,  11.,  233  ; 
reasons  for,  ii.,  254  ; ancestral,  ii.,  259 ; at 
tombs,  ii.,  268;  nature  of,  ii.,  276;  dis- 
putes respecting  ancestral,  ii.,  309. 


Writing,  six  styles  of,  i.,  471. 

Wu  Tsihtien,  empress  of  the  Tang  dynaa 

ty,  ii.,  219. 

Wuchang  fu,  capital  of  Hupeh,  1.,  121 
Wusung  taken  by  English,  ii.,  553. 

Y. 

Yak,  or  grunting  oxofTibet,  1.,  192. 
Yangtsz’  kiang,  rise  and  course,  i.,  16 1 
scenery  on  its  banks,  i.,  86;  1.,  90;  Eng 
lish  ascend  it,  ii.,  558. 

Yarkand,  capital  ofTurkestan,  1.,  181 
Yaru-tsangbu,  a river  of  Tibet,  i.,  190. 

Yau,  his  reign  and  acts,  ii.,  202. 

Year,  how  divided,  ii.,  147. 

Yellow  river,  rise  and  course,  1.,  15. 

Yin  and  yang,  their  mode  of  operation,  1. 
550 ; seen  in  the  sun,  ii.,  151 ; in  the  body 
ii.,  182;  in  the  creation,  ii.,  195. 

Yu,  inscription  relating  to,  ii.,  204;  speech 
of,  ii.,  505;  his  accession  and  successors 

11.,  206. 

Yuen  dynasty  founded  by  Kublai,  ii.,  222. 
Yuen  Ming  yuen,  gardens  near  Peking,  1., 
66. 

Yun  ling  range  of  mountains,  i.,  11. 
Yungching’s  amplification  of  Kanghi’s  com- 
mands, 1.,  555 ; his  reign  and  character 

11.,  226. 

Yunnan,  its  area  and  rivers,  i.,  148. 

Yuyau,  skirmish  at,  il.,  548. 

Z. 

Zodiac,  how  divided,  iL,  144. 

Zoology  of  China,  1.,  247. 


Date  Due 

'Ue  4 

M 11  jwirr 

• 

. 

£ 0 


